生态学的基本内容英文版

《生态学专业英语词汇》一、生态学基础词汇1. 生态系统（Ecosystem）2. 生物多样性（Biodiversity）3. 生态位（Niche）4. 食物链（Food Chain）5. 食物网（Food Web）6. 生物量（Biomass）7. 生产者（Producer）8. 消费者（Consumer）10. 环境因子（Environmental Factor）二、生态学过程与现象1. 竞争（Competition）2. 捕食（Predation）3. 共生（Symbiosis）4. 生物入侵（Biological Invasion）5. 生物放大（Biological Magnification）6. 生态演替（Ecological Succession）7. 生物地球化学循环（Biogeochemical Cycle）8. 碳循环（Carbon Cycle）9. 氮循环（Nitrogen Cycle）10. 水循环（Water Cycle）三、生态学分支与研究方向1. 景观生态学（Landscape Ecology）2. 生态系统生态学（Ecosystem Ecology）3. 行为生态学（Behavioral Ecology）4. 进化生态学（Evolutionary Ecology）5. 环境生态学（Environmental Ecology）6. 应用生态学（Applied Ecology）7. 恢复生态学（Restoration Ecology）8. 城市生态学（Urban Ecology）9. 乡村生态学（Rural Ecology）10. 海洋生态学（Marine Ecology）四、生态学实验与技术研究1. 生态调查（Ecological Survey）2. 样方调查（Quadrat Sampling）3. 实验设计（Experimental Design）4. 遥感技术（Remote Sensing）5. 地理信息系统（GIS）6. 生态模型（Ecological Model）7. 生态模拟（Ecological Simulation）8. 环境监测（Environmental Monitoring）9. 生态修复（Ecological Restoration）10. 生物指示物（Bioindicator）五、生态学政策与管理1. 生态保护（Ecological Conservation）2. 生态红线（Ecological Red Line）3. 生态补偿（Ecological Compensation）4. 生态规划（Ecological Planning）5. 生态风险评估（Ecological Risk Assessment）6. 可持续发展（Sustainable Development）7. 生态文明建设（Ecological Civilization Construction）8. 环境影响评价（Environmental Impact Assessment）9. 生态系统服务（Ecosystem Services）10. 自然保护区（Nature Reserve）六、生态学理论与概念深化1. 生态效率（Ecological Efficiency）描述能量或物质在生态系统中从一个营养级传递到下一个营养级的效率。

生态学词汇生态学ecologyhigher education press 高等教育出版社textbook series for 21st century 面向21世纪课程教材biosphere 生物圈economics 经济学the economy of Nature 自然经济molecular ecology 分子生态学evolutionary ecology 进化生态学autecology 个体生态学physiological ecology 生理生态学population ecology 种群生态学community ecology 群落生态学ecosystem ecology 生态系统生态学landscape ecology 景观生态学global ecology 全球生态学terrestrial ecology 陆地生态学marine ecology 海洋生态学freshwater ecology 淡水生态学island ecology 岛屿生态学urban ecology 城市生态学restoration ecology 恢复生态学engineering ecology 生态工程学human ecology 人类生态学ecological ethics 生态伦理学ecology of plants 植物生态学environment 环境space environment 宇宙环境global environment 地球环境geoenvironment 地理环境regional environment 区域环境microenvironment 微环境inner environment 内环境ecological factors 生态因子ecological environment 生态环境habitat 生境fitness 适合度homeostasis 内稳态homeostatic organisms 内稳态生物non-homeostatic organisms 非内稳态生物eitiolation phenomenon 黄化现象mytilus 贻贝macrosiphum 蚜虫thertnoperiodism 温周期现象phenology 物候学torpor 冬眠dispause 滞育population 种群population genetics 群体遗传学density 密度number 数目unitary organism 单体生物modular organism 构件生物module 构件natality 出生率mortality 死亡率sex ratio 性比age distribution 年龄分布life table 生命表survivorship curve 存活曲线cohort 同生群innate rate of increase 内禀增长率density-independent growth 与密度无关的增长per capita growth rate 每员增长率instantaneous rate of increase 瞬时增长率Logistic equation 逻辑斯谛方程maximum sustained yield 最大持续产量ecological invasion 生态入侵spatial pattern 空间格局internal distribution pattern 内分布型uniform 均匀型random 随机型clumped 成群型two dimentional net function interpolation method 二维网函数插值法threeterm local variance analysis 三项轨迹方差法hierarchical analysis of variance 等级方差分析法enigration 迁出immigration 迁入migration 迁移architecture 建筑学结构life history 生活史life cycle 生活周期traits 遗传特性development 发育growth 生长vegetative propagation 营养繁殖spore reproduction 孢子生殖sexual reproduction 有性生殖asexual reproduction 无性生殖exogenous migration 外因性迁移endogenous migration 内因性迁移reproductive effort 繁殖成效present reproductive value 剩余繁殖价值parental investment 亲本投资principle of allocation 分配原理reproductive costs 繁殖成本reproductive patterns 繁殖格局semelparity 一次繁殖生物iteroparity 多次繁殖生物lifespan 生命年限lifetime 寿命r-strategistis r-策略者opportunist 机会主义者conservatism 保守主义ruderal 杂草competition 竞争stress 胁迫selective fertilization 选择受精sexual selection 性选择ornamentation 修饰coloration 色泽courtship behavior 求偶行为sexual dimorphism 雌雄二形the descent of man selection in relation to sex 人类的由来及性选择intraspecific relationship 种内关系interspecific relationship 种间关系positive interaction 正相互作用negative interaction 负相互作用density effect 密度效应the effect of neighbours 邻接效应density independent 非密度制约density dependent 密度制约self-thinning 自疏现象faculative parthenogenesis 兼性孤雌生殖polygyny threshold 多配偶阈值monogamy 单配偶制polygamy 多配偶制polygany 一雄多雌制polyandry 一雌多雄制territory 领域social group 社群territorial behavior 领域行为territoriality 领域性social hierachy 社会等级dominant-submissive 支配-从属ferulic acid 阿魏酸vanillic acid 香草酸niche 生态位spatial niche 空间生态位trophic niche 营养生态位fundamental niche 基础生态位realized niche 实际生态位hypervolume 超体积habitat 生境predation 捕食作用prey 被捕食者predator 捕食者community 群落biocoenosis 生物群落ecotone 群落交错区phytocoenology 植物群落学geobotany 地植物学phytosociology 植物社会学pioneer stage 先锋阶段climax stage 顶极阶段individualistic concept 个体论概念constructive species 建群种subdominant 亚优势种companion species 伴生种rare species 偶见种abundance 多度dominant 优势abundant 丰盛frequent 常见occasional 偶见rare 稀少very rare 很少relative density 相对密度density ratio 密度比coverage 盖度cover ratio 盖度比frequency 频度frequency diagram 频度图解law of frequency 频度定律height 高度weight 重量biomass 生物量standing crop 现存量volume 体积conspicuousness 显著度summed dominance ratio 综合优势比association coefficients 关联系数constellation diagrams 星系图obligate association 必然的关联biological spectrum 生活型谱phytoclimate 植物气候physiognomy 群落外貌leaf area index 叶面积指数synusia 层片guild 同资源种团layer 层mosaic 镶嵌性edge effect 边缘效应monoculture 单种养殖keystone species 关键种disturbance 干扰gaps 缺口competive lottery 抽彩竞争intermediate disturbance hypothesis 中度干扰假说spacial heterogeneity 空间异质性patchiness 斑块性connectedness 连通性succession 演替fluctuation 波动climatic climax 气候顶极preclimax 前顶极subclimax 亚顶极disclimax 偏途顶极postclimax 超顶极progressive succession 进展演替regressive succession 逆行演替edaphic climax 土壤顶极topographic climax 地形顶极fire climax 火烧顶极zootic climax 动物顶极topo-edaphic climax 地形-土壤顶极population pattern climax theory 种群格局顶极理论continuouity climax types 连续的顶极类型prevailing climax 优势顶极net primary production 净第一性生产shifting-mosaic steady state 波动斑块稳态stability-resilience 稳定性-恢复力association unit theory 群丛单位理论ordination 排序vegetation type 植被型vegetation type group 植被型组vegetation subtype 植被亚型formation 群系formation group 群系组association 群丛association group 群丛组floristic-structural classification 植物区系-结构分类系统agglomerative method 群落分类中的归并法differential species 区别种association table 群丛表releve 样方dynamic classification 动态分类系统panclimax 泛顶极subassociation 亚群丛federal geographic data committee 美国国家地理数据委员会entity 实体attribute 属性information gain 信息增量group-average 组平均similarity 相似度indirect ordination 间接排序indirect gradiant analysis 间接梯度分析compositional analysis 组成分析normal analysis 正分析inverse analysis 逆分析principal components analysis,PCA 主成分分析ecosystem 生态系统biogeocoenosis 生物地理群落autotrophs 自养生物heterotrophs 异养生物herbivores 食草动物primary consumers 一级消费者carnivores 食肉动物top carnivores 顶极食肉动物tertiary consumers 三级消费者biotic components 生物成分abiotic components 非生物成分primary production 初级生产primary productivity 初级生产力food chain 食物链food web 食物网biological magnification 生物扩大作用grazing food chain 捕食食物链trophic levels 营养级pyramid of energy 能量金字塔ecological pyramid 生态金字塔ecological efficencies 生态效率transfer efficiency 传递效率feedback mechanism 反馈机制gross primary production 总初级生产量potential evapotranspiration 潜在蒸发蒸腾normalized difference vegetation index 标准化植被差异指数decomposition 分解作用humus 腐殖质humin 胡敏素microfauna 小型土壤动物mesofauna 中型土壤动物macrofauna 大型土壤动物megafauna 巨型土壤动物cycle of material 物质循环biogeochemical cycle 生物地球化学循环macronutrient 大量元素micronutrient 微量元素turnover rate 周转率turnover time 周转时间water cycle 水循环gaseous cycle 气体型循环sedimentary cycle 沉积型循环average continent 均衡大陆steppe 欧亚大陆草原prairie 北美大陆草原pampas 南美草原meadow steppe 欧亚大陆草甸草原tall savanna 非洲高稀树草原tall grass prairie 北美高草草原desert 荒漠scale 尺度wetland 湿地mangrove plants 红树植物flushing time 冲洗时间ecosystemology 生态系统学holism 整体论biocybemetics 生物控制论total human ecosystem science 整体人类生态系统科学organizational scale 组织尺度grain 粒度pixel 像元extent 幅度coarse scale 粗尺度fine scale 细尺度scaling 尺度推绎scaling up 尺度上推scaling down 尺度下推spatial heterogeneity 空间异质性patchness 缀块性gradient 梯度extinction 绝灭patch 缀块，斑块corridor 廊道matrix 基底network 网络edge effect 边缘效应interior species 内部种edge species 边缘种geographical region scale 地理区域尺度patch-occupancy model 缀块占有率模型landscape connectivity 景观连接度structural connectivity 结构连接度functional connectivity 功能连接度characteristic scale 特征尺度critical threshole characteristics 临界阈限特征percolation theory 渗透理论critical density 临界密度habitat fragmentation 生境破碎化neutral models 中性模型hierarchy theory 等级理论constraint 制约作用emergent property 整合特征decomposability 可分解性pattern-process hypothesis 格局与过程学说incorporation 兼容机制metastability 复合稳定性thermal imagery 热红外图像relative richness index 相对丰富度指数diversity index 多样性指数dominance index 优势度指数evenness index 均匀度指数contagion index 聚集度指数spatial autocorrelation index 空间自相关指数predictability 可预测性dispersion 分布boundary form 边界形态patch orientation 缀块的取向area ratio 面积比geostatistics 地统计学semivariance analysis 半方差分析spectral analysis 波谱分析scale variance 尺度方差wavelet analysis 小波分析trend surface analysis 趋势面分析blocked quadrat variance analysis 聚块样方方差分析self-similarity 自相似性sustainability 持续性global change 全球变化homeostasis 自调节稳态general circulation model 环流模型global warming 全球变暖inter-governmental panel on climate change 跨政府气候变化委员会land cover 土地覆盖land use 土地利用world resource institute 世界资源研究所biodiversity 生物多样性boreal forest 北方针叶林reorganization 重组international geosphere-biosphere program 国际地圈生物圈计划global change and terrestrial ecosystem 全球变化与陆地生态系统biome 生物群落vulnerability 脆弱性adaptability 适应性ecotone 生态过渡区desertification 荒漠化biogeochemistry 生物地球化学ecophysiology 生态生理学sink 汇aerosol 大气颗粒物variety 多样化variability 变异性genetic diversity 遗传多样性species diversity 物种多样性ecosystem diversity 生态系统多样性landscape diversity 景观多样性resource ratio hypothesis 资源比假说polymerase chain reaction 聚合酶链反应abundant species 优势种affinity analysis 类似性分析rapid ecological assessment 快速生态学评估the natural conservancy 国际自然保护协会international conservation union 国际保护联盟red date book 红皮书single large or several small fragmentation 单独大整体或多数破碎化the world commission on environment and development 联合国环境与发展世界委员会our common future 我们共同的未来fairness 公平性原则substainable 持续性原则common 共同性原则ecological restoration 生态恢复the recovery process in damaged ecosystem 受损生态系统的恢复过程restoration ecology 恢复生态学displacement 位移rehabilitation 改建enhancement 重建restoration 恢复degradation 恶化self-maintenance 自我维持ecological engineering 生态工程self-optimum 自我优化self-regeneration 自我重生self-reproduction 自我繁殖self-resiliency 自生原理self-organization 自我组织exposure assessment 风险源评估effect assessment 效应评估mechanistic model 灾变模型model valiotation 模型的证实sensitivity analysis 敏感性分析response surface analysis 反应表面分析error uncertainty analysis 误差分析ecological planning 生态规划report on the lands of the arid region of the united states.。

生态学专业英语词汇总结摘要生态学是研究生物与其所处环境之间的相互关系和作用的科学。

生态学专业是培养具有生态学基础理论和方法，能够从事生态系统管理、保护和恢复等工作的高级人才的专业。

生态学专业的本科核心课程包括基础生态学、代谢生态学、种群生态学、群落生态学、保护生物学、进化生物学、生态系统生态学和生态学研究技术等。

本文旨在为生态学专业的学习和教学提供参考。

1. 基础生态学基础生态学是介绍生态学基本概念、原理和方法的课程，主要内容包括生态系统结构和功能、能量流动和物质循环、环境因子对生物分布和适应的影响、种间关系和群落动态等。

该课程涉及的专业英语词汇如下表所示：中文英文生态学ecology生物organism种species种群population群落community生境habitat生态位niche生物多样性biodiversity物种多样性species diversity物种丰富度species richness物种均匀度species evenness物种相似性species similarity物种区系flora and fauna物种地理分布biogeography生物圈biosphere生态系统ecosystem生产者producer消费者consumer分解者decomposer能量流动energy flow物质循环nutrient cycling碳循环carbon cycle氮循环nitrogen cycle磷循环phosphorus cycle环境因子environmental factor光照light温度temperature水分moisture土壤soilpH值pH value盐度salinity适应性adaptation突变mutation自然选择natural selection遗传漂变genetic drift基因流gene flow物种形成speciation物种灭绝extinction种间关系interspecific interaction共生关系symbiosis寄生关系parasitism共利关系mutualism共栖关系commensalism捕食关系predation2. 代谢生态学代谢生态学是研究生物体在不同环境条件下的能量代谢和物质转化过程及其规律的课程，主要内容包括代谢类型、代谢率、代谢平衡、代谢效率、代谢策略等。

生态学一、名词解释1、Ecology（生态学）：The scientific study of the interactions between organisms and their environments.2、Ecosystem（生态系统）：The biotic community together with the abiotic factors; all the interactions within the biotic community and between the abiotic factors.3、Environment（环境）：The sum total of physical and biotic conditions influencing the responses organisms4、Ecological factors（生态因子）：Ecological factors refers to the growth of organisms in the growth,development, reproduction, behavior and distribution environmental factors have a direct or indirect influence5、Ecological amplitude（生态幅）：Each kind of environmental factor to adapt the size of that ecological amplitude range6、Population（种群）：a group of organisms of the same type, or species, living together in the same area7、Population growth（种群增长）：the number of individuals in a population increases or decreases with time8、Age structure（年龄结构）：the proportions of each individual in each age class.9、Life table（生命表）：A life table is an age-specific account of mortality(Life table provide a summary of how survial and reproductive rates vary with the age of the organisms.)10、Intrinsic rate of increase（内禀增长率）：The difference between birth rate and death rate is the intrinsic growth rate内禀增长率(r) (instantaneous per capita rate of growth瞬时人均增长率).11、Ecological strategy（生态策略）：Ecological Strategy (life history Strategy) describe the anatomical, physiological and behavioural adaptations control how individuals invest in reproduction and self-maintenance in response to their environmental conditions12、S-curve（”s”型曲线）：Natural mechanisms come into play and cause the population to level off and continue in a dynamic equilibrium. This pattern is known as the S-curve13、J-curve（”J”型曲线）：In the absence of natural enemies, the population keeps growing until it exhausts essential resources - usually food - and then dies off precipitously due to famine and, perhaps, diseases related to malnutrition. This pattern is known as a J-curve14、R-strategy（r策略）：R-strategy is to produce massive numbers of young but then leave survival to the whims of nature. This strategy results in very low recruitment15、K-strategy（k策略）：K-strategy is to have a much lower reproductive rate but then care for and protect the young to enhance recruitment16、Niche（生态位）：Niche includes temporal and spatial positions of population (individual) and functional interactions with relative populations (individuals).17、Community（群落）：A community is a group of interacting populations that occupy the same area at the same time.18、Dominant species（优势种）：Species have a community impact that is proportional to its biomass19、Succession（自然演替）：Ecological succession is the sequence of community changes aftera disturbance20、Food chain（食物链）：pathways where one organism is eaten by a second, which is eaten by a third, each such pathway is called a food chain21、Food web（食物网）：all food chains are interconnected and form a complex web of feeding relationships-food web22、Abiotic factors（非生物的因素）：All the factors(physical and chemical factors) of the environment.23、Biotic factors（生物因素）：a kind of influence factors of biological morphology, growth, development and distribution of any other animal, plant or microbial activities of ecological factors.24、Primary Succession（原生演替）：the sequence of species on newly exposed landforms that have not previously been influenced by a community, e.g., areas exposed by glacial retreat.25、Species（物种；种类；类型；[逻辑] 个体）：All the members of a specific kind of plant, animal, or microbe; a kind given by similarity of appearance；capacity for interbreeding and producing fertile offspring.26、Biotic community（生物群落）：All the populations of different plants, animals, microbes occupying a given area.27、Autotroph（自养生物，靠无机物质生存的生物）：Organisms which produce their own organic material from inorganic constituents in the environment using an external energy source, are autotrophs .28、Heterotrophs（异养生物）：Organisms which must consume organic material to obtain energy and nutrients, are heterotrophs .29、Ecotone（群落交错区）：One ecosystem may gradate into the next through a transitional region, known as an ecotone.30、Trophic structure（营养结构）：The major feeding relationships between organisms are the trophic structure .31、Photosynthesis（光合作用）：Most producers are green plants, which use light energy to convert carbon dioxide and water to glucose and then release oxygen as a byproduct. This chemical conversion, which is driven by light energy, is called photosynthesis.using light energy, producers make sugar (glucose, stored chemical energy) from carbon dioxide and water, release oxygen gas as a byproduct.【6CO2 + 12H2O →C6H12O6 + 6O2 + 6H2Ocarbon water light glucose oxygen waterdioxide energy (gas)(gas) input(low potential energy) (high potential energy)】二、问答题1、Why biodiversity is important？（生物多样性的重要性）生物多样性是地球生物圈与人类本身延续的基础，具有不可估量的价值。

Plot 样方Treatment 处理materials 材料field trial 大田试验design 设计sample 样品斑块 patch半荒漠 semi-desert伴生种 companion species饱和密度 saturation density北方针叶林 northern conifer forest 本能 instinct本能行为 instinctive behavior避敌 avoiding predator边缘效应 edge effect变异性 variability表现型适应 phenotypic adaptation 并行的 simultaneous捕食 predation不重叠的 non-overlapping草原生态系统 grassland system层次性结构 hierachical structure 长日照植物 long day plant尺度效应 scaling effect臭氧层破坏 ozone layer destruction出生率 natality或birth rate初级生产者 primary producer传感器 sensor垂直结构 vertical structure春化 vernalization次生演替 secondary successon存活曲线 survival curve存活值 survival value存在度 presence单元的 monothetic淡水生态系统 fresh water ecosystem氮循环 nitrogen cycling等级的 hierarchical地带性生物群落 biome地理信息系统 geographic information system 地面芽植物 hemicryptophytes地上芽植物 chamaephytes点突变 genic mutation或point mutation顶极阶段 climax stage顶极群落 climax community顶极种 climax species动态平衡理论 dynamic equilibrium theory短日照植物 short day plant断层 gaps多度 abundance多样化 variety多元的 poly thetic厄尔尼诺 El Nino反馈 feedback反射 reflex泛化种 generalist防卫行为 defennce behavior非生物环境 physical environment非线性关系 nonlinear分布 dispersion分解者 decomposer分子进化的中性理论 the neutral theory of molecular evolution 分子生态学 molecular ecology浮游动物 plankton负反馈 negative feedback)负相互作用 negative interaction复合种群 metapopulation富营养化现象 eutrohication改良 relamation盖度 coverage盖度比 cover ratio干扰 disturbance干扰作用 interference高度 height高斯假说 Coarse's hypothesis高位芽植物 phanerophytes个体 individual更新 renewal功能生态位 functional niche关键种 keystone species关联系数 association coefficients 光饱和点 light saturation point光补偿点 light compensation point 光周期 photoperiod旱生植物 siccocolous红树林 mangrove呼吸量 respiration互利 mutualism互利作用 synomonal化感作用 allelopathy化学生态学 chemical ecology环境 environment环境容纳量 environmental carryin capacity 荒漠 desert荒漠化 desertification荒漠生态系统 desert ecosystem黄化现象 eitiolation phenomenon恢复生态学 restoration ecology混合型 mixed type基础生态位 Fundamental niche基质 matrix集群型 clumped寄生 parasitism加速期 accelerating phase价值 value间接排序 indirect ordination间接梯度分析 indirect gradiant analysis减速期 decelerating phase简单聚合法 lumping碱性植物 alkaline soil plant建群种 constructive species进化适应 evolutionary adaptation经典型复合种群 classic metapopulation经济密度 economic density景观 landscape景观格局 landscape patten景观过程模型 process based landscape model景观结构 landscape structure景观空间动态模型 spatial dynamic landscape model 景观生态学 landscape ecology竞争 competition竞争排斥原理 competition exclusion principle距离效应 distance effect聚合的 agglomerative均匀型 uniform可持续发展 sustainable development空间结构 spatial structure空间模型 spatial model空间生态位 spatial niche空间异质性 spatial heterogeneity库 pool廊道 corridor离散性 discrete利己作用 allomona利他作用 kairomonal猎食行为 hunting behavior林冠火 crown fire磷循环 phosphorus cycling零假说 null hypothesis领域性 territoriality流 flow逻辑斯谛方程 logistic equation密度 density密度比 density ratio密度制约死亡 density－dependent mortality 面积效应 area effect灭绝 extinction模拟 hametic模型 modeling内稳态 homeostasis内在的 intrinsic耐阴植物 shade－enduring plants能量分配原则 principle of energy allocation 能量流动 energy flow年龄分布 age distribution年龄结构 age structure偶见种 rare species排序 ordination配额 quota配偶选择 mate selection偏害 amensalism偏利 commensalism频度 frequency平衡选择 balancing selection 平台 plantform平行进化 parallel evolution栖息地 habitat气候驯化 acclimatisation器官 organs趋光性 phototaxis趋化性 chemotaxis趋同进化 convergent evolution 趋性 taxis趋异进化 divergent evolution 趋异适应 radiation adaptation 取样调查法 sampling methods去除取样法 removal sampling全球变暖 global warnning全球定位系统 global Positioning System全球生态学 global ecology群丛 association群丛组 association group群落 community群落的垂直结构 vertical structure群落生态学 community ecology群落水平格局 horizontal pattern群落外貌 physiognomy群落演替 succession群系 formation群系组 formation group热带旱生林 tropical dry forest热带季雨林 tropical seasonal rainforest热带稀树草原 tropical savanna热带雨林 tropical rainforest热力学第一定律 first law of thermodynamics 人工斑块 introduced patch人工廊道 introduced corridor人口调查法 cencus technique人口统计学 human demography日中性植物 day neutral plant冗余 redundancy冗余种假说 Redundancy species hypothesis 森林生态系统 forest ecosystem熵值 entropy value社会性防卫行为 defence behavior社会优势等级 dominance hierarchy摄食行为 feed behavior生活史 life history生活史对策 life history strategy生活小区 biotope生活型 life form生活周期 life cycle生境 habitat生境多样性假说 habitat diversity hypothesis 生理出生率 physiological natality生理死亡率 physiological mortality生命表 life table生态出生率 ecological natality生态对策 bionomic strategy生态反作用 ecological reaction生态幅 ecological amplitude生态工程 ecological engineering生态规划 ecological planning生态恢复 ecological restoration生态旅游 ecotourism生态密度 ecological density生态农业 ecological agriculture生态入侵 ecological invasion生态设计 ecological design生态适应 ecological adaptation生态死亡率 ecological mortality生态位 niche生态位宽度 niche breadth生态位相似性比例 niche proportional similarity 生态位重叠 niche overlap生态文明 ecological civilization生态系统 ecosystem生态系统产品 ecosystem goods生态系统多样性 ecosystem diversity生态系统服务 ecosystem service生态系统生态学 ecosystem ecology生态系统学 ecosystemology生态型 ecotype生态学 ecology生态因子 ecological factor生态元 ecological unit生态作用 ecological effect生物 organism生物地球化学循环 biogecochemical cycle 生物多样性 biodiversity生物量 biomass生物潜能 biotic potential生物群落 biotic community，biome生物群落演替 succession生殖潜能 reproductive potential剩余空间 residual space湿地 wetland湿地植物 hygrophyte时间结构 temporal structure实际出生率 realized natality实际死亡率 realized mortality食草动物 herbivores食肉动物 carnivores食物链 food chain食物网 food wed矢量 vector适合度 fitness适应辐射 adaptive radiation适应值 adaptive value适应组合 adaptive suites收获理论 harvest theory收益外泄 externalized profit衰退型种群 contracting population水平格局 horizontal pattern水土流失 soil and water erosion水循环 water cycling死亡率 mortality & death rate酸性土理论 acid soil plant酸雨 acid rain随机型 random常用生态学词汇，英汉对照abundance 多度acclimation 驯化age structure 年龄结构age-specific life table 特定年龄生命表agroecosystem 农业生态系统alleles 等位基因allopatric speciation 异域性物种asexual reproduction 无性生殖association table 群丛表association unit theory 群丛单位理论associations 群丛biocoenosis 生物群落bioconcentration 生物浓缩biological enrichment 生物富集biomass 生物量biome 生物带bionomic strategy 生态对策biosphere生物圈bottle neck 瓶颈Some special words in ecology(C) cannibalism 同种相食carnivores 食肉动物carring capacity 负荷量catastrophic 灾难性因素chamaephytes(Ch) 地上芽植物character displacement 特征替代cheliophytes 阴性植物climate climax 气候顶级climate school 气候学派climax community 顶级群落climax 顶级群落cline 渐变群closed community 封闭群落clumped 集群分布coadapted system 协同适应系统coarse grained 粗粒性分布co-dynamics 相互动态co-evolution 协同进化cohort 同生群cold desert 冷荒漠colonization 定居, 建群coloration 色泽communities in littoral zone 沿岸生物群落communities in the limnetic zone 湖沼带生物群落communities in the profundal zone 深水带生物群落Community ecology 群落生态学community matrix 群落矩阵community organization 群落组织community 群落companion species 伴生种compen-satory predation 补偿性捕食competition coefficient 竞争系数competition hypothesis 竞争假说competitive exclusion 竞争排除competive lottery 抽彩式竞争conservation 保守主义者conspicuousness 显著度constancy 恒有度contest competition 干扰竞争contest type of competition 争夺型竞争continental rise 大陆隆continental shelf 大陆架continental slope 大陆坡convergent adaptation 趋同适应convergent oscillation 趋同波动cost of gene recombination 基因重组价cost of mating 交配价cost of meiosis 减数分裂价courtship behavior 求偶行为coverage 盖度crude density 原始密度cryptophytes(Cr) 隐芽植物Some special words in ecology(D) decomposition 分解作用delayed density dependence 延后密度制约density effect 密度效应density ratio 密度比density-dependent 密度制约density-independent 非密度制约deterministic model 决定模型detrial food chain 碎食物链detritus feeder 食碎生物development 发育diagrammatic life table 图解式生命表diapause 滞育differential species 区别种diffuse competition 分散竞争diominant-submissive 支配—从属directional selection 定向选择discrete generation 离散世代disruptive selection 分裂选择disturbance climax/disclimax 偏途顶级divergent oscillation 趋异波动dominance 优势度dominant species 建群种dominant species 优势种dominant-submissive 支配—从属关系dry desert 干荒漠dynamic classification 动态分类系统dynamic life table 动态生命表dynamic-composite life table 动态混合生命表Some special words in ecology(E)earth nucleus 地幔earth's crust 地核Ecological amplitude 生态幅ecological density 生态密度ecological dominance 生态优势ecological environment 生态环境ecological equivalent 生态等值种ecological factor 生态因子ecological force 生态力ecological invasion 生态入侵ecological natality 生态出生率ecological release 生态释放Ecology生态学ecosystem development 生态系统的发育Ecosystem ecology 生态系统生态学ecosystem 生态系统ecotone hypothesis 生态交错带假说ecotype 生态型ectotherm 外温动物edge effect 边缘效应eitolation phenomenon 黄化现象emergy 能值emigration 迁出endogenous migration 内因性迁移endotherm 内温动物environment hormone 环境激素environment 环境equilibrium theory 平衡理论euphotic zone 透光带euryecious 广栖的euryhaline 广盐性的euryhydric 广水性的euryphagic 广食性的eurythermal 广温性的eurytopic species 广适种eutrophication 富营养化evergreen hardwood forest 常绿硬材林Evolution ecology 进化生态学evolution force 进化力exogenous migration 外因性迁移exploitive competition 利用竞争exponetial growth 指数增长Some special words in ecology(F) facultative parthenogenesis 孤雌生殖facultative parthenogenesis 兼性孤雌生殖facultative 兼性因素family selection 家庭选择farmland ecosystem 农田生态系统fecundity schedule 生育力表fecundity 生育力feedback 反馈feeding niches 取食生态位filter food 滤食性生物fine grained 细粒性分布finite rate of increase 周限增长率fitness 合适度floristic-structural classification 植物区系—结构分类系统fluctuation 波动food chain 食物链formation group 群系组formation 群系formation 植物群系foundational niche 基础生态龛freshwater ecology 淡水生态学freshwater ecosystem 淡水生态系统function response 功能反应Some special words in ecology(G)gamete selection 配子选择gaps 缺口gaseous cycle 气体循环geng pool 基因库geographic variation 地理变异geographical theory of speciation 物种形成geometric growth 几何级数增长geophytes(G) 地下芽植物global ecology 全球生态gradient hypothesis 梯度假说grain 粒性grazer 牧食生物grazing food chain 捕食食物链greenhouse effect 温室效应gregarization pheromone 聚集信息素gross primary production 总初级生产力group selection 群体选择group selection 群体选择group selection 群选择growth form 生长型guild 同资源团Some special words in ecology(H) habal zone 深渊带habitat 生境heath 石楠群丛height 高度hemicryptophytes(He) 地面芽植物herbivore 植食herbivores 植食动物heterotrophic succession 异养演替heterotrophs 异养生物hibernation 冬眠homeostasis 内稳态homeostasis 自调节稳态homeostatic organism 内稳态生物homeostatic process 内稳定过程human demography 人口统计学Human ecology 人类生态学humus 腐殖质hydrarch succession 水生演替hydrosere 水生演替系列Some special words in ecology(I) immigration 迁入importance value 重要值individual converse rate 个体转化率industrial melanism 工业黑化现象inner capacity increase 内禀增长力inner-environment 内环境instantaneous rate of increase 瞬间增长率intensity 强度interference competition 干扰竞争interference competition 干扰竞争intermediate disturbance hypothesis中度干扰假说internal distribution pattern 内分布型interspecfic relationship 种间关系intertidal zone 潮间带intraspecific relationship 种内关系inversely density dependent 反密度制约Island ecology 岛屿生态学iteroparity 多次繁殖生物iteroparous 多次生殖Some special words in ecology(J--L)JJordan's rule 约丹定律Kkeystone species 关键种kin selection 亲属选择kin selection 亲属选择k-strategists k-策略者Lland cover 土地覆盖land use 土地利用Landscape ecology 景观生态学law of constant final yield 最后产量衡值法则law of the minimum 最小因子法则law of tolerance 耐受性法则layer 层leached layer 淋溶层leaf area index 叶面积指数leaf area index（LAS）叶面积指数lentic ecosystem 静水生态系统life cycle 生活周期life expectancy 生命期望life form spectrum 生活型谱life form 生活型life history strategy 生活史对策life history 生活史lifespan 生活年限lifetime 寿命limit of tolerance 忍受性限度littoral zone 沿岸带lotic ecosystem 流水生态系统Some special words in ecology(M) macroclimate 大气候macrofauna 大型生物Marine ecology 海洋生态学marine ecosystem 海洋生态系统maximum natality 最大出生率maximum sustained yield 最大持续生产量megafauna 巨型生物mexofauna 中型生物microclimate 小气候microcolony 微菌落microcommunities 小群落micro-ecosystem 微生态系统micro-environment 微环境microfauna 小型生物microplankton 小型浮游生物migration 迁徙migration 迁移modular organism 构件生物modules 构件Molecular ecology 分子生态学monoclimax theory 单元演替顶级monocultute 单种养殖monogamy 单配偶制monpohagous 单食性monsoon forest 季风林mortality curve 死亡曲线mortality 死亡率mosaic 镶嵌性Some special words in ecology(N) natality 出生率n-dimensional niche n维生态龛negative feedback 负反馈net primary production(GP) 净初级生产力neutrality controversy 中性说论战niche compression 生态位压缩niche separation 生态位分离niche shift 生态位分离niche 生态位non-equilibrium theory 非平衡理论non-homeostatic organism 非内稳态生物Some special words in ecology(O) obiotic component 非生物成分ocean-current 洋流ohort life table 同群生命表omnivores 杂食动物open community 开放群落open shrublands 稀疏灌丛opportunist 机会主义者ordination 排序ornamentation 修饰Some special words in ecology(P) panclimax 泛顶级pantropical 泛热带区parabiosphere 副生物圈parasites 寄生生物parasitoidism 拟寄生parent material 母质层parental care 亲代关怀parental investment 亲本投资patchiness 斑块性per capita growth rate 每员增长率perclimax 前顶级peritrophic mycorrhizae 周边营养性菌根phanerophytes(Ph) 高位芽植物phenotype 表现型photoperiodism 光周期现象phyplankton 浮游植物physiognomy 外貌Physiological ecology 生理生态学physiological natality 生理出生率phytochrom 色素pioneer community 先锋群落pjarapatric speciation 邻域性物种plankon 浮游生物Poission distribution 泊松分布polyandry 一雌多雄制polyclimax theory 多元顶级理论polygamy 多配偶制polygyny 一雄多雌制polymorphism 多型现象polyphagous 多食性的Population ecology 种群生态学population 种群porosity 粒间空隙positive feedback 正反馈postclimax 超顶级predation 捕食者predator 捕食者present reproductive value 当年繁殖价值prevail climax 优势顶级prey 猎物prezygotic mechanism 合子前隔离primary production 初级生产primary succession 初级演替primary succession 原生演替principle of allocation 分配原理principle of competitive exclusion 竞争互斥原理production rate 生产率production 生产量productivity 生产力progressive succession 进展演替protogynous hermaphriodism 雌雄同体pyramid of energy 能量金字塔Some special words in ecology(R)radiation adaptation 趋异适应random 随机分布rare species 偶见种reaction time lag 反应滞时reactive species 反映性物种realized natality 实际出生率realized nick 实际生态龛regressive succession 逆行演替relative frequency 相对频度relative reproductive value相对生殖值reproduction effect 生殖成效reproductive cost 繁殖成本reproductive pattern 生殖格局reproductive time lag 生殖滞时reproductive value 生殖值residual reproductive value 剩余繁殖价值resilient stability 恢复稳定性resistant stability 抵抗稳定性Restoration ecology 恢复生态学richness 丰度r-k continuum of strategies r-k 策略连续系统r-strategists r-策略者Some special words in ecology(S) saprovores 食腐者savanna woodland 热带稀树草原林地scavenger 食腐者sciophytes 阳性植物scramble competition 利用竞争scramble type of competition 分摊型竞争secondary metabolites 次生代谢物质secondary production 次级生产力secondary succession 次生演替secondary 次级演替sedimentary cycle 沉积循环selective fertilization 选择受精self-destructive 自我破坏semelparity 一次繁殖生物semelparous 一次生殖sex ratio 性比sexual dimorphism 雌雄二形现象sexual reproduction 有性生殖sexual selection 性选择sexual selection 性选择shade plants 耐阴性植物Shannon-Weiner index 香农—威纳指数sieve selection hypothesis 筛选说similarity 相似度Simpson's diversity index 辛普森多样性指数social group 社群social hierarchy 社会等级social-economic-natural complex ecosystem 社会--经济--自然复合系统solar emergy 太阳能值solar emjoules 太阳能焦耳solar transformity 太阳能值转换率spatial pattern 空间格局special heterogeneity 空间异质性speciation 物种形成species area curve 物种面积曲线species diversity 物种多样性species evenness or equitability 种的均匀度species heterogeneity 种的不齐性species turnover rate 种的周转率spore reproduction 孢子生殖stability-resilience 稳定恢复力stabilizing selection 稳定选择standing crop 现存量static life table 静态生命表stenoecious 窄栖性的stenohaline 窄盐性的stenohydric 窄水性的stenophagic 窄食性的stenothermal 窄温性的steppe and semideserty 干草原和半荒漠stochastic model 随机模型stratification 成层现象subassociation 亚群丛组subdominant 亚优势种subformation 亚群系succession 演替succulent 肉质植物succulent 肉质植物summed dominance ratio（SDR）综合优势比summer-green deciduous forest 夏绿落叶林survivorship curve 存活曲线sympatric speciation 同域性物种Synecology 群落生态学synusia 层片Some special words in ecology(T) Terrestrial ecology 陆地生态学territorial behavior 领域行为territoriality 领域性the -2/3 thinning law -2/3自疏法则the effect of neighbours 邻接效应therophytes (Th) 一年生植物thertnoperiodism 温周期现象thorn forest and scrub 多刺森林和密灌丛time-specific life table 特定时间生命表torpor 蛰伏total neutrality hypothesis 中性说trophic level 营养级trophic relationship 营养的联系trophic relationship 营养联系tundra and cold forest 苔原和冷森林Some special words in ecology(U--Z) Uuniform 均匀分布unitary organism 单体生物univoltine insects 一化性的昆虫upper horizon 覆盖层Urban ecology 城市生态学Vvegetation subtype 植被亚型vegetation type group 植被型组vegetation type 植被型vegetative propagation 营养生殖volume 体积Wwater cycle 水循环weight 重量Xxerarch succession 旱生演替xerophytes 旱生植物Zzero net growth isoline（ZNGI）零增长线zone of emergent vegetation 挺水植物带zooplankton 浮游动物。

个体（英语：individual），一般指一个人或是一个群体中的特定主体，指人时也称个人。

在生物学中，每一只动物、一棵植物、甚至一个能以单细胞生存的生命形式都可称为单一个体。

——wikiAn individual is a person or a specific object.种群（英语：Population，或称种群）在生态学上，是在一定空间范围内同时生活着的同种生物的全部个体；或者说是有个体组成，能够而且确实进行交配的群体。

——wiki种群（population）指在一定时间内占据一定空间的同种生物的所有个体。

——baiduA population is a summation of all the organisms of the same group or species, who live in the same geographical area, and have the capability of interbreeding.群落群落（英语：Biocoenosis）或称为“生物群落”。

生存在一起并与一定的生存条件相适应的动植物的总体群落生境是群落生物生活的空间，一个生态系统则是群落和群落生境的系统性相互作用。

——wiki群落community 亦称生物群落(biological community)。

生物群落是指具有直接或间接关系的多种生物种群的有规律的组合，具有复杂的种间关系。

我们把在一定生活环境中的所有生物种群的总和叫做生物群落，简称群落。

——baidu生态学定义：在相同时间聚集在同一地段上的各物种种群的集合[1]。

A biocenosis (biocenose, biocoenose, biotic community, biological community, ecological community), coined by Karl Möbius in 1877, describes the interacting organisms living together in a habitat (biotope).生态系统生态系统(Ecosystem)是指在一个特定环境内，其间的所有生物和此一环境的统称。

Ecology (生態學)IntroductionEcology -- __________________________________________________________ Concept of the ecosystem - The biosphere and biomes•Bioshpere生物圈o The part of the Earth and its atmosphere inhabited by life is called biosphereo Thus, the oceans, land surface and lower parts of the atmosphere all form parts of the biosphere.•Biome生物群落o The biosphere can be divided into biomes which are linked by a common type of vegetation.o Forests, deserts and grasslands are the examples of biomes. Each biome consists of many ecosystems in which communities have adapted to differences in climate,soil, and other environmental factors throughout the biome.A. The Ecosystem生態系統An ecosystem is defined as a complex formed by the living community of different species interacting with one another and with their non-living environment of matter and energy to result in a stable and self-sustainable system.Components of an ecosystem :living community and non-living component•A population 種群consists of all members of the same species occupying a given area at the same time.• A community 群落consists of Populations of all the different species interacting with one another• A habitat生境is a small specific place where an organism lives.- types of habitats :terrestrial habitat ---- forest, ___________________aquatic habitat ---- fresh water : pond, lake, reservoir, __________ •marine : sandy shore, muddy shore, ___________________A habitat can divide into numerous microhabitats小生境, each with_____________________________________________________________________________________•The niche生態位of a species describes the role of specific species in its community.Niches are sometimes distinguished from habitats by saying that the habitat of anorganism is its address, while its niche is its role in the community.e.g. on a tree : caterpillars (feed on leaves),beetles (burrow into trunk)they live on same place but functionally they occupy different niches.•The biotic (living) factors生物的are comprised by all living organisms within the ecosystem.•The abiotic (non-living) 非生物的factors are mainly divided into soil, water and climate.o Water is essential for all living organisms in the soil and enters living cells by osmosis.o Soils vary in their content of clay, silt, sand and gravel. The composition of soil determines the soil texture, porosity, water-retaining capacity and oxygen content.Soil contains a mixture of organic and inorganic nutrients (humus and minerals).o Climate includes environmental variables such as light, temperature, moisture, salinity and wind. These factors are important in determining the types of livingorganisms in the ecosystem.B. Energy flow and nutrient cycling in the ecosystemI) Transfer of energy (many approaches, according to functions in ecosystem)Food chainA linear sequence of organisms showing a pathway of food consumption from producers through a series of consumers. In this series, an organism feeds on the one before it and forms the food of the organism after it.Food chains are short (4-5 levels) because only 10 - 20 % of energy is transferred to the next stage.Each stage in food chain = _______________Trophic levels•The number of steps by which the organisms obtain their energy from plants in a food chain. --- the producers always at the first trophic level.Producers _______ consumers ______ consumers ______consumersdecomposersa) Producers : autotrophs自養-- photosynthetic e.g. green plant, photosynthetic bacteria,chemosynthetic bacteria e.g. nitrifying bacteria,base of food chain and food web.N.B. : Phytoplanktons, which are microorganisms, are important producers floating on the upper layers of lakes or ocean. They are unicellular organisms which alsocontain chloroplasts to carry out photosynthesis just like the terrestrial plants .b) Primary consumers : herbivores which feed on plants e.g. pond snails, insect larvae.c) Secondary consumers : carnivores which feed on primary consumers e.g. small fish.d) Tertiary consumers : larger carnivores which feed on secondary consumers e.g. large fishe) Decomposers : mainly ________________________,分解者decompose dead bodies of plants and animals into simpler compoundswhich can then be absorbed by green plants again,important in recycling of nutrients and clearing up dead bodies andexcretory remains.f) Detritivores : consume the losses from the food chain, or dead organic matter detached食腐質動物from dead bodies or excreta (detritus), movement of energy and matter in a continuous manner, therefore hard to define trophic level,mainly bacteria, fungi, protozoans, insects, mites and some small vertebrates,detritus detritivores carnivores and herbivoresImportances :⏹detritivores break down complex compounds to simpler molecules, therefore speeding updecomposition of dead bodies and excretory remains by breaking up detritus into small pieces thus increasing the surface area available for microbial action,⏹adding proteins and microorganisms onto the soil by their faecesg) other definition system :Producer herbivores carnivores top carnivores(prey) (prey/predator) (predator)Some animals may act as both herbivore and carnivore : omnivoreFood web- 2 or more interconnecting food chains, each organism may have different trophic levels營養層in different food chain within a food web.- examples of woodland and fresh water habitat (refer to any textbook)Example of food web : MarshII) Level of organizationArrange the following ecological terms in order :biosphere, community, population, organ, organism, biome, cellSpecies : ____________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________III) Ecological energeticsProduction : amount of materials which accumulate over a fixed amount of time.Top carnivoresCarnivoresdecomposersHerbivoresGreen plantsN.B. Much of the solar energy reaching the plant is lost by reflection and photosynthetic inefficiency.Useful terms :•Biological productivity生物生產力is the rate at which biomass is produced by an ecosystem. It has two components:o Primary productivity初級生產力, the production of new organic matter by green plants (autotrophs).o Secondary productivity次級生產力, the production of new organic matter by consumers (heterotrophs).•Both of these can be divided into gross primary productivity and net primary productivity.•Gross primary productivity (GPP) 總初級生產力o The total amount of orgainc matter produced by green plants in unit area and per unit time. GPP does not represent the actual amount of food potentially availableto heterotrophs because some of the organic matters are used to meet plant'srespiration and metabolism.•Net primary productivity (NPP) 淨初級生產力o The total amount of organic matter of the organism after respiration andmetabolism have been fueled. Therefore it represents the potential food energyavailable to heterotrophs.Net secondary productivity : ____________________________________________N.B. : Usually, plant has 10% average efficiency of energy transfer while animal has 20%, explain why ?IV) Pyramids1) Pyramid of number (abundance) 數目塔- a diagram representing the progressive drop in numbers of individuals at each successive trophic level, usually upright e.g.- sometimes may be inverted e.g.- Not a good representation : ___________________________________________2) Pyramid of biomass (unit :g/m2) 生物量塔- Biomass ? _____________________________________________________________- better idea about the quantity of materials in each trophic level required to support those level above it, total amount of organic matter is largest at the base of a food chain,- normal shape : upright,rare case : inverted, why ?Reason ---- producer level has rapid turnover rate e.g. phytoplanktons may have smaller biomass than true but have higher productivity, therefore in this case, harvestanimal is better than harvest producer,3) Pyramid of energy 能量塔(productivity) (Unit : g/m2/day, month, year)- the best because :a) it takes into account the rate of production, that is the time factor.b) no inverted pyramid --- always upright,c) importance of solar energy can be stressed.Criticism of all pyramids :- in a food web, many organisms cannot be placed in ONE suitable trophic level.- some still inverted, why ??Cycling of Nutrients in EcosystemsA. Carbon Cycle•Carbon is an essential building element for all organic compounds. The cyclic flow of carbon in Nature is known as the carbon cycle.o In Nature, the most abundant source of carbon exists as carbon dioxide free in the atmosphere and dissolve in oceans.o During photosynthesis, producers make use of light energy to convert carbon dioxide into organic carbon compounds in their bodieso When producers are eaten, the organic carbon compounds in their bodies are passed on to the consumers.o In the bodies of both producers and consumers, part of the organic carbon compounds is broken down into carbon dioxide during respiration and bringback to the atmosphere and oceans.o When the organisms die, a certain amount of organic carbon compounds is locked up in the dead bodies.o Generally the dead bodies undergo decomposition. The organic carboncompounds are converted to carbon dioxide and liberated during the respirationof decomposers.o Sometimes, the dead bodies may become fossil fuels. In such a case, the carbon dioxide can only be released when the fuels are burnt. The process is calledcombustion.Carbon CycleB. Nitrogen Cycle•Nitrogen is an essential element in the synthesis of proteins. The cyclic flow of nitrogen in Nature is known as the nitrogen.o During a process called nitrogen fixation, atmospheric nitrogen is changed to nitrates in the soil.This process is carried out by a group of bacteria callednitrogen-fixing bacteria.固氮細菌o During lightening閃電, a tmospheric nitrogen can also be changed to nitrates.o The nitrogen in the soil is absorbed by producers in ionic forms and converted to organic nitrogenous compounds in their body.o When producers are eaten, the organic nitrogenous compounds in their bodies are passed on to the consumers.o Some of the nitrogen in the consumers' bodies are lost as excretory products.o When the organisms die, a certain amount of organic nitrogen is locked up in the dead bodies.o The organic nitrogen in the excretory products and dead bodies is broken down into ammonium compounds by a group of bacteria called putrefying bacteria. Theprocess is called putrefaction. 腐敗作用o The ammonium compounds are changed stepwise to nitrates by nitrifying bacteria. The process is called nitrification.o A process called denitrification changes some of the inorganic nitrogencompounds in the soil changed to nitrogen gas by the so-called denitrifyingbacteria. The nitrogen gas is returned to the atmosphere.Nitrogen cycleReference : Chinese version of Carbon and Nitrogen cycle Carbon Cycle :Nitrogen Cycle :Interdependence of organismsBasic interaction types0 no reaction + positive influence : benefit - negativea) + 0 :b) + + :c) + - :d) + - :e) - - :A) Positive interactions1) Commensalism 片行共生Different species of organisms living together, with only one getting benefits while the other get no harm, e.g. the barnacles藤壺attach themselves to the shells of hermit crabs. They obtain nourishment from the food left by the crab after it has eaten, and the crab can help them escape from danger.2) Mutualism (symbiosis) 互利共生Different species living together that are beneficial to both, e.g. lichens which are the association of fungi and algae. The alga is protected from high light intensity and desiccation by the fungi. Moreover, the fungi are constantly supplied with organic food substances by the algae from photosynthesis.Other example : symbiotic bacteria and rabbits.B) Negative interaction1) Predation (+ -) :two individuals in which one preys on the other while the other is being eaten e.g. foxes and rabbits.N.B. predators regulating the prey population, i.e. Biological control, therefore benefically.2) Parasitism (+ -) :The parasite obtains food or shelter from the host. It can be further divided into ectoparasites, which live on the outer surface of a host, and endoparasites, which live within a host.e.g. tapeworm found in human digestive system obtain nourishment from the human host. N.B. the parasite must not kill the host or else it destroys itself.3) Competition (- -) :a) Interspecific or intraspecific :which one is more serious ? ________________________e.g. barnacles and oysters ---- compete for space and foodb) Two types :(Scramble爭奪) :(Contest) :c) Effects- on plant : changes in growth rate (competition for nutrients or light),extinction of less successful species,- on animal : i) aggression,ii) territory,iii) emigration,iv) increase in death rate,v) predation.d) Evolutionary significance :1) eliminate less well-adapted individuals, therefore gradual improvement of species,2) gives rise to adaptive radiationi.e. filling of more diverse ecological niches by an original species,therefore competition in field -- __________________________________________________________________________________________________3) success in competition depends on environmental conditions, conditions may favour one species at one time, and a different one at some other time, therefore different species may fluctuate in number.Succession 演替Succession is defined as a series of changes in the structure and composition of a community from the pioneer community to the climax community over a period of time.Primary succession :Invasion and colonization of bare rock, only algae and lichens can invadeand colonize the area(insufficient soil and nutrients for trees and shrubs) --first colonizers.by weatheringColonization by larger plant species such as mosses or fernsThe death and decomposition of these plants further enrich the soilColonization by seed-bearing plants, including grasses, shrubs and trees.Secondary succession :When the completely colonized surface has been influenced by living organisms (human) or environmental factors (fire), secondary succession occurs -- result in mesophytes dominantcauses of succession : changes in environment of a pondexisting communities no longer adaptednew species take overClimax community : 頂極群落The final stable and self-perpetuating community developed after number of successional communities, can resist environmental changes and competition, and it is the most productive community that the environment can sustain.Characteristics1) determined by habitat factors,2) interaction results in a stable balanced unit,3) a natural community : self sufficient and self-maintaining,4) species composition of a natural community is the result of natural selection.Adaptations of organisms to the environmenta) Definition :characteristic of an organism with definite value in allowing it to exist under condition of its habitats in order to ensure its continuity, allow the organism to make use of environmental resources or protect it against adverse conditions.b) Types of adaptation :a) morphological, b) physiological, c) behaviouralc) Significance of adaptation :- natural selection eliminates the one not adapted, therefore the adapted are favoured i.e.'survival of fittest',- ability of species to remain in existence depends on :i) ______________________________________________________________ii) ________________________________________________________________Examples of adaptationsReproductiona) Viviparous 胎生droppers of Kandelia水筆仔:- dominant in mangroves in H.K.,- seedlings (fruits) exhibit vivipary -- they develop while still attached to the parent plants, forming 'droppers' which fall into the water and float away, coming to rest in an upright position as the tide recedes,- therefore adapt to i) unstable substratum,ii) anaerobic mud,iii) saline condition.Survivala) Holdfast of Sargassum ( brown algae),- live on the intertidal zone of marine habitat,- develop a powerful holdfast which is a flattened disc capable of adhering strongly to almost any solid substratum.b) Shaped leaves of Pinus :- develop successfully as an evergreen plant in relatively poor, dry soil,- dark green 'needle' leaf with sunken stomata,- each has the shiny look associated with a thick cuticle and is grooved along its length,- small brown scale leaves for protection of buds and dwarfed shoot.Notes on field studiesEnvironment-the surroundings-i.e. the sum total of external influences acting on an organism or community.A) Abiotic (physical) :----- climaticsoil (edaphic)topographica) ClimaticTemperature :- biochemical processes : most life exist within 0 – 600C- physiological effects (breeding),- adaptations :i) behavioral -----ii) structural -----Rainfall :- need for many functions (germination, locomotion, transport, metabolism, osmoregulation), - presence or absence of water causes many adaptations :in plants :in animals :-governs distribution of tropical rain forest, temperate forest,-Light :- three factors : ___________________________________- photosynthesis : food production,flowering (photoperiodism), transpiration,behaviour; breeding cycles,tropisms and nastic response,control zonationHumidity- is related to wind, rainfall and temperature,- transpiration rate,- behaviour of animals e.g. rocky shore animals seek damp place when exposed,Wind- transpiration,- affects mode of growth of vegetation :e.g. mechanical damage : stunting and shearing, defoliation, distortion- dispersal of seeds, fruits and spores, pollinationb) Soil (Edaphic) factors- soil factor i.e. factors which describe the conditions of the soil or substratum,- refer to notes of soil.c) Topographic factors- position of an area in relation to the surrounding country :i) altitude,ii) contour,iii) direction.B) Biotic factorsEffects1) Plant : source of food --- primary producer2) Interaction : refer to notes taught before3) Pollination and dispersal of seed and food by animals4) Protective adaptation :a) ____________ : protective coloration,b) ____________ : many animals resemble plants in shape e.g. stick insects or resembleother harmful animal species, therefore obtain benefits from thisresemblance.5) Man's effect on environment :- farming, pollution – important topic, discuss laterMethods of sampling on area : Study the distribution and abundance of organismsA) Transects 樣條Definition : a line cutting through an area, used to survey vegetation or fauna of the area. Types of transects1) Line transect 樣線:- linear survey of plants and animals through an area, change in level is not recorded.－select a typical stretch of areas of interest in the habitat,－laid a rope on ground, e.g. 10 meter (fixed at the 2 end),－check plants and animals touching the line every 0.5 – 1 meter,－record abundance and distribution of species touching the rope,－data graphed (histograms / kite diagrams / etc.) and analysed .2) Profile transects 剖面樣線:- a diagram shows the profile, i.e. change in level, along a given direction,- vegetation and animals are also indicated along it, show possible changes in vegetable type, - how to measure the level ?3) Belt transect 樣帶:- survey of a strip through an area, usually 2 parallel lines one metre apart,- usually record with quadrat.Presentation of data1)2)3)B) Quadrat樣方Definition : an square of known dimension, used to sample vegetation or animals, record the abundance and distribution of species recorded.The tool used : quadrat frame－random or along a transect (belt transect),－count the number of each species occurring in the quadrat / estimate the percentage coverage of each species in the quadrat,－for random sampling : repeat a number of times to get the average,－for systematic sampling : belt transect --- repeat along the transect,－Present the data (1)May be used to measure1) seasonal change2) zonation3) population numberPoint quadrat : a method by which fine pointed wires are lowered onto the vegetation inside the quadrat to measure relative abundance. e.g. frequency of plant AZonation 成帶現象- characteristic distribution of organisms into zones or strata (vertical zonation e.g. forest).Discussion :What are the limitations of using transect and quadrat ?Example of habitat --- Rocky shore岩岸General layout :Factors on rocky shore1) tidal flow,2) wave action,3) substratum 基層,4) sunlight (illumination),5) rainfall, humidity,6) wind,7) salinity (rock pool)Problems faced1)2)3)4)General adaptation on rocky shoreUpper shore Lower shore1) lung breathers _____________________2) complex excretory organs and excretion by diffusion and excrete ammoniaexcrete uric acids3 mobile, cryptic, thick shells sedimentary, non-cryptic, thinTypical distribution of flora and fauna。

生态英语知识点总结One of the central concepts in ecology is the idea of the ecosystem. An ecosystem is a community of organisms interacting with each other and with the non-living components of their environment, such as air, water, and soil. Ecosystems can vary greatly in size and complexity, ranging from small ponds or patches of forest to entire biomes such as deserts or tropical rainforests. Ecosystems are characterized by the flow of energy and the cycling of nutrients, and they are often interconnected in complex networks.Energy flows through ecosystems in the form of sunlight, which is captured by photosynthetic organisms such as plants and algae. These primary producers convert solar energy into chemical energy, which is then passed on to consumers such as herbivores, which eat the plants, and predators, which eat the herbivores. This flow of energy through the ecosystem forms a trophic pyramid, with energy decreasing as it moves up the food chain. At each trophic level, some energy is lost as heat, and not all of the energy consumed by an organism is converted into new biomass. This has important implications for the structure and dynamics of ecosystems.In addition to energy, ecosystems also require a constant input of nutrients to support the growth and reproduction of organisms. Nutrients such as carbon, nitrogen, and phosphorus are cycled through the ecosystem, moving through the soil, water, and air and being taken up by plants and other organisms. Human activities can disrupt these nutrient cycles, leading to problems such as nutrient pollution and eutrophication, which can have harmful effects on water quality and the health of ecosystems.The diversity of species in an ecosystem is another key aspect of its structure and function. Biodiversity is the variety of life forms in a given area, and it includes not only the number of different species present, but also the genetic diversity within each species and the variety of ecosystems in a region. Biodiversity is important for the resilience and stability of ecosystems, as it provides a greater range of responses to environmental change and a greater diversity of ecological functions.Human activities have had a profound impact on the Earth's ecosystems, and understanding the effects of these activities is a major focus of ecological research. Human population growth, agricultural expansion, urbanization, industrialization, and climate change are all major drivers of ecosystem change. These changes can lead to habitat loss and fragmentation, species extinction, pollution, and the degradation of ecosystem services such as water purification and pollination. Ecologists study these impacts and work to develop strategies for mitigating their effects and promoting sustainable use of natural resources. Conservation biology is a subfield of ecology that focuses on the preservation and restoration of biodiversity. Conservation biologists study the factors threatening species and ecosystems, and they develop and implement strategies for protecting and managing natural areas. These strategies can include creating protected areas, restoring degradedhabitats, reintroducing species to their native habitats, and working with local communities to promote sustainable resource use.In addition to the ecological principles that govern the structure and function of ecosystems, there are also principles that guide the design and management of human-dominated landscapes. For example, the concept of sustainable agriculture seeks to minimize the environmental impact of food production by using practices that conserve soil and water, reduce the use of synthetic inputs such as pesticides and fertilizers, and promote biodiversity. Similarly, urban ecology is a field that studies the interactions between humans and the natural environment in cities, and it seeks to develop strategies for creating more sustainable and resilient urban environments.Overall, ecology is a broad and interdisciplinary field that encompasses a wide range of topics and approaches. It is a science that is essential for understanding the complex interactions between living organisms and their environment and for addressing the major environmental challenges facing the world today. By studying ecological principles, researchers and policymakers can work together to develop solutions for conserving biodiversity, managing natural resources, and creating a more sustainable future for all living things.。

The Economy of Nature 第一章绪论生态学系统可以小如生物个体，大如生物圈生态学家从不同的透视角度研究自然植物、动物和微生物在生态学系统中起不同的作用栖息地定义生物在自然中的位置；生态位定义其功能地位一切生态学系统及其过程都有特征性的时间和空间尺度生态学系统服从物理学和生物学一般原理生态学家通过观察和实验研究自然界人类是生物圈中重要的组成部分人类对于自然界的影响已上升为生态学研究的焦点总结1、生态学是研究自然环境和生物彼此之间及生物与其周围之间关系的科学。

2、生物个体、种群、群落、生态系统和生物圈代表了生态结构和功能的组织层次。

它们形成了逐步复杂实体的等级结构。

3、生态学从几个不同角度研究自然，其焦点集中于生物与环境的相互作用于，从而产生生态系统和生物圈中能量与化学元素转化、单个种群的动态、生态群落花流水中种群的相互作用。

4、不同种类的生物在生态系统中起不同作用。

植物和藻类固定日光能；动物和原生动物消费生物形式的能量；真菌能进入土壤和死植物，所以在降解生物物质和更新生态系统的营养物上起重要作用。

细菌是生化专家，完成氮的生物同化和以硫化氢作能源等的转化，这两者都是生态系统功能的基本成分。

5、一个个体的栖息地就是它生活的地方。

栖息地要领强调了环境的结构。

一个个体的生态位是它能够耐受的条件范围和它能够采取的生活方式——即它在自然系统中的功能结构。

6、生态学过程和结构具有空间和时间尺度特征。

模式和过程的尺度，在单间和空间上一般是相关的。

7、生态学系统的多样性和复杂性从少数基本生态学原理上可以理解。

在这些原理中，生态学系统是物质实体，并在物理和化学元素限制的能量转达化中起作用。

同时，所以生态学系统与其周围环境进行物质和能量交换。

当输入和输出相平衡时，系统处于动态稳定状态。

8、所有生态学系统都服从进货性变化，它是种群中个体戚和生死差异的结果；个体表现了遗传决定的不同特征。

作为自然选择的结果，生物表现出对环境中相适合条件的结构和功能的适应性。