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Chapter1 Introduction to organizational behavior✓Organizational Behavior:The systematic study of the actions and attitudes that people exhibit within organizations✓Systematic Study of Determinants of Employee Performance:➢Actions or Behaviors：Productivity, Absenteeism, Turnover , Organizational citizenship➢Attitudes– Job Satisfaction: a. Possible link between satisfaction and productivityb.Satisfaction appears to be negatively related to absenteeism andproductivityc.Humanistic responsibility to provide employees with challenging,intrinsically rewarding, and satisfying job✓Organization: a. Consciously coordinated social unitb. Composed of two or more peoplec. Functions to achieve a common goal or set of goalsd. Formal roles define and shape the behavior of its members✓OB Encompasses Behavior in Diverse Organizations: Manufacturing:Service firms Schools Hospitals Churches Military units Charitable organizations Local, state, and federal government agencies✓Contributing Disciplines(Level of Analysis):➢Micro (individual): Psychology➢Macro (group processes and organization) : Sociology, Social Psychology, Anthropology, Political Science✓Toward an OB discipline P4 1.1✓Goals of Organizational Behavior: explanation, prediction, control✓Challenges and Opportunities: a.Increasing age of typical workerb.More women and minorities in the workplacec.Requirements to meet global competitiond.Severed loyalty bonds between employees and employers ✓What is Quality Management?➢Intense focus on customer→Outsiders -- purchasers of products and services→Insiders -- interact with and serve others in the organization➢Concern for continual improvement→Commitment to never be satisfied→“Very good” is not good enough→Quality can always be improved➢Improvement in quality of everything the organization does“Quality” applies not only to the final product, but to→How organization handles deliveries→How rapidly it responds to complaints→How politely the phones are answered➢Accurate measurement→Uses statistical techniques to measure every critical performance variable in operations➢Empowerment of employees→Involves people on the line in the improvement process→Teams are widely used as empowerment vehicles for finding and solving problems ✓ A Managerial Perspective：a. Improving People Skills b. Managing Work Force Diversityc. Responding to Globalizationd. Empowering Peoplee.Stimulating Innovation andChange f. Coping with “Temporariness” g. Helping Employee Balance Work-Life Conflicts h. Declining Employee Loyalty i. Improving Ethical Behavior✓Levels of OB Analysis: Individual Level Group Level Organization System Level Chapter2 Job Attitudes✓What the fundamental values of the organizational development can be found in the general manager’s approach to management? Respect, Support, Trust, Innovation ✓What contribution to the organization can be found in those values?A good work environment will be benefit to employees’ self-realization and theestablishment of team and learning organization.✓Attitude:Attitudes are evaluative statements or judgments concerning objects, people, or events. They reflect how we feel about something. When I say I like my job, I am expressing my attitude about work.✓Three components of Attitudes : Cognitive, Affective, Behavioral✓What are the Major Job Attitudes?➢Job Satisfaction: A positive feeling about the job resulting from an evaluation of its characteristics➢Job Involvement: Degree of psychological identification with the job where perceived performance is important to self-worth. High level of both job involvement andpsychological employment are positively related to organizational citizenship and jobperformance. High job involvement is also related to reduced absences and lowerresignation rates.➢Psychological Empowerment (PE): a. Belief in the degree of influence over the job, competence, job meaningfulness, and autonomy. b. Good leaders empower theiremployees by involving them in decisions, making them feel their work is important,and giving them discretion to do their own thing. c. Higher level of Job Involvement andPE are positively related to Organizational citizenship and job performance.✓other Major Job Attitudes:➢Organizational Commitment: Identifying with a particular organization and its goals and wishes to remain a member.✧The three forms of OC:Affective – emotional attachment to organization (e.g. pro-environmental firms)Continuance Commitment – economic value of staying with an org (e.g. high salary)Normative -moral or ethical obligations with employers (e.g. personal promise) There appears to be a positive relationship between organizational commitment andjob productivity.---has strong relation to performance, especially for new employees.---In general, affective commitment is most likely to relate to organizational outcomes such as performance and turnover.➢Perceived Organizational Support (POS)a.Degree to which employees believe the organization values their contributionand cares about their well-being.b.People perceive OS is higher when rewards are fair, employees are involved indecision-making, and supervisors are seen as supportive.c.High POS is related to higher OB outcomes (performance).➢Employee Engagementa. The degree of an individual’s involvement with, satisfaction with, and enthusiasm for the job.b. Engaged employees are passionate about their work and company.c. According to researches, they contribute high customer satisfaction, highprofits, and lower level turnover and accidents.✓Is there cognitive dissonance?--Your friends or relatives won’t disagree with you because of the close relation.--People do seek consistency among their attitudes and between their attitudes and their behavior. (E.g. I don’t marry her because love her.)✓The relationship between attitudes and behavior:a.Important attitudes reflect our fundamental values, self-interest, or identification withindividuals or groups we value. These attitudes tend to show a strong relationship to our behavior.b.The more you talk about your attitude on a subject, the more likely you are toremember it, and the more likely it to shape your behavior. (e.g. changing a job)c.Discrepancies between attitudes and behavior tend to occur when social pressures tobehave in certain ways hold exceptional power.d.The attitude-behavior relationship is likely to be much stronger if an attitude refers tosomething with which we have direct personal experience.✓the closer the match between attitude and behavior, the stronger the relationship Chapter3 Moods, Emotions and Organizational Behavior✓Why Were Emotions Excluded from OB Study?➢Myth of rationality – emotions were the antithesis of rationality and should not be seen in the workplace➢Belief that emotions of any kind are disruptive in the workplace✓Emotional Terminology:➢affect: A generic term that encompasses a broad range of feelings that people experience➢emotion: Intense feelings that are directed at someone or somethingShort termed and action-oriented.➢Mood: Feelings that tend to be less intense and longer-lasting than emotions and often lack a contextual stimulusP27 3.1✓The Basic Emotions:➢positive emotions→positive affect: The mood dimension consisting of positive emotions such as excitement, self-assurance, and cheerfulness at the high end with boredom,sluggishness, and tiredness at the low end.→negative affect: At zero input, when no stimulus is provided, most people experience a mildly positive mood. In fact, positive moods tend to be morecommon than negative ones.➢negative emotions➢negative affect: The mood dimension consisting of nervousness, stress, and anxiety at the high end with relaxation, tranquility, and poise at the low end.✓The Functions of Emotions:➢Emotions and Rationality: Emotions are critical to rational thought: they help in understanding the world around us.➢Evolutionary Psychology : Theory that emotions serve an evolutionary purpose: helps in survival of the gene pool. The theory is not universally accepted✓Sources of Emotions and Moods:➢Personality➢Day of the week and time of the day: More positive interactions will likely occur mid-day and later in the week➢Weather: no impact according to the research➢Stress: Increased stress worsens moods➢Social Activities: Physical, informal, and epicurean activities increase positive mood ➢Sleep: Lack of sleep increases negative emotions and impairs decision making➢Exercise: Mildly enhances positive mood➢Age: Older people experience negative emotions less frequently➢Gender: Women show greater emotional expression, experience emotions more intensely and display more frequent expressions of emotions. Could be due tosocialization✓Emotional Labor: An employee’s expression of organizationally desired emotions during interpersonal transactions at workEmotional dissonance is when an employee has to project one emotion while simultaneously feeling anotherFelt vs. Displayed Emotions:➢Felt Emotions: the individual’s actual emotions➢Displayed Emotions: the learned emotions that the organization requires workers to show and considers appropriate in a given job→Surface Acting is hiding one’s true emotions→Deep Acting is trying to change one’s feelings based on display rules ✓Emotional Intelligence:A person’s ability to:1)Be self-aware (to recognize his or her own emotions as experienced), 2)Detectemotions in others, and 3)Manage emotional cues and information.Moderately associated with high job performanceEmotional Intelligence on Trial➢The case for: a. Intuitive appeal – it makes sense b. EI predicts criteria that matter –positively correlated to high job performance c. Study suggests that EI isneurologically based➢The case against: a. EI is too vague a concept b. EI can’t be measured c. EI is so closely related to intelligence and personality that it is not unique when thosefactors are controlled✓OB Applications of Emotions and Moods➢Selection – Employers should consider EI a factor in hiring for jobs that demand a high degree of social interaction➢Decision Making – Positive emotions can increase problem-solving skills and help us understand and analyze new information➢Creativity – Positive moods and feedback may increase creativity✓More OB Applications of Emotions and Moods➢Motivation – Promoting positive moods may give a more motivated workforce➢Leadership – Emotions help convey messages more effectively➢Negotiation – Emotions may impair negotiator performance➢Customer Service – Customers “catch” emotions from employees, called emotional contagion✓Even More OB Applications of Emotions and Moods➢Job Attitudes – Emotions at work get carried home but rarely carry over to the next day ➢Deviant Workplace Behaviors – Those who feel negative emotions are more likely to engage in deviant behavior at work✓How Can Managers Influence Moods?➢Use humor to lighten the moment➢Give small tokens of appreciation➢Stay in a good mood themselves – lead by example➢Hire positive people✓Does the degree to which people experience emotions vary across cultures?Do people’s interpretations of emotions vary across cultures?Do the norms for the expressions of emotions differ across cultures?“YES” to all of the above!Chapter 5 Perception and Decision-making✓Perception：The process by which individuals organize and interpret their sensory impressions in order to give meaning to their environment✓Factors influencing perception：➢The perceiver：Attitudes，Motives，Interests，Experience，expectations➢The target：Novelty，Motion，Sound，Size，Background，proximity➢The Situation：Time，Work setting，Social setting✓Attribution Theory：trying to explain the ways in which we judge people differently, depending on the meaning we attribute to a given behavior.✓The three determining factors of attribution theory：➢Distinctiveness➢Consensus➢Consistency→Fundamental attribution error:1. When making judgments about the behavior of other people, we tend tounderestimate the influence of external factors and overestimate the influence ofinternal or personal factors2.Individuals and organizations tend to attribute their own successes to internal factors such as ability or effort, while putting the blame for failure on external factors such as bad luck or unproductive workers.3. Individuals whose intellectural and interpersonal abilieties are weakest are mostlikely to overestimate their performance and abilty.✓The Link Between Perception and Individual Decision making：Who makes decisions? What decisions to make?All the decisions are closed related to perceptions. (data collection and analysis)✓The Six Steps of Rational Decision-making model：➢Define the problem➢Identify the decision criterria➢Allocate weithgts to teh criteria➢Develop the alternatives➢Evaluate teh alternatives➢Select the best alternative➢Example:bicycle parking problem➢Bounded Rationality➢Intuitive decision making✓Common Biases and Erorrs in Decision Making：anchoring bias, confirmation bias, availabe bias, escalation of commitment, risk aversion, hindsight bias✓Organizatioal Constraints on Decision making: performance evaluation, reward systems, formal regulations, system-imposed time constraints, historical precdidents✓Three Ethical Decision Criteria:➢Utilitarianism（providing the greatest benefits for the greatest number功利主义，实用主义）➢Rights(respecting and protecting the basic rights of individuals,eg.right to privacy, free speech ,and due process)➢Justice(imposing and enforceing rules afaily and impartially to ensure justice or an equitalbe distribution of benefits and costs.) Comment on the three choices.✓Three-component Model of Creativity:➢Expertise(abilities, knowledge, proficiencies, and similar expertise )➢Creative thinking skills(personality ——creativity, the ability to use analogies, and the talent ot see the familiar in a different light)➢Intrinsic task motivation (interesting , involving , exciting, satisfying,persionally challengfing jobs, etc.)Chapter8 Groups✓Group: Two or more individuals, interacting and interdependent, who come together to achieve particular objectives. Groups can be either formal or informal, and further subclassified into command, task, interest, or friendship categories.✓Four Types of Groups:Command group, Task group, Interest group, Friendship group✓Why People Join Groups: (benefits)➢Security Reduce the insecurity of “standing alone”; feel stronger, fewer self-doubts, and more resistant to threats➢Status Inclusion in a group viewed by outsiders as important; provides recognition and status➢Self-esteem Provides feelings of self-worth to group members, in addition to conveying status to outsiders➢Affiliation Fulfills social needs. Enjoys regular interaction; can be primary source for fulfilling need for affiliation➢Power What cannot be achieved individually often becomes possible; power in numbers➢Goal achievement Some tasks require more than one person; need to pool talents, knowledge, or power to complete the job. In such instances, management may rely onthe use of a formal group✓Basic Group Concepts:➢Roles→Role research conclusions: a.People play multiple roles b.People learn roles from stimuli around them c.People can shift roles rapidly when the situation demandsd.People experience major role conflict between roles➢Norms: Acceptable standards of behavior within a group that are adopted and shared by the group’s members→The Hawthorne Studies→Conformity and the Asch Studies➢Cohesiveness: The degree to which members of the group are attracted to each other and motivated to stay in the group→Relationship of Cohesiveness to Productivity→Managers Can Encourage Cohesiveness: a.Make the group smaller b.Encourage agreement on group goals c.Increase the time spent together d.Increase thestatus and perceived difficulty of group membership→More Ways Managers Can Encourage Cohesiveness: a.Stimulate competition with other groups b.Give rewards to the group rather than members c.Physicallyisolate the group➢Size→How Size Effects a Group: a.Smaller groups are faster at completing tasks rge groups are consistently better at problem solving c.Social loafing - tendency toexpend less effort in a group than as an individual d.Increases in group size areinversely related to individual performance➢Composition: Diversity increases effectiveness due to the variety of viewpoints.Diversity promotes conflict, which stimulates creativity, which leads to improveddecision making. May take more time to work smoothly. May lead to turnover ➢Status: A prestige grading, position, or rank within the group. It may be formally imposed by the group, or informally acquired through characteristics such aseducation, age, gender, skill, or experience→Effects of High Status: a.Resist conformity or receive more freedom b.Do not need or care about social rewards c.Members must believe status hierarchy isequitable d.Inequities produce corrective behaviors and conflict✓Individual versus Group Decision Making:➢Individual: More efficient, Speed, No meetings, No discussion, Clear accountability, Consistent values➢Group: More effective, More information and knowledge, Diversity of views, Higher-quality decisions, Increased acceptance✓Symptoms of Group Think: a.Group members rationalize any resistance to their assumptionsb.Members pressure any doubters to support the alternative favored by the majorityc.Doubters keep silent about misgivings(doubts) and minimize their importanced.Groupinterprets members’ silence as a “yes” vote for the majorityVariables Influencing Group Think: Group’s cohesiveness, Leader’s behavior, Insulation from outsiders, Time pressures, Failure to follow methodical decision-making procedures✓GroupShift: A special case of groupthink. The decision of the group reflects the dominant decision-making norm that develops during the group discussion, whether shift is toward greater caution or more risk depends on the dominant prediscussion norm.✓Selecting the Best Decision-Making Technique:➢Brainstorming➢Nominal group technique➢Electronic meetingsChapter9 Teams✓Reasons for Team Popularity: a.Outperform on tasks requiring multiple skills, judgment, and experience b.Better utilization of employee talents c.More flexible and responsive to changing events d.Facilitate employee participation in operating decisions e.Effective in democratizing the organization and increasing employee motivation✓Work Group: A group who interacts primarily to share information and to make decisions to help one another perform within each member’s area of responsibility. Individuals work alone, not collectively, on a task. Performance is the summation of all of the group member’s individual contributions.✓Work Team:Generates positive synergy through coordinated effort. Their individual efforts result in a level of performance that is greater than the sum of those individual inputs.✓Comparing Work Groups and Work Teams P123 9.1✓Four Types of Teams P124 9.2➢Problem-Solving Teams: a.Share ideas or offer suggestions on how work processes and methods can be improved. b.Rarely given authority to unilaterally implement any oftheir suggested actions c.Typically composed of 5-12 hourly employees from thesame departmentExample: Quality Circles➢Self-Managed Work Teams: a.Collectively control pace of work b.Determine work assignments anize breaks d.Collectively choose inspection procedurese.Select their own members and evaluate each other’s performancef.Generallycomposed of 10-15 people➢Cross-Functional Teams: a.Members from diverse areas within and between organizations b.Exchange information c.Develop new ideas and solve problemsd.Coordinate complex projects f.Development is time-consuming due to complexity anddiversityExamples: Task Force and Committees➢Virtual Teams: Computer technology ties physically dispersed members together to achieve a common goal→Differentiating factors from other teams: Absence of para-verbal and non-verbal cues, Limited social context, Ability to overcome time and space constraints✓Creating Effective Teams:Effectiveness of teams is defined by:➢Objective measures of the team’s productivity➢Manager’s ratings of team performance➢Aggregate measures of member satisfactionA Team Effectiveness Model P126 9.3✓Turning Individuals into Team Players: To perform well as team members, individuals must be able to 1)Communicate openly and honestly 2)Confront differences and resolve conflicts 3)Sublimate personal goals for the good of the team✓The Challenge in Shaping Team Players:➢Greatest where... a.The national culture is highly individualistic b.Introduced into organizations that historically value c.individual achievement➢Less demanding... a.Where employees have strong collectivist values, such as Japan or Mexico b.In new organizations that use teams as their initial form for structuringwork✓Shaping Team Players:➢Selection: Ensure that candidates can fulfill their team roles in addition to having the technical skills required for the job➢Training: Provide workshops in problem-solving, communication, negotiation, conflict-management, coaching, and group-development skills➢Rewards: Rework reward systems to encourage cooperative efforts rather than competitive onesChapter 10 Communication✓Functions of Communication➢Control - both formal and informal➢Motivation - clarification and feedback➢Emotional expression - fulfillment of social needs➢Information - facilitating decision making✓The Communication ProcessSource, Encoding, Channel, decoding, Receiver✓Downward Communication：Assign goals，Provide job instructions，Inform employees of policies and procedures，Point out problems that need attention，Offer feedback about performance，Letters and email from leaders to members of the team✓Upward Communication：Provide feedback to higher-ups，Inform them of progress toward goals，Relay current problems，Keep managers aware of how employees feel，Ideas on how things can be improved✓Lateral Communication：Save time and facilitate coordination，Formally sanctioned or informally created，Enhance efficient and accurate transfer of information，Can create dysfunctional conflicts when formal vertical channels are breached✓Oral Communication：➢Advantage: Speed , Feedback➢Disadvantage: Potential for distorted message, Content at destination is different from the original✓Written Communication:➢Advantage: Provide a tangible and verifiable record, Can be stored for an indefinite period of time, Physically available for later reference, Well thought-out, logical, andclear➢Disadvantage: Time consuming, Lack of feedback, No guarantee how reader will interpret it✓Non-verbal Communication:➢Kinesics - Gestures, facial configurations, and other movements of the body➢Body movement -Body language adds to, and often complicates, verbal communication➢Intonations - Change the meaning of the message➢Facial expression -Characteristics that would never be communicated if you read a transcript of what is said➢Physical distance - Proper spacing is largely dependent cultural norms✓Formal Small-Group Networks P140 10.3✓Small-Group Networks and Effectiveness Criteria p140 10.4✓The Grapevine:Not controlled by management, Perceived as being more believable and reliable, Largely used to serve self-interest, Appear in response to situations: Important to us, Where there is ambiguity, Under conditions that arouse anxiety✓Computer-Aided Communication: Electronic mail (e-mail), Intranet and Extranet links, Videoconferencing✓Barriers to Effective Communication: Filtering, Selective Perception, Information Overload, Gender Styles, Emotions, Language✓ A Cultural Guide: Assume differences until similarity is proved, Emphasize description rather than interpretation or evaluation, Practice empathy, Treat your interpretation as a working hypothesis✓Improving Feedback Skills: 1. Focus on specific behaviors 2. Keep feedback impersonal 3.Keep feedback goal oriented 4. Make feedback well timed 5. Ensure understanding 6. Direct negative feedback toward behavior that is controllable by the recipient✓Improving Active Listening Skills: 1. Make eye contact 2. Exhibit affirmative head nods and appropriate facial expressions 3. Avoid distracting actions or gestures 4. Ask questions 5.Paraphrase 6. Avoid interrupting the speaker 7. Do not over talkChspter11 Leadership✓Leadership: Ability to influence a group toward the achievement of goals. The source of influence may be formal, provided by managerial rank in an organization. Non-sanctioned leadership(不具制裁力的领导) is the ability to influence that arises from outside of the formal structure of the organization.✓Trait Theories: Assumes that leaders are born, Characteristics that differentiate leaders from non-leaders, Personality traits in leaders that non-leaders do not possess, Characteristics of individuals who meet the definition of leader, Provides the basis of selecting the right person for leadership✓Traits Consistently Associated with Leadership:Drive and ambition, Desire to lead and influence others, Honesty and integrity, Self-confidence, Intelligence, In-depth technical knowledge✓Traits Alone Do Not Explain Leadership: Ignore situational factors. Leaders must take “the right actions”“The right actions” differ by situation✓Behavioral Theories: Assumes people can be trained to lead Researched the behaviors of specific leaders. Critical behavioral determinants of leadership. Specific behaviors identify leaders. Provides the basis of design for training programs✓Ohio State Studies:Sought to identify independent dimensions of leader behavior.Developed two categories of leadership behavior.:→Initiating structure - attempts to organize work, work relationships, and goals.→Consideration - concern for followers’ comfort, well-being, status, and satisfaction ✓University of Michigan Studies: Locate behavioral characteristics of leaders that appear related to measures of performance effectivenessTwo dimensions:→Employee-oriented - emphasize interpersonal relations→Production-oriented - emphasize the technical or task aspects of the job✓Limitations of Behavioral Theories:Did not identify consistent relationships between leadership behavior and group performance. Missing consideration of the situational factors that influence success and failure. Could not clarify situational factors✓Contingency Theories:➢Fiedler Leadership Model -Proper match of leader’s style of interacting with subordinates➢Path-Goal Model -Leader assists followers in attaining goals and ensures goals are compatible with overall objectives➢Leader-Participation Model - Leader behavior must adjust to reflect the task structure ✓Least-Preferred Co-Worker (LPC) Questionnaire: Individual’s basic leadership style is a key factor in leadership success. Assumed that individual leadership style is fixed,。
Chapter1 Introduction to organizational behavior✓Organizational Behavior:The systematic study of the actions and attitudes that people exhibit within organizations✓Systematic Study of Determinants of Employee Performance:➢Actions or Behaviors：Productivity, Absenteeism, Turnover , Organizational citizenship➢Attitudes– Job Satisfaction: a. Possible link between satisfaction and productivityb.Satisfaction appears to be negatively related to absenteeism andproductivityc.Humanistic responsibility to provide employees with challenging,intrinsically rewarding, and satisfying job✓Organization: a. Consciously coordinated social unitb. Composed of two or more peoplec. Functions to achieve a common goal or set of goalsd. Formal roles define and shape the behavior of its members✓OB Encompasses Behavior in Diverse Organizations: Manufacturing:Service firms Schools Hospitals Churches Military units Charitable organizations Local, state, and federal government agencies✓Contributing Disciplines(Level of Analysis):➢Micro (individual): Psychology➢Macro (group processes and organization) : Sociology, Social Psychology, Anthropology, Political Science✓Toward an OB discipline P4 1.1✓Goals of Organizational Behavior: explanation, prediction, control✓Challenges and Opportunities: a.Increasing age of typical workerb.More women and minorities in the workplacec.Requirements to meet global competitiond.Severed loyalty bonds between employees and employers ✓What is Quality Management?➢Intense focus on customer→Outsiders -- purchasers of products and services→Insiders -- interact with and serve others in the organization➢Concern for continual improvement→Commitment to never be satisfied→“Very good” is not good enough→Quality can always be improved➢Improvement in quality of everything the organization does“Quality” applies not only to the final product, but to→How organization handles deliveries→How rapidly it responds to complaints→How politely the phones are answered➢Accurate measurement→Uses statistical techniques to measure every critical performance variable in operations➢Empowerment of employees→Involves people on the line in the improvement process→Teams are widely used as empowerment vehicles for finding and solving problems ✓ A Managerial Perspective：a. Improving People Skills b. Managing Work Force Diversityc. Responding to Globalizationd. Empowering Peoplee.Stimulating Innovation andChange f. Coping with “Temporariness” g. Helping Employee Balance Work-Life Conflicts h. Declining Employee Loyalty i. Improving Ethical Behavior✓Levels of OB Analysis: Individual Level Group Level Organization System Level Chapter2 Job Attitudes✓What the fundamental values of the organizational development can be found in the general manager’s approach to management? Respect, Support, Trust, Innovation ✓What contribution to the organization can be found in those values?A good work environment will be benefit to employees’ self-realization and theestablishment of team and learning organization.✓Attitude:Attitudes are evaluative statements or judgments concerning objects, people, or events. They reflect how we feel about something. When I say I like my job, I am expressing my attitude about work.✓Three components of Attitudes : Cognitive, Affective, Behavioral✓What are the Major Job Attitudes?➢Job Satisfaction: A positive feeling about the job resulting from an evaluation of its characteristics➢Job Involvement: Degree of psychological identification with the job where perceived performance is important to self-worth. High level of both job involvement andpsychological employment are positively related to organizational citizenship and jobperformance. High job involvement is also related to reduced absences and lowerresignation rates.➢Psychological Empowerment (PE): a. Belief in the degree of influence over the job, competence, job meaningfulness, and autonomy. b. Good leaders empower theiremployees by involving them in decisions, making them feel their work is important,and giving them discretion to do their own thing. c. Higher level of Job Involvement andPE are positively related to Organizational citizenship and job performance.✓other Major Job Attitudes:➢Organizational Commitment: Identifying with a particular organization and its goals and wishes to remain a member.✧The three forms of OC:Affective – emotional attachment to organization (e.g. pro-environmental firms)Continuance Commitment – economic value of staying with an org (e.g. high salary)Normative -moral or ethical obligations with employers (e.g. personal promise) There appears to be a positive relationship between organizational commitment andjob productivity.---has strong relation to performance, especially for new employees.---In general, affective commitment is most likely to relate to organizational outcomes such as performance and turnover.➢Perceived Organizational Support (POS)a.Degree to which employees believe the organization values their contributionand cares about their well-being.b.People perceive OS is higher when rewards are fair, employees are involved indecision-making, and supervisors are seen as supportive.c.High POS is related to higher OB outcomes (performance).➢Employee Engagementa. The degree of an individual’s involvement with, satisfaction with, and enthusiasm for the job.b. Engaged employees are passionate about their work and company.c. According to researches, they contribute high customer satisfaction, highprofits, and lower level turnover and accidents.✓Is there cognitive dissonance?--Your friends or relatives won’t disagree with you because of the close relation.--People do seek consistency among their attitudes and between their attitudes and their behavior. (E.g. I don’t marry her because love her.)✓The relationship between attitudes and behavior:a.Important attitudes reflect our fundamental values, self-interest, or identification withindividuals or groups we value. These attitudes tend to show a strong relationship to our behavior.b.The more you talk about your attitude on a subject, the more likely you are toremember it, and the more likely it to shape your behavior. (e.g. changing a job)c.Discrepancies between attitudes and behavior tend to occur when social pressures tobehave in certain ways hold exceptional power.d.The attitude-behavior relationship is likely to be much stronger if an attitude refers tosomething with which we have direct personal experience.✓the closer the match between attitude and behavior, the stronger the relationship Chapter3 Moods, Emotions and Organizational Behavior✓Why Were Emotions Excluded from OB Study?➢Myth of rationality – emotions were the antithesis of rationality and should not be seen in the workplace➢Belief that emotions of any kind are disruptive in the workplace✓Emotional Terminology:➢affect: A generic term that encompasses a broad range of feelings that people experience➢emotion: Intense feelings that are directed at someone or somethingShort termed and action-oriented.➢Mood: Feelings that tend to be less intense and longer-lasting than emotions and often lack a contextual stimulusP27 3.1✓The Basic Emotions:➢positive emotions→positive affect: The mood dimension consisting of positive emotions such as excitement, self-assurance, and cheerfulness at the high end with boredom,sluggishness, and tiredness at the low end.→negative affect: At zero input, when no stimulus is provided, most people experience a mildly positive mood. In fact, positive moods tend to be morecommon than negative ones.➢negative emotions➢negative affect: The mood dimension consisting of nervousness, stress, and anxiety at the high end with relaxation, tranquility, and poise at the low end.✓The Functions of Emotions:➢Emotions and Rationality: Emotions are critical to rational thought: they help in understanding the world around us.➢Evolutionary Psychology : Theory that emotions serve an evolutionary purpose: helps in survival of the gene pool. The theory is not universally accepted✓Sources of Emotions and Moods:➢Personality➢Day of the week and time of the day: More positive interactions will likely occur mid-day and later in the week➢Weather: no impact according to the research➢Stress: Increased stress worsens moods➢Social Activities: Physical, informal, and epicurean activities increase positive mood ➢Sleep: Lack of sleep increases negative emotions and impairs decision making➢Exercise: Mildly enhances positive mood➢Age: Older people experience negative emotions less frequently➢Gender: Women show greater emotional expression, experience emotions more intensely and display more frequent expressions of emotions. Could be due tosocialization✓Emotional Labor: An employee’s expression of organizationally desired emotions during interpersonal transactions at workEmotional dissonance is when an employee has to project one emotion while simultaneously feeling anotherFelt vs. Displayed Emotions:➢Felt Emotions: the individual’s actual emotions➢Displayed Emotions: the learned emotions that the organization requires workers to show and considers appropriate in a given job→Surface Acting is hiding one’s true emotions→Deep Acting is trying to change one’s feelings based on display rules ✓Emotional Intelligence:A person’s ability to:1)Be self-aware (to recognize his or her own emotions as experienced), 2)Detectemotions in others, and 3)Manage emotional cues and information.Moderately associated with high job performanceEmotional Intelligence on Trial➢The case for: a. Intuitive appeal – it makes sense b. EI predicts criteria that matter –positively correlated to high job performance c. Study suggests that EI isneurologically based➢The case against: a. EI is too vague a concept b. EI can’t be measured c. EI is so closely related to intelligence and personality that it is not unique when thosefactors are controlled✓OB Applications of Emotions and Moods➢Selection – Employers should consider EI a factor in hiring for jobs that demand a high degree of social interaction➢Decision Making – Positive emotions can increase problem-solving skills and help us understand and analyze new information➢Creativity – Positive moods and feedback may increase creativity✓More OB Applications of Emotions and Moods➢Motivation – Promoting positive moods may give a more motivated workforce➢Leadership – Emotions help convey messages more effectively➢Negotiation – Emotions may impair negotiator performance➢Customer Service – Customers “catch” emotions from employees, called emotional contagion✓Even More OB Applications of Emotions and Moods➢Job Attitudes – Emotions at work get carried home but rarely carry over to the next day ➢Deviant Workplace Behaviors – Those who feel negative emotions are more likely to engage in deviant behavior at work✓How Can Managers Influence Moods?➢Use humor to lighten the moment➢Give small tokens of appreciation➢Stay in a good mood themselves – lead by example➢Hire positive people✓Does the degree to which people experience emotions vary across cultures?Do people’s interpretations of emotions vary across cultures?Do the norms for the expressions of emotions differ across cultures?“YES” to all of the above!Chapter 5 Perception and Decision-making✓Perception：The process by which individuals organize and interpret their sensory impressions in order to give meaning to their environment✓Factors influencing perception：➢The perceiver：Attitudes，Motives，Interests，Experience，expectations➢The target：Novelty，Motion，Sound，Size，Background，proximity➢The Situation：Time，Work setting，Social setting✓Attribution Theory：trying to explain the ways in which we judge people differently, depending on the meaning we attribute to a given behavior.✓The three determining factors of attribution theory：➢Distinctiveness➢Consensus➢Consistency→Fundamental attribution error:1. When making judgments about the behavior of other people, we tend tounderestimate the influence of external factors and overestimate the influence ofinternal or personal factors2.Individuals and organizations tend to attribute their own successes to internal factors such as ability or effort, while putting the blame for failure on external factors such as bad luck or unproductive workers.3. Individuals whose intellectural and interpersonal abilieties are weakest are mostlikely to overestimate their performance and abilty.✓The Link Between Perception and Individual Decision making：Who makes decisions? What decisions to make?All the decisions are closed related to perceptions. (data collection and analysis)✓The Six Steps of Rational Decision-making model：➢Define the problem➢Identify the decision criterria➢Allocate weithgts to teh criteria➢Develop the alternatives➢Evaluate teh alternatives➢Select the best alternative➢Example:bicycle parking problem➢Bounded Rationality➢Intuitive decision making✓Common Biases and Erorrs in Decision Making：anchoring bias, confirmation bias, availabe bias, escalation of commitment, risk aversion, hindsight bias✓Organizatioal Constraints on Decision making: performance evaluation, reward systems, formal regulations, system-imposed time constraints, historical precdidents✓Three Ethical Decision Criteria:➢Utilitarianism（providing the greatest benefits for the greatest number功利主义，实用主义）➢Rights(respecting and protecting the basic rights of individuals,eg.right to privacy, free speech ,and due process)➢Justice(imposing and enforceing rules afaily and impartially to ensure justice or an equitalbe distribution of benefits and costs.) Comment on the three choices.✓Three-component Model of Creativity:➢Expertise(abilities, knowledge, proficiencies, and similar expertise )➢Creative thinking skills(personality ——creativity, the ability to use analogies, and the talent ot see the familiar in a different light)➢Intrinsic task motivation (interesting , involving , exciting, satisfying,persionally challengfing jobs, etc.)Chapter8 Groups✓Group: Two or more individuals, interacting and interdependent, who come together to achieve particular objectives. Groups can be either formal or informal, and further subclassified into command, task, interest, or friendship categories.✓Four Types of Groups:Command group, Task group, Interest group, Friendship group✓Why People Join Groups: (benefits)➢Security Reduce the insecurity of “standing alone”; feel stronger, fewer self-doubts, and more resistant to threats➢Status Inclusion in a group viewed by outsiders as important; provides recognition and status➢Self-esteem Provides feelings of self-worth to group members, in addition to conveying status to outsiders➢Affiliation Fulfills social needs. Enjoys regular interaction; can be primary source for fulfilling need for affiliation➢Power What cannot be achieved individually often becomes possible; power in numbers➢Goal achievement Some tasks require more than one person; need to pool talents, knowledge, or power to complete the job. In such instances, management may rely onthe use of a formal group✓Basic Group Concepts:➢Roles→Role research conclusions: a.People play multiple roles b.People learn roles from stimuli around them c.People can shift roles rapidly when the situation demandsd.People experience major role conflict between roles➢Norms: Acceptable standards of behavior within a group that are adopted and shared by the group’s members→The Hawthorne Studies→Conformity and the Asch Studies➢Cohesiveness: The degree to which members of the group are attracted to each other and motivated to stay in the group→Relationship of Cohesiveness to Productivity→Managers Can Encourage Cohesiveness: a.Make the group smaller b.Encourage agreement on group goals c.Increase the time spent together d.Increase thestatus and perceived difficulty of group membership→More Ways Managers Can Encourage Cohesiveness: a.Stimulate competition with other groups b.Give rewards to the group rather than members c.Physicallyisolate the group➢Size→How Size Effects a Group: a.Smaller groups are faster at completing tasks rge groups are consistently better at problem solving c.Social loafing - tendency toexpend less effort in a group than as an individual d.Increases in group size areinversely related to individual performance➢Composition: Diversity increases effectiveness due to the variety of viewpoints.Diversity promotes conflict, which stimulates creativity, which leads to improveddecision making. May take more time to work smoothly. May lead to turnover ➢Status: A prestige grading, position, or rank within the group. It may be formally imposed by the group, or informally acquired through characteristics such aseducation, age, gender, skill, or experience→Effects of High Status: a.Resist conformity or receive more freedom b.Do not need or care about social rewards c.Members must believe status hierarchy isequitable d.Inequities produce corrective behaviors and conflict✓Individual versus Group Decision Making:➢Individual: More efficient, Speed, No meetings, No discussion, Clear accountability, Consistent values➢Group: More effective, More information and knowledge, Diversity of views, Higher-quality decisions, Increased acceptance✓Symptoms of Group Think: a.Group members rationalize any resistance to their assumptionsb.Members pressure any doubters to support the alternative favored by the majorityc.Doubters keep silent about misgivings(doubts) and minimize their importanced.Groupinterprets members’ silence as a “yes” vote for the majorityVariables Influencing Group Think: Group’s cohesiveness, Leader’s behavior, Insulation from outsiders, Time pressures, Failure to follow methodical decision-making procedures✓GroupShift: A special case of groupthink. The decision of the group reflects the dominant decision-making norm that develops during the group discussion, whether shift is toward greater caution or more risk depends on the dominant prediscussion norm.✓Selecting the Best Decision-Making Technique:➢Brainstorming➢Nominal group technique➢Electronic meetingsChapter9 Teams✓Reasons for Team Popularity: a.Outperform on tasks requiring multiple skills, judgment, and experience b.Better utilization of employee talents c.More flexible and responsive to changing events d.Facilitate employee participation in operating decisions e.Effective in democratizing the organization and increasing employee motivation✓Work Group: A group who interacts primarily to share information and to make decisions to help one another perform within each member’s area of responsibility. Individuals work alone, not collectively, on a task. Performance is the summation of all of the group member’s individual contributions.✓Work Team:Generates positive synergy through coordinated effort. Their individual efforts result in a level of performance that is greater than the sum of those individual inputs.✓Comparing Work Groups and Work Teams P123 9.1✓Four Types of Teams P124 9.2➢Problem-Solving Teams: a.Share ideas or offer suggestions on how work processes and methods can be improved. b.Rarely given authority to unilaterally implement any oftheir suggested actions c.Typically composed of 5-12 hourly employees from thesame departmentExample: Quality Circles➢Self-Managed Work Teams: a.Collectively control pace of work b.Determine work assignments anize breaks d.Collectively choose inspection procedurese.Select their own members and evaluate each other’s performancef.Generallycomposed of 10-15 people➢Cross-Functional Teams: a.Members from diverse areas within and between organizations b.Exchange information c.Develop new ideas and solve problemsd.Coordinate complex projects f.Development is time-consuming due to complexity anddiversityExamples: Task Force and Committees➢Virtual Teams: Computer technology ties physically dispersed members together to achieve a common goal→Differentiating factors from other teams: Absence of para-verbal and non-verbal cues, Limited social context, Ability to overcome time and space constraints✓Creating Effective Teams:Effectiveness of teams is defined by:➢Objective measures of the team’s productivity➢Manager’s ratings of team performance➢Aggregate measures of member satisfactionA Team Effectiveness Model P126 9.3✓Turning Individuals into Team Players: To perform well as team members, individuals must be able to 1)Communicate openly and honestly 2)Confront differences and resolve conflicts 3)Sublimate personal goals for the good of the team✓The Challenge in Shaping Team Players:➢Greatest where... a.The national culture is highly individualistic b.Introduced into organizations that historically value c.individual achievement➢Less demanding... a.Where employees have strong collectivist values, such as Japan or Mexico b.In new organizations that use teams as their initial form for structuringwork✓Shaping Team Players:➢Selection: Ensure that candidates can fulfill their team roles in addition to having the technical skills required for the job➢Training: Provide workshops in problem-solving, communication, negotiation, conflict-management, coaching, and group-development skills➢Rewards: Rework reward systems to encourage cooperative efforts rather than competitive onesChapter 10 Communication✓Functions of Communication➢Control - both formal and informal➢Motivation - clarification and feedback➢Emotional expression - fulfillment of social needs➢Information - facilitating decision making✓The Communication ProcessSource, Encoding, Channel, decoding, Receiver✓Downward Communication：Assign goals，Provide job instructions，Inform employees of policies and procedures，Point out problems that need attention，Offer feedback about performance，Letters and email from leaders to members of the team✓Upward Communication：Provide feedback to higher-ups，Inform them of progress toward goals，Relay current problems，Keep managers aware of how employees feel，Ideas on how things can be improved✓Lateral Communication：Save time and facilitate coordination，Formally sanctioned or informally created，Enhance efficient and accurate transfer of information，Can create dysfunctional conflicts when formal vertical channels are breached✓Oral Communication：➢Advantage: Speed , Feedback➢Disadvantage: Potential for distorted message, Content at destination is different from the original✓Written Communication:➢Advantage: Provide a tangible and verifiable record, Can be stored for an indefinite period of time, Physically available for later reference, Well thought-out, logical, andclear➢Disadvantage: Time consuming, Lack of feedback, No guarantee how reader will interpret it✓Non-verbal Communication:➢Kinesics - Gestures, facial configurations, and other movements of the body➢Body movement -Body language adds to, and often complicates, verbal communication➢Intonations - Change the meaning of the message➢Facial expression -Characteristics that would never be communicated if you read a transcript of what is said➢Physical distance - Proper spacing is largely dependent cultural norms✓Formal Small-Group Networks P140 10.3✓Small-Group Networks and Effectiveness Criteria p140 10.4✓The Grapevine:Not controlled by management, Perceived as being more believable and reliable, Largely used to serve self-interest, Appear in response to situations: Important to us, Where there is ambiguity, Under conditions that arouse anxiety✓Computer-Aided Communication: Electronic mail (e-mail), Intranet and Extranet links, Videoconferencing✓Barriers to Effective Communication: Filtering, Selective Perception, Information Overload, Gender Styles, Emotions, Language✓ A Cultural Guide: Assume differences until similarity is proved, Emphasize description rather than interpretation or evaluation, Practice empathy, Treat your interpretation as a working hypothesis✓Improving Feedback Skills: 1. Focus on specific behaviors 2. Keep feedback impersonal 3.Keep feedback goal oriented 4. Make feedback well timed 5. Ensure understanding 6. Direct negative feedback toward behavior that is controllable by the recipient✓Improving Active Listening Skills: 1. Make eye contact 2. Exhibit affirmative head nods and appropriate facial expressions 3. Avoid distracting actions or gestures 4. Ask questions 5.Paraphrase 6. Avoid interrupting the speaker 7. Do not over talkChspter11 Leadership✓Leadership: Ability to influence a group toward the achievement of goals. The source of influence may be formal, provided by managerial rank in an organization. Non-sanctioned leadership(不具制裁力的领导) is the ability to influence that arises from outside of the formal structure of the organization.✓Trait Theories: Assumes that leaders are born, Characteristics that differentiate leaders from non-leaders, Personality traits in leaders that non-leaders do not possess, Characteristics of individuals who meet the definition of leader, Provides the basis of selecting the right person for leadership✓Traits Consistently Associated with Leadership:Drive and ambition, Desire to lead and influence others, Honesty and integrity, Self-confidence, Intelligence, In-depth technical knowledge✓Traits Alone Do Not Explain Leadership: Ignore situational factors. Leaders must take “the right actions”“The right actions” differ by situation✓Behavioral Theories: Assumes people can be trained to lead Researched the behaviors of specific leaders. Critical behavioral determinants of leadership. Specific behaviors identify leaders. Provides the basis of design for training programs✓Ohio State Studies:Sought to identify independent dimensions of leader behavior.Developed two categories of leadership behavior.:→Initiating structure - attempts to organize work, work relationships, and goals.→Consideration - concern for followers’ comfort, well-being, status, and satisfaction ✓University of Michigan Studies: Locate behavioral characteristics of leaders that appear related to measures of performance effectivenessTwo dimensions:→Employee-oriented - emphasize interpersonal relations→Production-oriented - emphasize the technical or task aspects of the job✓Limitations of Behavioral Theories:Did not identify consistent relationships between leadership behavior and group performance. Missing consideration of the situational factors that influence success and failure. Could not clarify situational factors✓Contingency Theories:➢Fiedler Leadership Model -Proper match of leader’s style of interacting with subordinates➢Path-Goal Model -Leader assists followers in attaining goals and ensures goals are compatible with overall objectives➢Leader-Participation Model - Leader behavior must adjust to reflect the task structure ✓Least-Preferred Co-Worker (LPC) Questionnaire: Individual’s basic leadership style is a key factor in leadership success. Assumed that individual leadership style is fixed,。
Organizational Behavior (OB) Organizational Behavior(OB)Yu Guangtao(于广涛)PhD. Associate Prof.PhD Associate ProfMobile: 86-136********E-mail: yugtsd@E-mail:yugtsd@163com•Do you feel happy wheng yattending your class? •Why do you attend class?•In Dreams Begin the Responsibilities (W. B. Yeats))•叶芝:“责任始于梦想"Course Objectives:Course Objectives:•The main objectives of OB are to help the students:Th i bj i f OB h l h d–To develop an understanding of individual characteristics,processes and their effects in his/her career;d th i ff t i hi/h–To develop an understanding of interpersonal, group, andorganizational dynamics in contemporary organizations;organizational dynamics in contemporary organizations;–To develop knowledge about key theoretical foundations inthe academic field of organizational behavior and tothe academic field of organizational behavior and toexperience how these apply in the workplace;–To increase awareness of the contextual factors in theworkplace, to learn how those factors can affect workplacebehavior, and to enhance the ability to effectively apply with or create contextual factors to get success.t t t l f t t t主要参考教材•《组织行为学:构建未来的工作—生活空间》.组织行为学构建未来的作生活空间,于广涛编著.北京:清华大学出版社,2009•《组织行为学》.罗宾斯、贾奇著.李原、孙健敏译.北京:中国人民大学出版社，2008年中国人民大学出版社Text books Text booksGrades:•Participation: 15%•Individual assignment: 15% Individual assignment:15%•Team task: 20%•Final exam: 50% •100%Lesson1 Introduction to OB1Introduction to OB •Learning Objectivesg–What is Organizational Behavior–What Managers Do in Organizations–What Organization Behavior & Theory Studies What Organization Behavior&Theory Studies –Why to Learn Organization Behavior1What Is Organizational Behavior 1 What Is Organizational Behavior •Organizationy g g p –A structured social system consisting of groupsand individuals working together to meet someagreed-upon objectives.g p jOrganization s Attributes Organization’s Attributes•Consciously coordinated socialunit•Composed of two or morep ppeople•Functions on a continuous basisto achieve a common goalto achieve a common goal•Characterized by formal rolesthat define the behavior of itsthat define the behavior of itsmembersBehavior•The manner of conducting oneself. The p g p response of an individual or group to it’s environment.•Goal setting theory assumesGoal setting theory assumesbehavior results from a person’sconscious goals and intentions,i.e., goal-directed behaviori l di t d b h iOrganizational Behavior(OB) Organizational Behavior (OB)•The study of individuals and groups within an organizational context, and the study of internal processes and practices as they affect individuals and groups•Big O VS Big B2 What Managers Do in Organizations 2What Managers Do in Organizations •Management–The process of coordinating work activities so that p f gthey are completed efficiently and effectively withand through other people.g p p–Coordination –core of management–Communication –key of managementCommunication key of management •Managers–Someone who achieve goals through other people.Efficiency &Effectiveness in Management Efficiency & Effectiveness in ManagementR G l Efficiency (Means)Effectiveness (Ends)ResourceUsageGoal Attainment Low Waste High AttainmentManagement Strives For:Low resource waste (high efficiency)High goal attainment (high effectiveness)ManagersManagers•First-line managers–Managers at the lowest level of the organization who manage the work of nonmanagerial employees who involved with the production or creation of the organization’s products.•Middle managersiddl–Managers between the first-line level and the top level of the organization who manage the work of first-line managers.i i h h k f fi li•Top managers–Managers at or near the top level of the organization who are responsible for making organization-wide decisions andestablishing goals and plans that affect entire organization.t bli hi l d l th t ff t ti i tiManagement Functions Management FunctionsTop managers Top managersPlann Orga Lead Cont Middle managers ning anizing ding trolling First-line managers g g First-line managersFigure: Allocation of functions by time (Mahoney et al., 1965)Management Skills Management SkillsTop managers Techn Huma Conc Top managersnical sk an skil eptual Middle managers killslls skills First-line managers First-line managersFigure: Skills of an effective administrator(Katz,1974)Management Roles (Mintzberg 1973)Management Roles (Mintzberg,1973)i l i i i i d lManagerial activities Associated roles •Interpersonal roles: •Figurehead parising from formal authority and status and supporting the information and decision activities •Liaison •Leader decision activities•Informational roles:involving receiving,collecting,and •Monitor Disseminator involving receiving, collecting, anddisseminating information•Disseminator •Spokesman D i i l lE t /h •Decisional roles:involving making significant decisions •Entrepreneur/changer •Disturbance handlerResource allocator•Resource allocator •Negotiator29%11%44% Figure: Allocation of activities by time (Luthans & Rosenkrantz,1988) Figure:Allocation of activities by time(Luthans&Rosenkrantz1988)3What Organization Behavior &Theory Study 3 What Organization Behavior & Theory StudyIndividual LevelCharacteristics Process Characteristics, ProcessResultsGroup LevelCharacteristics,Process Leadership Trait, Behavior, & Context Efficiency Effecti eness Characteristics, ProcessEffectivenessOrganization System LevelCharacteristics,Process Characteristics, ProcessAn Open Systems View of OB An Open Systems View of OBVariables•A variable is a symbol to which we assign numerals or values.–Independent variables–Dependent variablesDependent variables–Moderating variables–Extraneous variablesg–Intervening variablesSome Dependent Variables Some Dependent Variables •Productivity •Absenteeism•Turnover•Job Satisfaction•Job Performance–Task performanceTask performance–Contextual performance4 Why to Learn Organization Behavior 4Why to Learn Organization Behavior •History of Inspiration•Olympic Application:An ExampleOlympic Application: An Example•Goals of Organizational Behavior & Theory4.1 History of Inspiration41History of Inspiration •The Early Days: Scientific Management •Milestone:Hawthorne Studies Milestone: Hawthorne Studies •Classical Organizational Theory •Lewin and his Center for Group Dynamics •The World War ⅡThe World War•Late Twentieth Century: Organizational Behavior as a Social ScienceOB Today: The Infotech Age•OB Today:The Infotech AgeThe Early Days:Scientific Management The Early Days: Scientific Management •Scientific Managementy pp g–An early approach to management andorganizational behavior emphasizing theimportance of designing jobs as effificiently asp g g j ypossible.•RepresentativesRepresentatives–Frederick Winslow Taylor (1856-1915)–Henry L. Gantt (1861-1919)p(;)–Gilbreth couples (1868-1924; 1878-1972)Milestone: Hawthorne StudiesMilestone:Hawthorne Studies •Background–During the early part of the century, Americang y p y,businesses were swept by Scientific Management,and companies routinely studied the effects of thep yphysical environment on their workers.The Hawthorne studies were carried out by the–The Hawthorne studies were carried out by theWestern Electric company at their Hawthorne plant in the 1920s.in the1920'sIllumination Studies(19241927) Illumination Studies (1924~1927)•Light intensity was altered to examine its effectp yon worker productivity•When the light of experimental group became brighter, the productivity of both thebrighter the productivity of both the experimental and control group increased. •When the light of experimental group became more dark, the productivity of both themore dark,the productivity of both the experimental and control group increased.George Elton Mayo(18801949) George Elton Mayo (1880-1949)•George Elton Mayo, anAustralian psychologist,sociologist andorganization theorist.•Professor of HarvardBusiness School (1926 -1947)The Human Problems of an•The Human Problems of anIndustrialized Civilization(933).(1933).ConclusionsConclusions•The workers appeared to try harder when theg g,j y lights went bright or dim, just because they knew that they were in an experiment.Relay Assembly Experiments(19271932) Relay Assembly Experiments(1927~1932) Experimenter had two women choose four other •Experimenter had two women choose four other workers to form the test group.–Changing the pay rulesCh i h l–Giving two 5-minute breaks–Providing food during the breaksShortening the day by 30 minutes–Shortening the day by30minutes–Changing usually increased productivity, even ifchanging back to the original condition.changing back to the original conditionConclusionsConclusions•The real reasons for the productivity increaseh l f h d i i iwere–Choosing one's own coworkers,–Working as a group,–Being treated as special (as evidenced by working in a Being treated as special(as e idenced b orking in a separate room), andHaving a sympathetic supervisor–Having a sympathetic supervisor•"the six individuals became a team and the team gave itself wholeheartedly and spontaneously to gave itself wholeheartedly and spontaneously tocooperation in the experiment."Interviewing Program(19291930) Interviewing Program(1929~1930)•At the beginning, the participants were asked p y p p y about supervisory practices and employee morale with directed questions. But the workers kept silent.workers kept silent•Mayo changed the interviewing program to a nondirective approach, then the length of theg interviews and the information gathered increased.ResultsResults•There appeared to be a cathartic effect. After a worker complained, follow-up interviews revealed that the complaint was gone. The workers felt better even though no change in conditions.•Two levels of complaints:f p y–Manifest –what the employee said–Latent–the psychological content of the complaint Upward communication in an organization creates a •Upward communication in an organization creates a positive attitude in the work environment.Bank Wiring Room Experiments(19311932) Bank Wiring Room Experiments (1931~1932)•The research purpose was to find out howp y g p payment incentives would affect group productivity.•14 men wiremen, soldermen and inspectors who 14men wiremen soldermen and inspectors who assembled terminal banks used for telephone exchanges.Even though they were paid by the amount they •Even though they were paid by the amount they did each day, they did not raise outputs.ConclusionsConclusions•There were informal groups or "cliques" withinh i f l li i hi the formal groups, and informal rules of behavior as well as mechanisms to enforce them:–Do not work too fast. (“Rate buster”)–Do not work too slowly. (“Rate chiseler”)Do not squeal on a member of your group.–Do not“squeal”on a member of your group.–Do not act officious or be socially distant.Using sarcasm binging ridicule to bring pressure to –Using sarcasm, binging, ridicule to bring pressure tobear on people who deviate from norms.Conclusions(Cont’) Conclusions (Cont)•They were afraid that if some startedp g,p y g producing more, the company would change the base rate.•Just as management tries to control worker Just as management tries to control worker behavior by adjusting piece rates, hours of work, etc., the workers try to adjustg gmanagement toward goals that are not necessarily economically rational.Hawthorne Effect:Research Bias Hawthorne Effect: Research BiasA form of reactivity whereby subjects improve anaspect of their behavior being experimentallyaspect of their behavior being experimentallymeasured simply in response to the fact that they are g,p y pbeing studied,not in response to any particularexperimental manipulation.Human Relations MovementHuman Relations Movement •Individual workers cannot be treated in isolation, butI di id l k t b t t d i i l ti b t must be seen as members of a group.•Monetary incentives and good working condition are Monetary incentives and good working condition are less important to the individual than the need to belong to a group.g p•Informal or unofficial groups formed at work have a strong influence on the behavior of those workers in a group.•Managers must be aware of these 'social needs' and cater for them to ensure that employees collaborate with cater for them to ensure that employees collaborate with the official organization rather than work against it.Classical Organizational Theory Classical Organizational Theory •Classical Organizational Theory–An early approach to the study of management that y pp y gfocused on the most efficient way of structuringorganizations.g•Representatives–Henri Fayol (1841-1925)H i F l(18411925)•Division of labor–Max Weber (1864-1920)•BureaucracyLewin and The Center for Group Dynamics Lewin and The Center for Group Dynamics•Kurt Zadek Lewin(1890~1947), a German-American psychologist, oneof the modern pioneers ofsocial, organizational, andapplied psychology,recognized as the "founder ofsocial psychology" and wasone of the first researchers tostudy group dynamics andorganizational development.Lewin and The Center for Group Dynamics Lewin and The Center for Group Dynamics•Field Theory–B=f(P,E)=f(LSp)•Group Dynamicsg p y y–Lewin coined the term group dynamics to describe the waygroups and individuals act and react to changingcircumstances.•Action Research–Lewin first coined the term as “a comparative research on the conditions and effects of various forms of social action andresearch leading to social action”.19391945The World War 1939~1945, The World War ⅡLate Twentieth Century:Organizational Behavior as a Social SciencePsychology seeks to measure,explain, d h Sociology studies people in relation to their and change behaviorp pfellow human beingsS i l h l Social psychology focuses on the influence of people influence of people on one anotherA th l i th Political science is theAnthropology is the study of societies to learn about human Political science is the study of thebehavior of individuals to learn about human beings and their activitiesand groups within a political environmentOB Today: The Infotech AgeOB Today:The Infotech Age •Infotech has changedf h h h d–The way people work;–The way managers manage;y p p;–The way people communicate;–The way organizations operate;•Globalization;Diversity;Boundlessness;and ChangingGlobalization; Diversity; Boundlessness; and ChangingSocial/ Cultural Environmenty p p–The way people live.•BUT, PEOPLE STILL ARE HUMAN BEING!–Positive organizational scholarshipPositive organizational scholarshipPositive organizational scholarship Positive organizational scholarship •Positive organizational scholarshipp–A broad framework that seeks to explain behaviorsin and of organizations. It focuses explicitly on thep p,positive states and processes that arise from, andresult in, life-giving dynamics, optimal functioning, or enhanced capabilities or strengths.p gSayings•Whatever exists at all, exist in some amount. （Thorndike,1918）•Anything that exists in amount, can be measured. （McCall,1939）McCall1939•If you can't measure it, You can't manage it. (Peter F. Drucker,1954)•My business philosophy is to make everyone feelhis/her own contributions, such contributions visible, tangible, but also countable. (Jack Welch,2001)gInsert Figure 1.1 here。
