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语言学整理

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名1、Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication.语言是用于人类交际的任意的声音符号系统。

2、Linguistics Definition: The scientific and systematic study of language.3、Phonetics is defined as the study of the phonic medium of language; it is concerned with all the sounds that occur in the world’s languages.4、IPA国际音标: a standardized and internationally accepted phonetic system used to transcribe speech sounds devised by the International Phonetic Association in 1888 and underwent several revisions after then, the basic principle of which is to use one letter selected from one major European language to represent one speech sound.5、Morphemes: the most important unit of language that carries information about meaning or function.Design features of language:1) Arbitrariness:2) Productivity生产力:3) Duality二元性:4) Displacement移位性:5) Cultural transmission:6) Interchangeability:填空1、Scope of Linguistic Study ：1) Phonetics 语音学2）Phonology音系学3）Morphology 形态学4）Syntax 句法学5）Semantics语义学6）Pragamatics 语用学2、Some Important Distinctions in Linguistics（见课本）（简答、论述、填空）3、Classification of phonetics：Articulatory phonetics发音语言学：studies the sounds from the speaker’s point of view, i.e., how a speaker uses his speech organs to articulate the sounds。

Auditory phonetics（听觉语言学）：looks at the sounds from the hearer’s point of view, i.e., how the sounds are perceived by the hearer。

Acoustic phonetics（声学语言学）：tudies the way sounds travel by looking at the sound waves, the physical means by which sounds are transmitted through the air from one person to another。

4、Organs of Speech：The articulatory apparatus of a human being are contained in three important areas: the pharyngeal cavity (the throat),咽腔the oral cavity (the mouth)口腔and the nasal cavity (the nose). 鼻腔5、Broad transcription: The transcription of speech sounds which uses ordinary symbols (letter-symbols only).Narrow transcription:The transcription of speech sounds using more specific symbols (letter-symbols together with diacritics).6、Linguistics define the word as the smallest free form found in language.1、a phone(音素) is a phonetic unit or segment音段. The speech sounds we hear and produce during linguistic communication are all phones. But a phone does not necessarily distinguish meaning; some do, some don't. （When we hear the words pit, spit, tip, feel and leaf are produced, the phones we have heard are *ph+, *p=+, *s+, *t+, *f+, *i:+, *I+, *l+ and *ł+ ）2、a phoneme音位is a phonological unit; it is a unit that is of distinctive value. It is an abstract unit. It is not any particular sound, but rather it is represented or realized by a certain phone in a certain phonetic context. （e.g./p/ in peak and speak is respectively represented by [ph] (aspirated) and [p=] (unaspirated)./l/ in lead and battle is respectively represented by [l]Conventionally, a phoneme is usually put in slashes / / and phones are put in square brackets [ ].）3、Allophones:音位变体the different phones which can represent a phoneme in different phonetic environments are called the allophones of that phoneme. （e. g.: [ph] (aspirated) and [p=] (unaspirated) are the allophones of the same phoneme /p/; [th] (aspirated) and [t=] (unaspirated) are the allophones of the same phoneme /t/; *l+ (clear) and *ł+ (dark) are the allophones of the same phoneme /l/ ）4、Phonemic contrast (音位对立) and Complementary distribution (互补分布)It can be easily observed that phonetic similar sounds might be related in two ways.If they are two distinctive phonemes, they are said to form a phonemic contrast.（e. g:/p/ and /b/ in [pit] and [bit], [rəup] and [rəub]If they are allophones of the same phoneme, they do not distinguish meaning, but complement each other in distribution, i.e., they occur in different phonetic environments.e. g:The two phones *l+ and *ł+ (the allophones) of the same phoneme /l/ are said to be in complementary distribution.）5、Minimal pair（最小对立体）and Minimal set (最小组合/最小序列)When two different forms are identical in every way except for one sound segment which occurs in the same place in the string, the two sound combinations are said to form a minimal pair. （e. g: pill and bill; pill and till; till and kill; kill and dill; dill and gill; etc..In this way , we can conclude that /p/, /b/, /t/, /d/ and /k/ are phonemes in English.And then, all these sound combinations together constitute a minimal set.e. g: pill, bill, till, kill, dill, and gill constitute a minimal set. ）6、Assimilation rule（同化规则）The assimilation rule assimilates one sound to another by “copying” a feature of a sequential phoneme, thus making the two phones similar.（e. g: The prefix in- in inexpensive is pronounced as [in], but in the words like illiterate and illegal it is pronounced as [il]; and in the words impossible, import it is pronounced as [im]; and in the words irregular and irresistible it is pronounced as [ir]. It is said the pronunciation of the proceeding sound [n] is assimilated by the following sound in the sounds sequence and takes the features of the sound that follows as [l] (liquid), [m] (bilabial) and [r] (liquid).）7、简答Supra-segmental features --- stress, tone, intonation（超切分特征：重音，音/调，语调）So far we have been dealing with the phonemes -- sound segments that distinguish meaning. But distinctive features can also be found running over a sequence of two or more phonemic segments.The phonemic features that occur above the level of the segments, which can distinguish meaning, are called supra-segmental features.These are the phonological properties of such units as the syllable(音节), the word, and the sentence. The main supra-segmental features include stress, intonation, and tone.Stress is generally defined as syllable prominence. In other words, a syllable that is more prominent than others in a word or phrase is said to be stressed. Depending on the context in which stress is considered, there are two kinds of stress: word stress and sentence stress. The location of stress in English distinguishes meaning.Tone refers to pith variations. In some languages, the same sequence of segments may have different meanings if uttered at different relative pitches. Putonghua (Standard Chinese ) is themost widely studied tone language.Intonation refers to the pitch differences that extend over phonetic units larger than the syllables, by means of which syllables are grouped into phrases, and phrases into sentences; and sentences into four major categories according to their different functions. English is a typical intonation language which has four major tunes:8、Immediate constituent analysisThe structural approach is most closely associated with American structuralism from the 1920s to the late 1950s. The technique frequently used in the analysis of the structure of sentences was immediate constituent analysis (IC analysis), which is a method of analyzing sentences into their component parts.不是翻译：结构主义语言学家意识到的另一件事就是句子并不仅仅是个线性（linear）结构，由一个一个前后相接的单词组成；它们也有一个层级（hierarchical）结构，由一层一层的词组构成。

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语言学纲要整理资料

语言学纲要整理资料

语言：语言是一种特殊的社会现象，是人类最重要的交际工具和思维的工具。

是音义结合的词汇和语法构成的符号系统，注意，文字不是语言。

语言符号：语言符号是由声音形式和意义内容构成，语言符号是音与义相结合的统一体，是说的和听的历史比较语言学：对不同语言或同一语言的不同发展阶段做比较分析，构拟语言的原始基础形式。

语流音变：语流音变是音位和音位组合时发生的语音变化。

这种变化是由于受相邻的音位的影响或说话时的快慢、高低、强弱等因素的影响造成的。

汉语的轻声、变调，都是，如“西瓜”中的“瓜”念轻声，“展览”中的“览”念阳平。

常见的语流音变现象主要有同化、异化（如汉语变调）、弱化（如轻声音节）、脱落（豆腐）等。

音素：音素是语音的最小单位，它是人类语言从音质角度划分出来的最小语音单位。

音位：是具语言或方言中有区别意义作用的最小语音结构单位，如送气和不送气的分别。

区别特征：具有区别音位的作用的发音特征叫区别特征，不同的音位正是通过区别特征来实现其区别意义的功能。

语言联盟：也称“语言的区域分类"是指一片地理区域内的不同语言不仅在词汇上相互有大量的借贷，而且在语音、语法系统的结构格局、结构规划方面也十分相似，但各语言仍有相当数量的核心词根彼此不同。

系统感染：是指处于同一地区的若干语言在语音、语法系统的结构格局、结构规则方面逐渐趋同，但仍然保持了各自的语言本质，有相当数量继承与自己语言祖语的核心词根。

亲属语言：从同一种语言中分化出来的几种独立语言，彼此有同源关系。

例如英语、德语来自日尔曼语，法语、意大利语来自拉丁语，就是亲属语言。

谱系分类：就是根据语言的亲属关系对语言所作的分类。

谱系分类分出的最大的语言类别是语系，语系下面是语族，语族下面再分语支。

例如汉语属于汉藏语系，英语、法语属于印欧语系。

屈折语：屈折语以词形变化作为语法关系的主要手段，以印欧语系为代表，如俄语、英语、法语等。

黏着语：黏着语也有丰富的词形变化，通过词本身形式的变化来表示各种语法关系。

语言学术语整理

语言学术语整理

语言学常用术语整理1、传统语法：传统语法是指代表前语言学时期语言研究的特征、特别是18和19世纪欧洲学校语法特征的一系列的看法、程序和规定的语法。

后来被结构主义语言学取代，现代中学教学所用的语法都是传统语法。

传统语法的内容：①把语法分为形态学（词法）和造句法（句法）两大部分，以词法为主，详细讲解各类词在句子中的形态变化和语法作用。

句法往往比较简单，主要为词法服务。

②建立了形态学，研究语法形态和语法意义的对应关系。

③建立了句法成分，主语、谓语、为主要成分，宾语、补语是次要成分，定语、状语是附加成分。

传统语法的特点：①它是规范性的语法，由语法学家订立一些条文，规定人们应该怎么说，不应该怎么说，不顾语言事实。

②它重视书面语，比较少或干脆不考虑口语。

③以拉丁语为楷模，它研究语法照搬拉丁语法框架。

④语言分析中重视意义，忽视形式。

⑤忽视语言结构层次。

贡献：虽然传统语法有许多缺点，但它作为语言学史上的第一个语法学派奠定了语法学基础，对普及语法知识起到了巨大的作用；虽然现在语法学派林立，但名词、动词、形容词、语法形式、语法意义、语法手段、主语、宾语等语法范畴在各学派的体系中仍然使用，所以说传统语法对语法学具有开创作用。

2、结构主义语法：结构主义语法是在对传统语法评判的基础上建立起来的，创始人是瑞士语言学家索绪尔，经典著作是《普通语言学教程》，提出了一整套语言学理论。

后来发展成三个分支学派：布拉格学派、哥本哈根学派和美国描写语言学派。

其中以美国描写语言学派的影响最大，代表人物是布龙菲尔德，集大成者是哈里斯。

结构主义语法的基本主张：①语法只能是描写语言，即说明人们怎样说一种语言，而不能像传统语法那样规定人们该怎么说。

②语法必须从形式出发描写语言，而不是像传统语法那样从意义出发来探讨语言。

提出根据分布划分词类。

③强调语言的内部层次，提出用“直接成分分析法”对句法结构进行分析。

④语言单位切分的方法：替代法、分布、转换法、对比分析法。

语言学复习资料答案整理

语言学复习资料答案整理

一、名词解释1.词语的替换：词语的替换是指词语所指的事物现象本身依然存在，只是用新的词语取代了旧的词语。

如由于汉语语汇发展的双音化，“目”、“颈”、“耳”、“鼻”等词被“眼睛”、“脖子”、“耳朵”、“鼻子”等词替换了。

2.义素:义素是构成义项的语义成分，是从一组相关的词语中抽象出来的区别性语义特征，又叫语义成分、语义特征、语义标示、语义原子等。

如“男人”这个义项可以分析为[男性、成年、人]，其中[男性]、[成年]、[人]就是三个义素（方括号[]是义素的标记），这三个义素组合起来，构成“男人”这个义项。

同时，义素是一种没有特定语音形式的抽象的意义单位，如“男人”的义素是[成年]，就与“男人”的语音形式无关。

3.语义指向：语义指向是句子中词语之间的语义关系，包括连续成分和非连续成分之间的语义关系。

如，小王扭伤了腰。

“腰”与“小王”、“扭”、“伤”都有语义关系。

“腰”与“小王”有领属关系，即是“小王的腰”，“腰”与“扭”、“伤”都有施事——动作关系，即“腰扭了”、“腰伤了”。

4.语法范畴:语法范畴有广义和狭义之分。

广义语法范畴是各种语法形式表示的语法意义的概括，从语法形式上看，包括所有显性语法形式和隐形语法形式；从语法意义上看，包括所有类型的语法意义，如结构范畴（主谓结构、动宾结构等结构范畴）、功能范畴（名词、动词等词类范畴）、情态范畴（陈述、疑问等语气范畴）。

狭义语法范畴是由词的变化表示的语法意义的概括，又称形态范畴。

词的形态变化是用附加词缀、内部曲折、重叠等方式构成同一个词的不同语法变化，简称词形变化。

5.表述：表述是指由句子表示的语义单位，也叫句义。

一个句子表示的一种意义就是一个表述。

有些句子可以表示几种不同的意义，每一种意义就是一个表述。

如“小李借了他五块钱”，这个句子有两种意思：一是“小李向他借了五块钱”，二是“小李借给他五块钱”，所以这个句子有两个不同的表述。

6.形态范畴：狭义语法范畴是由词的变化表示的语法意义的概括，又称形态范畴。

语言学整理

语言学整理

名词解释1.Chapter 1(1)Psycholinguistics18：Psycholinguistics investigates theinterrelation of language and mind, in processing and producing utterances and in language acquisition for example.(2)Sociolinguistics 19: Sociolinguistics is the study of thecharacteristics of language varieties, the characteristics of their functions, and the characteristics of their speakers as these three constantly interact and change within a speech community.2.Chapter 2(3)Phonetics 24: Phonetics studies how speech sounds are produced,transmitted, and perceived.(4)phonology24: Phonology is the study of the sound patterns andsound systems of languages.(5)voiceless27: When the vocal folds are apart, the air can passthrough easily and the sound produced is said to be VOICELESS.(6)voiced27: When the vocal folds are close together, the airstreamcauses them to vibrate against each other and the resultant sound is said to be VOICED.(7)coarticulation 37: When such simultaneous or overlappingarticulations are involved, we call the process coarticulation.3.Chapter 3(8)Morpheme 52: Morpheme is the smallest unit of language in regardto the relationship between sounding and meaning, a unit that cannot be divided into further smaller units without destroying or drastically altering the meaning.(9) Free morphemes 53: Those morphemes that may occur alone, thatis, those which may make up words by themselves, are free morphemes.(10) bound morphemes53: Morphemes which must appear with atleast one different morpheme, and are called bound morphemes.(10) invariable words 59: Invariable words refer to those such as since,when, seldom, through, hello. They do not have inflective endings. 4.chapter 4(11)Case87: The case category is used in the analysis of wordclasses to identify the syntactic relationship between words in a sentence.5.chapter 7(12) Sapir-Whorf Hypotheses 149: Our language helps mould our wayof thinking and, different languages may probably express speakers’unique ways of understanding the world.6.chapter 11(13) Syllabus 260: A syllabus is a specification of what takes place inthe classroom, which usually contains the aims and contents ofteaching and sometimes contains suggestions of methodology.(14)curriculum260: A curriculum, however, provides (1) generalstatements about the rationale about language, language learning and language teaching (2)detailed specification of aims, objectives and targets learning purpose and (3) implementation of a program.(15) overgeneralization272: Overgeneralization arises when thelearner applies a rule in a situation where the rule does NOT apply. 7.chapter 12(16) LAD 308: Chomsky believes that language is somewhat innate,and that children are born with what he calls a LANGUAGE ACQUSITION DEVICE (LAD), which is a unique kind of knowledge that fits them for language learning.简答题：1.What are design features of language? 3-7（1）A rbitrariness first refers to the fact that the forms of linguistic signs bear no natural relationship to their meaning. （2）B y Duality is meant the property of having two levels of structures, such that units of the primary level are composedof elements of the secondary level and each of the two levelshas its own principles of organization.（3）B y Creativity we mean language is resourceful because of its duality and its recursiveness.（4）D isplacement means that human languages enable their users to symbolize objects, events and concepts which are notpresent (in time and space) at the moment of communication.2.What are main functions of language? Explain with examples. 10-14 (1)For most people the informative function is predominantly the majorrole of language. Language is the instrument of thought and people often feel need to speak their thoughts aloud, for instance, when they are working on a math problem. The use of language to record the facts is a prerequisite of social development. This is indeed a crucial function of language.(2)By far the most important sociological use of language is theinterpersonal function, by which people establish and maintain their status in a society.(3)The performative function of language is primarily to change thesocial status of persons, as in marriage ceremonies, etc. The kind of language employed in performative verbal acts is usually quite formal and even ritualized.3.What is the major difference between Saussure’s distinction of langueand parole and Chomsky’s distinction of competence and performance?23Saussure’s distinction between “langue”and “parde”is similar to Chomsky’s distinction between “competence”and “performance”. But whereas for Saussure the repository of “langue” is the speech community, for Chomsky the repository of “competence” is the “ideal speaker/hearer”. So Saussure’s distinction is basically sociolinguistic, whereas Chomsky’s is basically psycholinguistic.4.What are the main differences between root and stem? 定义加例子53-54A root is the base form of a word that cannot be further analyzedwithout destroying its meanings. That is to say, it is that part of the word that remains when all the affixes are removed, for example nation-in internationalism. Apparently, all words contain a root morpheme. A root may be free or bound.A stem is any morpheme or combination of morphemes to which aninflectional affix can be added, so both friend-in friends and friendship- in friendships are stems.5.What are the main ways of lexical change in the English languageapart from compound and derivation? Explain with examples. 66-69a)Invention, includes words coming form technological andeconomic activities, such as Kodak, Coke, etc.b)Blending is a relatively complex form of compounding, inwhich two words are blended by joining together the initial partof the first word and final part of the second word, or by only joining the initial parts of the two words. For example, transfer + resister = transistor.c)Abbreviation is also called clipping, a new word is created bycutting the initial parts, the final parts or both the initial and final parts of words. For example, advertisement—ad, telephone—phone, influenza—flu.d)Acronym is made up from the first letters of the name of anorganization, which has a heavily modified headword. For instance, WTO—World Trade Organization.e)Back-formation refers to an abnormal type of word-formationwhere a shorter word is derived by deleting an imagined affix from a longer form already in the language. For example, televise—television.f)Analogical creation can account for co-existence of two forms,regular and irregular, in the combination of some English verbs, for example, work—wrought—worked.g)By shifting word class one can change the meaning of a wordfrom a concrete entity or notion to a process or attribution. For example, hog can mean a pig, or to take and keep (all of something) for oneself.h)Borrowing means to widen a language’s vocabulary byborrowing words from other languages. For instance, feast,encour, etc.6.What are Leech’s system of meanings? 947.Explain with examples the various types of antonyms in English.98-101a)The gradable antonyms have three characteristics. First, theyare gradable, i.e., the denial of one is not necessilarily theassertion of the other. Second, antonyms of this kind are gradedagainst different norms. Third, one member of a pair, usuallythe term for the higher degree, serve as the cover term.b)The complementary antonymy divides up the whole semanticfield, i.e. the assertion of one means the denial of the other, thedenial of one also means the assertion of the other.c)Converse antonymy is known as the relational opposites. Thereare always two entities involved. One presupposes the other.They are typically seen in reciprocal social roles, kinshiprelations, temporal and spatial relations.8.What are three speech acts?174-175(1) According to Austin, a speaker might be performing three acts simultaneously when speaking. (2) When we speak we move our vocalorgans and produce a number of sounds, organized in a certain way and with a certain meaning. That is a locutionary act. (3) When we speak, we not only produce some units of language with certain meanings, but also make clear our purpose in producing them, the way we intend them to be understood, or the also have certain forces as Austin prefers to say. This act performed is an illocutionary act. And the force is illocutionary force.(4) The third sense in which to say something can mean to do something concerns the consequential effects of a locution upon the hearer. This is called perlocutionary act.9.What is cooperative principle? 177 实例：A: Can you answer the phone?B: I’m in the Bath.A: Mary is really an expert in paintings. Don’t you think so?B: She is a good mother.A: How much is your skirt?B: The fabric touches smoothly.10.W hat are the six principles for teachers to follow when design tasks?265-26811.W hat are differences between errors and mistakes? 27212.W hat are the three metafunctions proposed by M.A.K. Halliday?293-296a)The ideational function is to convey new information, tocommunicate a content that is unknown to the hearer. Present inall language uses, the ideational function is a meaning potential.The ideational function mainly consists of “transitivity”and“voice”.b)The interpersonal function embodies all uses of language toexpress social and personal relations. This includes the variousways the speaker enters a speech situation and performs aspeech act. Interpersonal function is realized by mood andmodality.c)The textual function refers to the fact that language hasmechanisms to make any stretch of spoken or written discourseinto a coherent and unified text and make a living passagedifferent from a random list of sentences.。