Lecture 1 Grammar Introduction

englishgrammar（introduction）English GrammarIntroduction: Grammatical HierarchyGrammar is the structural system of a language. It includes the organizing rules of a language, which can be used to describe and analyze what most of the native speakers say. Grammar also refers to the scientific study of the change of words and the structure of sentences. It includes morphology and syntax. The grammar of the English language is organized into five ranks: the sentence, the clause, the phrase, the word and the morpheme. Each rank is composed of one or more than one grammatical unit of the immediate lower rank. Thus the sentence is a grammatical unit that consists of one or more than one clause; the clause, one or more than one phrase; the phrase, one or more than one word; and the word, one or more than one morpheme. The sentence is the highest rank of grammatical unit while the morpheme is the minimum or lowest rank. A full sentence can generally be segmented rank by rank down to its smallest constituent---the morphemes.0.1MorphemeThe morpheme is the minimum of smallest grammatical unit, also the smallest meaningful element of speech. Morpheme fall into two categories: free morphemes and bound morphemes.1.free morpheme: a free morpheme has a complete meaning and can stand by itself as a simple word.2.bound morpheme:bound morphemes are mostly affixes. They are also meaningful, but meanings are not complete in themselves unless they are attached to some other forms. Therefore, a bound morpheme cannot stand by itself.0.2W ordsThe word is composed of one or more than one morpheme. Words can be classified in two ways---word formation and grammatical function.1.classification in terms of word formationIn terms of word formation, words can be divided into simple words, derivatives and compounds. A simple word is also called a morpheme word. It is equal to a free morpheme.A derivative is composed of a root and a derivational affix. The root is the basis of a derivative.A compound word is composed of two or more than two free morphemes including compound noun (sidewalk, snowman, classroom), compound adjective (dogtired, lightgreen, bloodthirsty), compound verb (sightsee, nickname, spotlight), compoundadverb (therefore, whatever, moreover), compound pronoun (something, whatever, another), compound conjunction (whenever, wherever, whereas), and compound preposition (inside, upon, alongside) etc.2.classification in terms of grammatical functionIn terms of grammatical function, words can be divided into two groups: notional words and form words.0.3PhrasesThe phrase is composed of one or more than one word. Generally, the phrase is a group of words organized in a specific way with a key word as its head. The word class of the head determines the class of the phrase and the way in which the words are organized.1.the noun phraseThe noun phrase is a phrase with a noun as its head. Thegeneral pattern of a noun phrase is: (determiner +) (pre-modifier +) noun (+ modifier), e.g.,all my college classmates; her new book on grammar2.the verb phraseThe verb phrase is a phrase with a main verb as its head. A verb phrase can be simple or complex. A simple verb phrase is just a main verb or “modifier + main verb”, such as: He arrived last night. / They fully appreciate our problems.A complex verb phrase is a main verb preceded by an auxiliary (or auxiliaries) (+ modifier), such as:It is getting dark. / She might have been studying in the classroom.3.the adjective phraseThe adjective phrase is a phrase with an adjective as its head. The general pattern of an adjective phrase is:(modifier +) adjective (+ post-modifier / complementation), e.g.,good / pretty easy / carefully enough / too hot to be eaten4.the adverb phraseThe adverb phrase is a phrase with an adverb as its head. The general pattern of an adverb phrase is:(modifier +) adverb (+ post-modifier), e.g.,clearly / so fast / very good indeed5.the prepositional phraseThe prepositional phrase is a phrase with a preposition as its head. The general pattern of a prepositional phrase is: (modifier +) preposition + complementation, e.g.,on your desk / directly above my head0.4ClausesThe clause is composed of one or more than one phrase. Afull-fledged clause is structurally a sequence of phrases and logically a construction of “subject + predicate”.1.independent and dependent clausesIn terms of grammatical function, a clause can be independent or dependent. An independent clause is a clause that can stand by itself and act as a complete utterance, as distinguished from a dependent clause which forms only part of another clause or of a phrase.He learns French well. (independent clause)We know he learns French well. (dependent clause)2.simple and complex clausesWhen a clause consists of only one construction of “subject + predicate”, it is a simple clause. An independent simple clause is at the same time a simple sentence. When a clause comprises another clause or other clauses as its element or elements, it is a complex clause. An independent complex clause is at the same time a complex sentence.You are right. (simple clause) / I believe that you are right. (complex clause)3.main and subordinate clausesIn a complex clause, the clause that takes another clause as its element is the main clause, while the clause that forms part of the main clause is a subordinate clause.I believe that |what you have said| is true.|subordinate clause || main clause || subordinate clause || main clause |4.finite and non-finite clausesA clause can be finite and non-finite. A finite clause is onewith a finite verb phrase as its predicate verb or predicator; a non-finite clause is a clause with a non-finite verb clause as its predicator.He went there last night. (finite clause)He went there to get the license. (non-finite clause)5.verbless clausesWhen a clause is marked by the absence of any form of verb element, it is a verblessclause. A verbless clause is just a construction of “subject + predicate” without any form of verb element.Hungry and cold, they got home.Weather permitting, we shall go boating.0.5SentencesThe sentence is the highest rank of grammatical unit. Based on one or more than one clause, the sentence is also the basic linguistic unit of connected discourse; it can stand alone and perform a function in social communication. Thus, a sentence can be defined asa grammatical unit that can stand by itself and perform a communicative function.1.full and minor sentencesA full sentence is a sentence with an expressed subject and predicate. This kind of sentence is mostly used in formal speech and writing. A minor sentence is only a sentence fragment which in specific contexts and situations can stand by itself and perform a communicative function.A: When did he arrive? (full sentence)B: Last night. (minor sentence)No smoking! (minor sentence)Fire! (minor sentence)2.simple, compound, complex and compound-complex sentencesA simple sentence is a sentence that comprises only one independent clause. Two or more coordinated independent clauses make a compound sentence. When an independent clause comprises one or more dependent clauses as its element(s). This makes a complex sentence. Two or more coordinated independent clauses with at least one complex clause make a compound-complex sentence.The boy can stay in the room for a few minutes. (simple sentence)The boy can stay in the room for a few minutes but he likes playing outside. (compound sentence)The boy can stay in the room for a few minutes so long as he keeps quiet. (complex sentence)The boy can stay in the room for a few minutes so long as he keeps quiet but he likes playing outside. (compound-complex sentence)。

Lecture 1 Introduction to lexicologyObjectivesAfter learning the lecture, you are expected to be able to answer the following questions:? How to interpret and distinguish the terms with ‘lexi-’?？What is lexicology?? How can lexicology be classified?? What does lexicology study?? What is English lexicology?? What are the two approaches to the study of English lexicology?? What is the character of the English language?? What are the characteristics of English words/vocabulary?? How is lexicology connected with other branches of linguistics?Interpretation of some terms in lexicology1.Lexicon & lexis: the total bank of words and phrases of a particular language, the artifact ofwhich is known as a lexicon.2.Lexeme: A lexeme is an abstract unit of morphological analysis in linguistics, that roughlycorresponds to a set of forms taken by a single word. For example, in the English language, run, runs, ran and running are forms of the same lexeme, conventionally written as RUN.[1]In order to reduce the ambiguity of the term ‘word’, the term ‘lexeme’is postulated as an abstract unit which refers to the smallest unit that can be distinguished from other smaller units. A lexeme can occur in many different forms in actual spoken and written texts. For example, ‘write’ is the lexeme of the following words: write, writes, wrote, written, writing. 3.Lexical units: Lexical items composed of more than one word are also sometimes calledlexical chunks, gambits, lexical phrases, lexical units, lexicalized stems or speech formulae.4.Word is the smallest free form (an item that may be uttered in isolation with semantic orpragmatic content) in a language, in contrast to a morpheme, which is the smallest unit of meaning. A word may consist of only one morpheme (e.g. wolf), but a single morpheme may not be able to exist as a free form (e.g. the English plural morpheme -s).Typically, a word will consist of a root or stem, and zero or more affixes. Words can be combined to create other units of language, such as phrases, clauses, and/or sentences.5.lexicology:●Lexicology (from lexiko-, in the Late Greek lexikon) is that part of linguistics which studieswords, their nature and meaning, words' elements, relations between words (semantical relations), words groups and the whole lexicon.●Lexicology is a branch of linguistics concerned with the study of the vocabulary of a givenlanguage. It deals with words, their origin, development, history, structure, meaning and application. In short, it is the study of the signification and application of words.6.Lexicology has developed such branches asa)semantics——study of meaning of words (and sentences)b)etymology——study of origins of wordsc)historical lexicology——study of the development of vocabulary as a whole on the basisof etymology and other sciencesd)phraseology——study of individual words and set expressions, stock phrases, cast-ironidioms, i.e. the study of formation and usage, classification and characteristics of idiomse)lexicography——study of the form, meaning, usage, origin of vocabulary and themaking of dictionaries7.lexicographyA good example of lexicology at work, that everyone is familiar with, is that of dictionariesand thesaurus. Dictionaries are books or computer programs (or databases) that actually represent lexicographical work, they are opened and purposed for the use of public.A thesaurus is a work that lists words grouped together according to similarity ofmeaning (containing synonyms and sometimes antonyms), in contrast to adictionary, which contains definitions and pronunciations. The largest thesaurus in the world is the Historical Thesaurus of the Oxford English Dictionary, which contains more than 920,000 words and meanings.A dictionary is a collection of words in a specific language, often listed alphabetically, withusage information, definitions, etymologies, phonetics, pronunciations, and other information;or a book of words in one language with their equivalents in another, also known as a lexicon. Exercise 1Exercise 2accept (accepted, accepted, accepting)__________ lexemes__________ word forms__________ lexical units__________ wordsExercise 3Use examples to tell the different branches of lexicology. For example, in English, many roots and affixes are from Latin or Greek. This is the branch etymology.How can lexicology be classified?General lexicology & Special lexicologyDistinction is made between GENERAL LEXICOLOGY & SPECIAL LEXICOLOGY. General lexicology is a part of General linguistics. It is concerned with the study of vocabulary irrespective of the specific features of any particular language. Special lexicology is the lexicology of a particular language (Russian, German, French, etc.).Research methods of English lexicologyThere are two main approaches to the study of English lexicology, that is, synchronic and diachronic.The term ‘synchronic’means describing a language as it exists at one point in time. The term diachronic means, concerned with historical development of a language.A synchronic approach is an approach to the study of a language at one period of time, whereas a diachronic approach is an approach to the study of the change in a language that took place over a period of time.Character of the English languageThe English language is of a mixed character. On the one hand, it shares with West Germanic languages many common words and similar grammatical structures. On the other hand, more than half of the English vocabulary is derived from Latin and French. Besides, English has accepted words from other languages of the world in the course of historical development.Characteristics of English vocabulary or words1.Native words are the foundation and the core of the English vocabulary. In structure they aremostly monosyllabic words. In meaning they express the fundamental concepts dealing with everyday objects and things. In grammar they include most parts of speech. Native words have the following three characteristics: 1) the polysemous character; 2) the collocability; and3) word-formation ability.2.There is large amount of English vocabulary. There are3.There are various Englishes all over the world.4.and it is increasing at a surprising speed.5.…How is lexicology connected with other branches of linguistics?1)with phoneticsPhonetics is closely related wit lexicology. Without sound there is word because every word is a unity of sound and meaning.2)with grammarV ocabulary and grammar are originally related to one another. In learning language, attention to grammar is as important as attention to vocabulary. The vocabulary of a language assumes tremendous importance when it comes under the control of grammar, which is concerned with the modification in form of words and the combination of words into sentences.3)with stylisticsLexicology studies stylistic variants on the basis of meanings of words and their changes, synonyms, antonyms, figures of speech etc.Exercise 41.The words such as ‘export’, ‘increase’, ‘process’ and ‘progress’ with different pronunciationserve different parts of speech, which indicates that lexicology is connected with __________.2.In the sentence ‘O ther school managers are also eyeing the program’, we study the word ‘eye’,which shows that lexicology is connected with _______.3.Bill Gates and his friend Paul Allen laid the first brick in the foundation of Microsoft.4.The word advisable in ‘It is advisable that we take immediate measures to enhance teaching’can’t be replaced by advise or advice, which demonstrates that lexicology is related to _______.Exercise 5Fill in the blanks to consolidate your understanding of the terms in the unit.1.The artifact of the total bank of words and phrases of a particular language is called_________.2. A _________is an abstract unit of morphological analysis in linguistics, that roughlycorresponds to a set of forms taken by a single word.3._________is the smallest free form (an item that may be uttered in isolation withsemantic or pragmatic content) in a language.4._________is a branch of linguistics concerned with the study of the vocabulary of agiven language. It deals with words, their origin, development, history, structure, meaning and application.5._________ is a study of origins of words6._________ is a study of the form, meaning, usage, origin of vocabulary and the makingof dictionaries.7. A _________ is a work that lists words grouped together according to similarity ofmeaning (containing synonyms and sometimes antonyms), in contrast to a dictionary, which contains definitions and pronunciations.8._________lexicology is a part of General linguistics. It is concerned with the study ofvocabulary irrespective of the specific features of any particular language.9._________lexicology is the lexicology of a particular language (Russian, German,French, etc.).10.There are two main approaches to the study of English lexicology, that is, _________and diachronic.11.The term ‘_________’ means describing a language as it exists at one point in time. Theterm _________ means, concerned with historical development of a language.12.A _________ approach is an approach to the study of a language at one period of time,whereas a diachronic approach is an approach to the study of the change in a language that took place over a period of time.13.Lexicology studies stylistic variants on the basis of meanings of words and their changes,synonyms, antonyms, figures of speech etc. in this case, we say that lexicology is connected with _________.。

Introduction: Language1. What’s your understanding of language?◎Activity perspectives:(1) a neural activity(2) a muscular activity(3) a social activity◎Metaphorical perspectives:(1)A Process of Free Creation"Language is a process of free creation; its laws and principles are fixed, but the manner in which the principles of generation are used is free and infinitely varied. Even the interpretation and use of words involves a process of free creation." (Noam Chomsky)(2)A Finite System"Any language is necessarily a finite system applied with different degrees of creativity to an infinite variety of situations, and most of the words and phrases we use are 'prefabricated' in the sense that we don’t coin new ones every time we speak." (David Lodge, "Where It’s At," The State of the Language, 1980)(3)A Sheet of Paper"Language can also be compared with a sheet of paper: thought is the front and the sound the back; one cannot cut the front without cutting the back at the same time; likewise in language, one can neither divide sound from thought nor thought from sound."(Ferdinand de Saussure, Course in General Linguistics, 1916)(4)An Object Between Sound and Thought"The language is an intermediate object between sound and thought: it consists in uniting both while simultaneously decomposing them."(Roland Barthes, Elements of Semiology, 1964)(5)The Mother of Thought"Language is the mother of thought, not its handmaiden."(Karl Kraus, Dicta and Contradicta)(6)The Shaper of Thought"Language shapes the way we think, and determines what we can think about." (Benjamin Lee Whorf, Language, Thought, and Reality, 1964)Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication.2. What are the well-known theories about the origin of language?the biblical story of the creation of language3 theories:(1) The bow-wow theory : In primitive times people imitated the sounds of the animal calls in the wild environment and speech developed from that.(2) The pooh-pooh theory: In the hard life of our primitive ancestors, they utter instinctive sounds of pain, anger and joy.(3) The “yo-he-ho”theory : As primitive people worked together, they produced some rhythmic grunts which gradually developed into chants and then into language.3.What are the design features of human language?(1)ArbitrarinessThe forms of linguistic signs bear no natural relationship to their meaning. And there is no logical connection between meanings and sounds.This feature makes it possible for language to have an unlimited source of expression .Language is not entirely arbitrary —onomatopoeic words; compound words (2)Creativity / ProductivityIt means that every language contains an infinite number of sentences, which, however, are generated by a small set of rules and a finite set of words.Meanwhile the length of a sentence has no limit. Eg: He bought a book which was written by a teacher who taught in a school which was known for its graduates who…. As a linguistic term, creativity has nothing to do with imagination and originality. It simply refers to the fact that all normal speakers-imaginative or not-can produce and understand new sentences which they have never heard before.(3)DualityBy duality is meant the property of having two levels of structures. Each of the two levels has its own principles of organization. And units of the primary level are composed of elements of the secondary level.E.g. Birds sing.At one level, it can be divided into three meaning units: bird, -s, and sing.At another level, can be analyzed into a sequence of sounds:/ b, …,d,z,s,i, …, /. The former is grammatically-meaningful level and the latter is sound-meaningless level.The advantage of duality lies in that every language has an infinite potentiality of creating new words with a limited set of distinct sounds .(4)DisplacementDisplacement means that human languages enable their users to symbolize objects, events and concepts which are not present.Displacement benefits human beings by giving them the power to handle abstractions or making it possible for them to talk and think in abstract terms.(5)Cultural transmissionThe details of any language are not genetically transmitted, but instead have to be taught and learned.4.What functions does language have?InformativeInterpersonalPerformativeEmotive/ExpressivePhatic communionRecreationalMetalingualIntroduction: Linguistics1. What is linguistics?Linguistics is a branch of social science.It is defined as the science of language, or the scientific study of language.◎general linguisticsWhen dealing with language, it aims at developing a theory that describes the rule of human language in general.◎descriptive linguisticsWhen studying one particular language, it attempts to establish a model that describes the rule of this particular language.2. What are the main branches of linguistics?Phonetics phonology morphology syntax semantics pragmatics3.Please describe the scope of research for each branch of linguistics. Microlinguistics(1)Phonetics (language in general)how the speech sounds are articulated, transmitted and received(2)Phonology (language in particular)how the speech sounds are put together and used to convey meaning in communication(3)Morphologyhow morphemes are arranged and combined to form words(4)Syntaxhow words are combined to form grammatical sentences(5)Semantics (static)meaning of language units: words, phrases &sentences(6)Pragmatics (dynamic)meaning of language in use4.What are the interdisciplinary studies of language?Interdisciplinary linguistics(Macrolinguistics)1.Psycholinguistics2.2. Sociolinguistics3. Applied linguistics4.Stylistic linguistics5. Anthropological linguistics6. Computational linguistics7. Neurolinguistics5.What is the difference between synchronic linguistics and diachroniclinguistics?Synchronic and diachronic ( Ferdinand de Saussure )Synchronic: a“state”of language at a particular point of timeDiachronic: a language through the course of its history6.What distinguishes prescriptive studies of language from descriptive studies of language?Descriptive and prescriptiveDescriptive: how things arePrescriptive: how things ought to be7.What is the difference between langue and parole?Langue and parole ( Saussure: Father of linguistics )Langue: the linguistic competence of the speaker ; the abstract system of a language Parole: the actual phenomena of language; the concrete act of speaking in a definite time, place & situation8.What is the difference between competence and performance?Competence and performance ( Chomsky )Competence: A language user’s underlying knowledge about the system of rules Performance: the actual use of language in concrete situationsFill in the blanks.(1) Language, broadly speaking, is a means of ____human_____ communication.(2) Language has many functions. We can use language to talk about itself. This function is ____metalingual___.(3) The theory that language arose from human beings instinctive need for contact with his companion has been called the pooh-pooh theory.(4) Modern linguistics is __descriptive_____ in the sense that the linguist tries to discover what language is rather than lay down some rules for people to observe. (5) One general principle of linguistic analysis is the primacy of __speech______ over writing.(6) The description of a language as it changes through time is a __diachronic______ study.(7) Saussure put forward two important concepts. _competence__ refers to the abstract linguistic system shared by all members of a speech community.(8) In any language words can be used in new ways to mean new things and can be combined into innumerable sentences based on limited rules. This feature is usually termed ____Productivity/creativity_____.Decide whether the following sentences are T or F._T__ (1) Duality is one of the characteristics of human language. It refers to the fact that language has two levels of structures: the system of sounds and the system of meanings.__F_ (2) Prescriptive linguistics is more popular than descriptive linguistics, because it can tell us how to speak correct language._T__ (3) Competence and performance refer respectively to a language user’s underlying knowledge about the system of rules and the actual use of language in concrete situations.__F_(4) Language is a means of verbal communication. Therefore, the communication way used by the deaf-mute is not language._T__(5) Arbitrariness of language makes it potentially creative, and conventionality of language makes a language be passed from generation to generation. As a foreign language learner, the latter is more important for us._T__(6) By diachronic study we mean to study the changes and development of language._ T (7) Language is relatively stable and systematic while parole is subject to personal and situational constraints.__F (8) Language change is universal, ongoing and arbitrary.__T (9) In language classrooms nowadays the grammar taught to students is basically descriptive, and more attention is paid to the developing learners’ communicative skills._F_ (10) Language is a system of arbitrary, written signs which permit all the people in a given culture, or other people who have learned the system of that culture, to communicate or interact._F_ (11) Saussure’s exposition of synchronic analysis led to the school of historical linguistics._T_ (12) Applied linguistics is the application of linguistic principles and theories to language teaching and learning.Second Language Acquisition1.Theories of language acquisition(1)a behaviorist viewThis view was proposed by B.F. Skinners and prevalent before the 1960s. It views language as behavior and believe that language learning is simply a matter of imitation and habit formation. According to this view, imitation and practice are preliminary and discrimination and generalization are key to language development. This view offers a reasonable account of of how children acquire some of the regular and routine aspects of the language, yet it fails to explain how they acquire more complex grammatical structures of the language and how they come to know more about the structure of their language than they could reasonably be expected to learn from the language samples they hear.Language is not merely verbal behavior. Underlying the actual behavior there is a complex system of rules. What children learn then is the abstract knowledge of rules (competence). However, this is not what they are exposed to: they are exposed only to people’s speech (performance). This process of extracting abstract knowledge fromconcrete examples cannot be explained by habit-formation.Also, the rules are not always reflected directly in the actual surface structure of the speech. For example, the surface structure of John is easy to please looks identical to that of John is eager to please, yet their deep structure is completely different. The information about deep relationships could not be acquired simply by observing and imitating verbal behavior.Finally, although children are exposed to different actual speech, they arrive at the same underlying rules as other children in their community. This shows that the child’s language is not simply being shaped by external forces: it is being creatively constructed by the child as he interacts with those around him.(2)an innatist viewSince the language children are exposed to may not contain examples of all the information which they eventually know, Noam Chomsky proposes an innatist view which holds that human beings are biologically programmed for language and that the language develops in the child just as other biological functions such as walking. That is to say children are born with an innate capacity for acquiring language.Originally this innate ability was referred to as Language Acquisiton Device (LAD ) which exists somewhere in the brain and contains principles that are universal to all human languages. Children need access to the samples of natural language to activate LAD, which enables them to discover the structure of the natural language by matching the innate knowledge of basic grammatical system to that particular language. Later this innate endowment was renamed as Universal Grammar (UG ). Pre-equipped with universal grammar what children have to learn is the ways in which their own language makes use of these principles and the variations on those principles which may exist in the particular language they are learning. So when exposed to confusing information or when guidance or correction is not available, children, born with UG, can discover for themselves the underlying rules of the language system. This approach emphasizes on children’s internal processing of language items to be learnt.(3)an interactionist viewIntegrated with the innatist view, this view holds that language develops as a result of the complex interplay between the human characteristics of the child and the environment in which the child develops. It stresses the importance of comprehensible language samples. Only when conversations provide the right level of language that children are capable of processing can they facilitate children’s language acquisition, otherwise, it is not sufficient for children to learn the language. That is to say, the modified language, eg. “motherese”or “caretaker talk”or child directed speech (CDS), which is suitable for the child’s capability is crucial in his language acquisition.2.Which theory do you think is more convincing and reasonable? Why?(3)an interactionist viewFactors in language acqisition:cognitive factors: environment ; agecognitive factors:Cognitive factors relate to language acquisition in two ways. On one hand, language development depends on the concepts children form about the world. According to Piaget, a Swiss psychologist, and his associates, language acquisition takes place in the context of a child’s intellectual development rather than as a separate growing process. To Piaget, conceptualization precedes verbalization. On the other hand, cognitive factors determine how children make sense of the linguistic system. As well as conceptual development leading to language development, it is likely that the influence also works in the other direction.environment :The behaviorist approach: language environment plays a major role in providing both language models to be imitated and the necessary feedbacks among which the positive reward encourages children’s efforts and facilitates the correct learning of te language while the negative feedback discourages children to repeat the mistakes.The innatist approach: the environment functions as a stimulus that triggers and activates the pre-equipped UG to process the materials provided by the environment. The interactionist view: the environment plays a major role in providing modified language samples to the level of children’s comprehension.Age:Eric Lenneberg, a biologist, argued that the LAD, like other biological functions, works successfully only when it is stimulated at the right time—a specific and limited time period for language acquisition—which is referred to as the Critical Period Hypothesis (CPH).There are two version of the CPH:The strong version: Children must acquire their first language by puberty or they will never be able to learn from subsequent exposure.The weak version: Language learning will be more difficult and incomplete after puberty.3.the Critical Period Hypothesis (CPH).a specific and limited time period for language acquisition—which is referred to as the Critical Period Hypothesis (CPH).There are two version of the CPH:The strong version: Children must acquire their first language by puberty or they will never be able to learn from subsequent exposure.The weak version: Language learning will be more difficult and incomplete after puberty.4.Contrastive AnalysisIn behaviorism, the use of L1 in L2 performance is a natural strategy we use when we struggle with a language we’re unfamiliar with. It’s merely a manifestation of a general psychological process- that of relying on prior knowledge to facilitate the new effort. When first language habits are helpful to acquiring second language habits, this is positive transfer. And when the firstt language habit hinder the learner in learning the new one, it’s a case of negative transfer, interference. In this way, differencesbetween the two languages lead to interference, which is the cause o learning difficulties and errors. Contrastive Analysis came into fashion in 1960s.4 steps of CA：describing L1 and L2selecting a linguistic featuremaking L1-L2 comparison on this featureusing the result to predict or explain errors in learners’L2 performanceThe strong version held that we could use CA to predict errors by identifying the differences between L1 and L2; learners err where L2 differs from L1. The weak form held that we could use CA to diagnose or explain the reasons for errors by identifying them as a result of interference. No matter in which form, CA holds that the differences between the two languages can explain all the learner errors. To put it into an equation, we have difference → difficulty → error.Not all errors are caused by difference between L1 and L2.5.InterlanguageIt’s a unique linguistic system in that it is neither L1 nor L2 but at the same time bears resemblances to both.The concept of interlanguage offers a general account of how L2 acquisition takes place. Here’s a computational model of L2 acquisition.input →intake →L2 knowledge →output intake: parts of the input which are attended to and taken into short-term memoryL2 knowledge: parts of the intake which are e stored in long-term memory The learner is exposed to input, which is processed in two stages. First, learners take in some of the input and store parts of them in long term memory as L2 knowledge. The processes responsible for creating intake and L2 knowledge occur within the “black box” of the learner’s mind where the learner’s interlanguage is constructed. Finally, L2 knowledge is used by the learner to produce spoken and written output, interlanguage.There are 3 characteristics of interlanguage - systymaticity, universality and fossilization. Fossilization means many learners stop developing while still short of target-language competence.6.Error analysisInterlanguage Hypothesis brings about Error analysis, checking up interlanguage in terms of target language, comparing learners version of the target language and the target language itself.Errors are systematic, universal and predictable.Errors can have different sources, which include omission, overgeneralization and transfer ( of L1 and teaching ) as well as strategies of L2 learning and communication. Errors are either interlingual (transfer) or intralingual (developmental).prehensible Input HypothesisMentalism and interactionism bring about Krashen’s Comprehensible Input Hypothesis.。

L1GeneralIntroductionLecture 1 General Introduction语法层次（Grammatical Hierarchy）语言（language)是社会交际的工具语法（Grammar)是语言的组织规律词汇（Vocabulary)是语言的建筑材料语法赋予语言以结构系统，是结合语音系统和语义系统的枢纽，在书写体中则是结合文字系统和语义系统的枢纽，公式表示为：语义——语法——语音系统／文字系统英语的语法结构具有层次性。

它可分为五个不同的层次：句子（Sentence)：语法的最高层次，由一个或一个以上的分句构成；分句（Clause)：由一个或一个以上的词组构成词组（Phrase）：由一个或一个以上的词构成词（Word）：由一个或一个以上的词素构成。

词素（Morpheme）：最小组成部分。

1、词素（Morpheme）：最小的语法单位，也是最小的语义单位。

分为两大类：自由词素( Free Morpheme)粘附词素( Bound Morpheme)自由词素：●本身具有完整意义并能作为“简单词”（Simple Word)而单独使用的词素,如：boy, girl, desk, chair, kind, cruel, give, take●可以充当词根（root）加上词缀（Affix）构成派生词（Derivative）如：kind →kindness →unkind →unkindness →kindlyfriend →friendly →friendship →friendless →unfriendly →unfriendliness●自由词素还可以与其他自由词素相结合构成复合词(compoundword)如：book→ bookmark, bookworm, bookshop, bookstalltake→ intake, take-home, takeover, takeoff, takeaway, undertake粘附词素：●本身没有完整意义，不能单独使用，而必须粘附在自由词素或其他形式上才能表示出意义的词素。