菜单翻译理论论文

1. IntroductionThe study of menu translation as an academic field is a relatively new area in China as well as in the West. Published researches of this field are countable. This thesis attempts to employ the two most widely-used translation tendencies of foreignization and domestication as well as literal translation and free translation in analyzing the English translation of Chinese menus. This approach of cultural analysis happens to cater for the fashion of cultural Studies. As an introduction, this chapter presents background of present research, research objectives and the methodology employed. Also, an outline of the structure of the whole thesis is reported.1.1 Research BackgroundChina is a country which has a long history and boasts a variety of cuisines with distinct features. Chinese cuisine is regarded as a great wonder of collection of cooking skills in foreign people‟s eyes. Westerners are often attracted to the looks, forms and designs of Chinese food besides their delicious aroma and taste. While the sight of Chinese food brings pleasure, the names of dishes also capture close attention of foreign people. When people from different cultural background enjoy Chinese food, they are often curious and eager to know the exact meaning of the name of certain dish. They are also interested in its origin. Since the name of a dish is the first impression given to a dining person when he or she decides to order a dish, it is important to convey accurate information to the customer. A precise and informative translation of a dish name carries a sound message, activates interest and enlivens appetite.As the title of the thesis suggests, the current research intends to discuss foreignization and domestication employed in Chinese menu translation. Based on the exchange of food and cuisine between China and the foreign countries, and confronted with the formidable and towering task of Chinese menu translation, this thesis aims to employ a variety of translation methods and classifications to clarify and address these problems and to answer the urgentsocial needs, and to discuss and to examine the features and implications of Chinese menus by virtue of translation as a tool of bridging language and cultural differences under a unified and standardized translation norm.1.2Research ObjectivesIn recent years, the ever-increasing importance of the exchange of food and cuisine culture between China and the West has been evident. The cooking world is so diverse and captivating that merits a thick brush of description. For China, its rich cuisine culture has continued to be exported overseas, arousing worldwide acclaimed applause to cement a lasting reputation. To bridge different cultures, the menu translation, as a significant and indispensable part to a fine dish, plays an important role and faces a high demand raised by the profound and complex nature of Chinese and foreign menus and culinary terms. It is no easy job to name the dishes and it requires painstaking and strenuous intellectual efforts.1.3MethodologyThe method of this research is based on a lot of examples are given during the discussions of translation of Chinese menus, especially those from 4-star and 5-star hotels as they are more prestigious and influential, which will give affluent evidence for the author's analysis. All these efforts are expected to increase people's awareness of the cultural connotation and information hidden in dish names and find out effective approachesto rendering Chinese menus, which will be helpful for the intercultural communication.1.4Outline of the ThesisThis thesis is composed of six partsPart One introduces the background of research, research objectives and an overview ofthe whole thesis.Part Two provides a comprehensive literature review of the translation theories that related to Chinese menu translation, mainly literal translation, free translation, foreignization and domestication. It clarifies the basic concepts that are related to the current research and the relevant studies on Chinese menu translation are summarized.Part Three focuses on the translation of Chinese menu, including the definition, standards and problems in existing Chinese menu translation. Then the causes are explored to arouse the question of translatability of Chinese menu.Part four centers on characteristics of Chinese cuisine and dish names and translation principles as well. It can be divided into five parts, including features of Chinese cuisine, rich sources of Chinese cuisine, characteristics of Chinese dish name, translation as inter-cultural communication and translation principles.Part five concentrates on the application of foreignization and domestication in Chinese menu translation, in which the concrete approaches are suggested in details.Part six offers a conclusion. In this chapter the author makes a summary of the whole thesis. Furthermore, the author discusses the implications and the limitations of the present study, and also develops the suggestions for further study in this field.2. Characteristics of Chinese Cuisine and Dish Names2.1 Features of Chinese CuisineChinese cuisine, rich and colorful, has, as its main features diversified color, aromatic flavor, and excellent taste. With these three characteristics, Chinese cuisine is not only tasty but also a work of art for people to appreciate. To make real Chinese food, none of the three characteristics一color, aroma and delicious taste should be excluded.Food with diversified color can usually greatly arouse people's appetite. For many years, Chinese food preparation has paid attention to aesthetic appearance. To have a bright, pleased and harmonious color is one of the main principles when cooking Chinese food. To achieve this, add two or three ingredients with different colors are added as decoration to complement the main ingredient. Thus, it is not only the taste of Chinese cuisine that makes you amazed but also its aesthetic value.Chinese people attach great importance to the aroma of the dish. Usually aniseed, Chinese prickly ash seeds, cinnamon and other spices are added to help dispel the ingredients' particular smells, such as foul, fishy and mutton smells. Also some other flavors like shallot, ginger, garlic or chili, cooking wine and sesame oil are added to make the food fragrant in flavor.Regarded as the soul of the Chinese dish, taste can be divided into five classes- sweet, sour, bitter, hot and salty. Seasoning such as soy sauce, sugar, vinegar and salt in proper amount and in different sequences, contribute to the taste of the dish. In the vast land of China, there are eating habits of 'South-Sweet, North-Salty, East-Hot and West-Sour' according to the different tastes of the people. Those in southern China like to add more sugar when cooking than others. Jiangsu Cuisine one of th e Chinese …Eight Cuisines‟ is representative of …South-Sweet‟. Shandong Cuisine feature more salt and people living in Hunan, Hubei, Jiangxi, Guizho, Sichuan like chili best. Sour flavor is favored by Shanxi, Fujian, Guangxi people and the northeasterners.2.2 Rich Sources of Chinese CuisineChinese cuisine has a number of different genres, but the most influential and typical known by the public are the …Eight Cuisines‟. These are as follows: Shandong Cuisine, Sichuan Cuisine, Guangdong Cuisine, Fujian Cuisine, Jiangsu Cuisine, Zhejiang Cuisine, Hunan Cuisine, and Anhui Cuisine. The essential factors that establish the form of a genre are complex and include history, cooking features, geography, climate, resources and life styles. Cuisines from different regions are so distinctive that sometimes despite the fact that two areas are geographical neighbors their styles are completely alien.2.2.1 Shandong CuisineThis is the local flavor of Jinan City and Jiaodong peninsula derived from the use of shallots and garlic. Both restaurant chefs and those in families are expert in cooking seafood, soups, meat and offal. The recipes are those that once delighted the royal court and were served to the emperor.2.2.2 Guangdong CuisineGuangdong Cuisine takes fine and rare ingredients and is cooked with polished skills and in a dainty style. It emphasizes a flavor which is clear but not light, refreshing but not common, tender but not crude. In summer and autumn it pursues clarity and in winter and spring, a little more substance. The sauteed dishes always rely upon exquisite presentat ion involving cutting and carving skills.2.2.3 Sichuan CuisineThis combines the cuisines from Chengdu and Chongqing. From as early as the Qing Dynasty (1644一1911), books had systematically recorded a total of 38 cooking methods like to scald, wrap, bake, mix, stew, and adhere, etc. it features pungent seasonings which were famed as …Three Peppers‟ (Chinese prickl y ash, pepper and hot pepper), …three ar oma‟(s hallot, ginger, and garlic), …Seven Tastes‟(sweet, sour, tingling, spicy, bitter, piquant, and salty), and …eight flavors‟ (fish-flavored, sour with spice, pepper-tingling, odd flavor, tingling with spice, red spicy oily, ginger sauce, and home cooking).2.2.4 Hunan CuisineHunan cuisine lays a stress on the use of oil, dense color, and techniques that produce crispness, softness and tenderness as well as the savory flavors and spices .Stewed fins, fried fresh cabbage with chestnuts, Dong Anzi chicken, immortal chicken with five elements, are off the highest reputation. Chairman Mao, together with other leaders praised the Hunan cuisine in 1958.2.2.5 Jiangsu CuisineJiangsu Cuisine developed from the local recipes of Yangzhou, Suzhou and Nanjing. Its main cooking techniques are braising and stewing, thereby enhancing the original flavor and sauce. The elegant color, novel sculpts, with salt and sweet taste will soothe your stomach. The Jiangsu cuisine has several branches, including Shanghai cuisine, Nanjing cuisine is known for its duck recipes, Suxi cuisine with flowery hue, etc.2.2.6 Zhejiang CuisineAs Zhejiang cuisine consists of hundreds of small delicacies from its main cities, it takesin Hangzhou‟s fineness and diversification, Ningbo's softnes s and originality, and Shaoxing‟s pastoral interests. Hangzhou, once the capital of the Southern Song Dynasty (1127一1279), it is customary to endow cuisine with dainty place-names. The chief techniques of cooking lie in the methods used such as frying, quick-fry, stir-fry, braising, and steaming thus rendering the dishes both salubrious and savory.2.2.7 Fujian CuisineFujian cuisine has four distinctive features, that is, fine cutting techniques, alternative soups, unique seasonings, and exquisite cooking. Chefs can always cut the thin jellyfish into three pieces and into very thin thread. And thanks to the abundant resources of marine products, the soup of this cuisine genre has its freshness and keeps its own savor with ease. The seasonings add sweet and sour flavors to the dishes. To add to its appeal the food is served in or on elegant bowls or plates.2.2.8 Anhui CuisineIt is mainly composed of local flavors of Huizhou and other areas along theYangtze River and the Huai River. Among the dishes on the Ahhui cuisine menu, you will find less fried or quick-fried dishes than those that are braised. People here are nclined to add ham as seasoning and sugar candy to enrich the freshness and are quite accomplished in the art of cooking.3. Translation of Chinese MenuIn this part, the author will introduce the definition and standards of menu translation.3.1 Definition of Menu TranslationTo closely discuss and examine the topic of menu translation, the definition of such translation must be made clear. Menu translation can be defined through derivation of the definition of translation in general. By reference of Catford, J.C., menu translation maybe defined as follows: The replacement of textual material (hereby referred to as dish names) in one language i.e. Source Language (SL) by equivalent textual material in another language i.e. Target Language (TL). And the author also tends to give his own summarized and pithier version of the definition menu translation: Menu translation is the process of inter-lingual transformation semantic equivalence in the specific area of menu and terms in culinary culture3.2 Standards of Menu TranslationTo achieve accurate menu translation from Chinese to English, the most important thing is to have certain overriding guiding principles or standards in this regard. As far as the author is concerned, the foremost standard is faithfulness in meaning, which means the meaning of translated dish names in TL shall keep a high fidelity with the original name in SL. Needless to say, this rule is the fundamental one to ensure accuracy which is the basic criterion of translation as a whole. Secondly, elegance Is style shall also be considered. This standard is mainly concerned with readability of TL which requires the translated version to be as authentic and idiomatic in TL as possible. This rule is also very important as all the qualities of a dish name, including meaning, style and even the sound when it is pronounced in certain language will affect a customer's feeling about and impression on certain dish. Right renditioncan produce positive association in the mind of customers, call their attention, arouse their interest, and encourage and convinced them to take the food, thus transforming desire into action. While a shoddy translation for even a dainty food can only dampen people's ardor and stave off their appetite.4. Application of Foreignization and Domestication in ChineseMenu TranslationFrom the above analysis we can conclude that menu translation needs following several principles and no one specific method of translation is universally applicable. With an in-depth study of the English translation of many dish and food names, several specific translation principles and rules will be raised and elaborated to discuss the aspects and to present a complete and multi-dimensioned picture of the ways and approaches of Chinese menu translation.4.1 Application of ForeignizationF. Schleienmacher stated (qtd by A. Lefevere, 2004) that a translator has only two ways open to him to bring both his author and his reader truly together: "Either he leaves the author in peace, as much as possible, and moves the reader toward him. Or he leaves the reader in peace as much as possible, and moves the author toward him” What he referred to was later called. "foreignization" and "domestication" by L. Venuti (Venuti, 2004). So in the translation of Chinese menus, what we can do is either to follow the original as much as possible or to make changes in the original to adapt to the target text. Firstly, let's take a look at the examples of following the original as much as possible.4.1.1 Literal translationAs to the English translation of Chinese dishes, there are chiefly two types, one being literal translation, and the other free translation. Translators choose the literal translation method instead of free translation method not only because they prefer literal translation to the free one, but due to deep-seated cultural reasons as well.Generally speaking, Chinese culture is very much different from Western culture, in its ways of life, values (including ethical criteria, ideology, religion, and relevant terms of address and relations of kinship), ways of thinking, and writing. This does not mean, however, that they are totally different. Human beings do, in fact, have a lot in common. The cultures of Chinese language and English language can, therefore,understand each other, in such a way that the literary image and expressive nature of Chinese language needn't be given up in translation. For example, Chinese cuisine is noted for its multitude of cooking methods, such common cooking methods as stewing(煲[bao],炖[dun]), boiling(煮[zhu]), frying(煎[jian]simering炖[dun]偎[wei]), braising(烧[shoo], 炖[dun], 炯[men]), baking(烘[hong],焙[pei]) and steaming(蒸[zheng]), roasting(烤[kao])，sauteing (炒[chao]) are quite familiar to the foreign guests.Moreover, most materials and flavorings used in cooking are also known to both Chinese and people from English-speaking countries. Actually, a majority of the names of Chinese dishes are fact-telling which actually describe ingredients, cooking methods and characteristics of the dishes. While some of the names comprise all three of the above-mentioned factors, some only incorporate one or two. In these cases, literal translation is acceptable.盐水虾[yan shui xid] Boiled Shrimp with Salt软炸里脊[ruan zha li ji]Soft-Fried Pork Fillet清蒸甲鱼[qing zheng jia yu]Steamed Turtle烤乳猪[kao ru zhu] Roast Suckling Pig香滑炒蛇背[xiang hua chao she bei] Sauteed Sliced SnakeIn the above mentioned dish names, "boiled" "soft-fried" "steamed" "roast" “sauteed” are all cooking methods and “shrimp”, “pork fillet”, “turtle”, “sucking pig” and “snake” are all ingredients. In translating such kinds of menus, the form of “Cooking method(s)+Major ingredient(s)” can be adopted.笋尖炯肉[sun jian men rou] Simmered Meat with Bamboo Shoots香菇扒鸭[xidng gu pa ji] Braised Duck with Mushrooms粉蒸排骨[fen zheng pai gu]Steamed Spareribs Coated with Rice Powder番茄炒蛋[fan qie chao dan]Fried Scrambled Eggs with Tomato葱爆肉[cong bao rou] Sauteed Sliced Pork with Onion ShredSimmered, braised, steamed, fried, sauteed are all cooking methods, meat, duck, spareribs, eggs and pork are major ingredients and bamboo shoots, mushrooms, rice powder, tomato and onion shred are minor ingredient. The form of “Cooking Method(s) +Major ingredient(s) with minor ingredient(s)” can be used in translating such Chinese menus.红烧全鱼[hong shao quan yu] Braised Fish in Brown Sauce蚝油鸡球[hao you ji qiu] Chicken Balls with Oyster Sauce酒糟泡蛋[jiu zao pao dan] Sweetened Poached Egg in Rice Wine Residue蜜汁火方[mi zhi huo fang] Stewed Ham with Lotus Seeds in Honey Sauce豉椒生蚝[chi jiao sheng hao] Sauteed Fresh Oyster with Pepper and Black BeanSauce白汁石斑鱼[bai zhi shi ban yu] Sliced Garoupa Cutlet with Cream Sauce This kind of Chinese dish names are similar to the previous mentioned one, but there are condiments or relishes in these dishes, such as brown sauce, oyster sauce, rice wine residue, honey sauce, pepper and black bean sauce and cream sauce. So in rendering such names,' we may follow the form of “Cooking method(s)+Maj or ingredient(s)+(Other ingredient(s)) with/in Condiments or Relishes”.菠萝鸭片[bo luo ya pian]Sliced Duck with Pineapple锅巴海参[quo ba hai shen] Crisp Rice with Sea Cucumber火腿鸡片[huo tui ji pian] Sliced Chicken with Ham蟹粉鱼唇[xie fen yu chun] Shark's Lip with Crabmeat鲜蘑肉片[xian mo rou pian] Fresh Mushroom and Sliced PorkIt is obvious that the cooking methods of the dishes are not mentioned. And in translating them, we can just render the ingredients.4.1.2 Literal Translation with AnnotationCultural differences result in understanding problems in every field including cuisine ofcourse. When complete literal translation is hard for target language viewers to appreciate, a note is needed then to make this transcultural communication successfully achieved Sometimes, though, there are differences between Chinese and Western cultures.In these cases, understanding can be achieved through explanations or addition of related words. In China, there are some dishes which enjoy very strong cultural allusions or background. Westerners, however, know little or nothing about these allusions. Under such circumstances, literal translation still works, but relevant explanations or addition of related words become necessary.For instance, “叫花鸡”[jiao hua ji]is a well-known dish in China, and we can translate it literally into “Beggar's Chicken". Necessary explanation in this case mustbe followed, otherwise foreigners will be confused: "Beggar's Chicken": There's a legendary story connected to it. Long, long ago there was a beggar. One day he stole a chicken and was pursued by the owner. He was almost caught when he suddenly hit upon a good idea. He smeared the chicken all over with clay which he found nearby and threw it into the ire he had built to cook it. After a long while, the beggar removed the mud-coated chicken from the fire. When he cracked open the clay he found, to his astonishment, that the clay together with the feather had formed a hard shell in which the chicken had been baked into a delicious dish with wonderful flavor. That night he had a very enjoyable meal. That's why this dish has such name.Of course; this kind of explanation can only be employed when the situation allows. Nowadays, people pay much attention to the designs of the menu which leave little space for English translation. The above mentioned explanation is obviously too long to be used in the menu; the English translation must be concise comprehensive. Undoubtedly, many cultural differences exist between Chinese English language. Several types of differences follow:4.1.2.1 Literal Translation with People’s NameChina enjoys a long and profound cuisine culture. Among the colorful dishes, some draw their names from people, especially great historical figures. These noted people invent somedishes and also have their favorite dishes, and, as time goes by, people like to name these dishes after them. These people are widely known in China, but almost unknown in non-Chinese cultures. Words must therefore be added to explain these names for the purpose of better understanding. Examples are as follows:东坡肉[dong p6 rou] Poet Dong Po's Braised Pork毛氏红烧肉[mao shi hung shoo rou] Chairman Mao's Favorite Stewed PorkwithSoy Sauce左宗鸡[zuo zong ji] General Tso's Favorite Chicken“Dong Po”, a historical figure in China, is a famous poet in Song Dynasty, which is very familiar to Chinese readers but unfamiliar to English readers. It is therefore necessary to add up the explanation “poet” so as to make sure the English readers can understand what it stands for. So it is with the other two dish names.4.1.2.2 Literal Translation with Name of PlaceAs for dishes with local flavor, they usually feature regional names. Chinese people can understand the special flavor through the dish's place name. For foreign people, however, sheer literal translation is very difficult to understand. In this case, literal translation plus explanation will work well. Two different ways are often adopted in translating -such menus with local places highlighted. For instance:北京烤鸭〔bei jing kao ji]Beijing Roast Duck蒙古烤肉[meng g6 kao rou]Mongolian Barbecue西湖醋鱼[xi hu cu yu] West lake Sweet and Sour Fish松江妒鱼[song jidng 1u yu] Songjiang River Perch扬州炒饭[yang zhou ehao fan] Yangzhou Fried RiceIn such dish names, the names of places are put in front, which forms a rendering pattern of “place name+cooking method(s)+major ingredient(s)”潮州卤水鸭[chao zhou 1u shui ya] Braised Goose, Chaozhou Style山城辣子鸡[shan cheng la zi ji], Chongqing Style Fried Spring Chicken Dices inRed Pepper镇江肴肉[zhen jidng yd'o rou] Salt-Preserved Pork Slices, Zhenjiang Style杭州煨鸡[hang zhdu wei ji] Baked Chicken, Hangzhou Style东江酿豆腐[dong jidng niang dou fu]Bean Curd Stuffed with Minced Pork,Dongjiang StyleIn order to emphasize the local flavor of the dishes, we may translate the ingredients, etc. literally and add local names+style behind. That is, “cooking method(s)+major ingredient(s), local name+style”.All these ten dishes are very typical local dishes, which belong to the eight Chinese cuisines. However, this kind of translation is far from satisfactory for westerners who know little about Chinese cuisine culture. In order to help the foreign people have a better understanding of Chinese dishes, more information needs to be given which have been mentioned in Chapter Four. For example: Beijing food is heavy and spicy. Sichuan food is characterized by a strong spicy hot flavor. Guangdong food is light.4.1.2. Literal Translation with MedicineDishes with medical or tonic effects are a kind of traditional food therapy dating back to ancient China. Due to their good nutrition, therapeutic; and healthy efficacy, they are popular among a wide range of people. As a result, rendering good and accurate translation of this kind of dish is a very significant and important job. Such dishes with medical or tonic effects are best rendered by brief factual translation+ notes, that is, literal translation with notes.The difficulty of translating these dish names lies in the fact that a huge majority of herbs in Chinese traditional medicine have no corresponding English names except fo tremella(银耳[yin er]), Ginseng(人参[ren shen]), Chrysanthemum(菊花[ju hua]) and a few others. If translated directly into their respective terms in Latin such as Angelica sinenisis for(当归[dang gui]) is, Gatrodia elata for(天麻[tian ma])，it is believed that most customers will not be able to comprehend them, let alone know their nutritional and tonic effects. Thereforetranslation of this kind should be simplified, except for familiar and well-understood ones. Most of them can be just translated as herbs, with the tonic and therapeutic effects in a few words supplemented after the dish name.构祀银耳[you qi yin er]Tremella Soup with Chinese Wolfberry Seeds冰糖燕窝[bing tang yan wo] Steamed Edible Birds Nest with Rock Sugar银杏鸡丁[yin xing ji ding]Sauteed Diced Chicken with Ginkgoes天麻炖山鸡[tian ma dun shan ji]Stewed Pheasant with Herbs杜仲腰花[du zhong yao hua] Fried Pig Kidney with HerbsTremella, bird nest and ginkgo are all well-known great tonic and therapeutic food to people from home and abroad, so they can be translated into English directly while Eucommia ulmoides Oliver(杜仲[du zhong]) and Gatrodia elata(天麻[tian ma]), the traditional Chinese medicines are unfamiliar to most western people. In such cases, they are just rendered into herbs instead of their real Latin names.4.1.3 Literal Translation with Explanatory PhraseOwing to the uniqueness of every culture, for those Chinese menus that have certain cultural connotations to them, it would be hard to use literal translation or literal translation plus a note to make the titles properly understood by the TL viewers. So, as to the dishes closely related to Chinese tradition, believe allusion or legend, there is no other choice then for the translators to add the explanatory phrase in the translation process. Under this kind of circumstances, notions typical of foreign culture are not given; instead, the names appear with typical Chinese images or main ideas would be analyzed.全家福[quan jia fu]Happiness to the Whole Family: Stewed assorted pork, mixed with sea cucumber, squid, chicken, duck, fish ball, shrimp, black mushrooms and fungus etc.老少平安[lao shao ping an]The Whole Family is Well: Steamed bean curd with minced fish龙凤配[long feng pei] Dragon&Phoenix: Two separate dishes characterize this distinctive plate. On one side, lobster meat in Sichuan chili sauce, which is veryinviting; on the other, a special house chicken, which never fails in delighting taste buds.佛跳墙[fo tiao qiang]The Buddha Jumped the Wall for Luring by Its Smell: Assorted meat and vegetables cooked in embers过桥米线[guo qiao mi xian]Crossing-the-Bridge Rice Noodle: A dish created by a very caring and attentive wife who had to cross a bridge everyday to deliver food to her husband.As have been mentioned above, Chinese people like to embody their wish for happiness as well as unity, etc. in the dish names. And also, the allusion or legends are contained in the dish names. In this situation, we can translate their denotations according to the Chinese to keep the national cultural features, and then offer some explanations about their connotations.4.1.4 Zero Translation or Zero Translation with NotesZero translation is not only a translation strategy for overcoming the unbridgeable differences between languages, but a means of safeguarding the general validity of translatability as the theoretical cornerstone of translation as well. In Chinese menu translation, zero translation corresponds to transliteration. This method is closely related with the translatability of Chinese dishes. As explained, zero translation can convey the source culture more accurately; of course the use of this method should be built on the basis of comprehension, otherwise it will lead to the failure of communication. In Chinese menu translation, particularly in the translation of Chinese food names, there are really some things, though not so many, unique to Chinese language and culture. It is very much difficult or even impossible for us t translate these elements accurately into another language. Also more and more oreigners have come to understand these elements via cultural exchange. As a result, the zero translation method can.be used on a case-to-case basis. This is not only a way to solve the problem of translatability but also a method to export Chinese culture abroad. Some of these zero translations have even been absorbed into certain English dictionaries, as have been mentioned.。