戴炜栋《新编简明英语语言学教程》笔记和课后习题(含考研真题)详解(形态学)【圣才】

戴炜栋《简明语言学教程》配套笔记Chapter 1 What is language?[A] The origins of languageSome speculations of the origins of language:① The divine sourceThe basic hypothesis: if infants were allowed to grow up without hearing any language, then they would spontaneously begin using the original god-given language.Actually, children living without access to human speech in their early years grow up with no language at all.② The natural-sound sourceThe bow-wow theory: the suggestion is that primitive words could have been imitations of the natural sounds which early men and women heard around them.The “Yo-heave-ho” theory: the sounds produced by humans when exerting physical effort, especially when co-operating with other humans, may be the origins of speech sounds.Onomatopoeic sounds③ The oral-gesture sourceIt is claimed that originally a set of physical gestures was developed as a means of communication.The patterns of movement in articulation would be the same as gestural movement; hence waving tongue would develop from waving hand.④ Glossogenetics（言语遗传学）This focuses mainly on the biological basis of the formation and development of human language.Physiological adaptationàdevelop naming abilityàinteractions and transactionsPhysical adaptation:Human teeth are upright and roughly even in height.Human lips have intricate muscle interlacing, thus making them very flexible.The human mouth is small and contains a very flexible tongue.The human larynx is lowered, creating a longer cavity called the pharynx, and making it easier for the human to choke on the pieces of food, but making the sound speech possible.The human brain is lateralized. Those analytic functions (tool-using and language) are largely confined to the left hemisphere of the brain for most humans.Two major functions of language:Interactional: a social function of language.Transactional: a function involving the communication of knowledge and information[B] The properties of languageLanguage is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication.a) System: combined together according to rulesb) Arbitrary: no intrinsic connection between the word “pen” and the thing in the world which it refers toc) V ocal: the primary medium is sound for all languagesd) Human: language is human-specific（交际性与信息性）Communicative vs. Informative:Communicative: intentionally using language to communicate somethingInformative: through/via a number of signals that are not intentionally sentDesign features (unique properties): the defining properties of human language that distinguish it from any animal system of communication① Displacement（跨时空性，移位性）Language can be used to refer to contexts removed from the immediate situations of the speaker (refer to past and future time and to otherlocations)② Arbitrariness（任意性）There is no logical or natural connection between a linguistic form (either sound or word) and its meaning.While language is arbitrary by nature, it is not entirely arbitrary.a) echo of the sounds of objects or activities: onomatopoeic wordsb) some compound words③ Productivity（能产性，创造性）Language is productive in that it makes possible the construction and interpretation of new signals by its users. (Creativity or open-endedness) ④ Cultural transition（文化传递性）While human capacity for language has a genetic basis (everyone was born with the ability to acquire a language), the details of any language system are not genetically transmitted, but instead have to be taught and learnt.⑤ Discreteness（可分离性）Each sound in the language is treated as discrete.⑥ Duality（双重结构性，两重性或二元性）Language is organized at two levels or layers simultaneously. The lower or basic level is a structure of sounds which are meaningless. The higher level is morpheme or word (double articulation)The above six properties may be taken as the core features of human language.V ocal-auditory channel, reciprocity, specialization, non-directionality, or rapid fade, these properties are best treated as ways of describing human language, but not as a means of distinguishing it from other systems of communication.[C] The development of written language① pictograms & ideograms（象形文字和表意文字）Pictogram: when some of the pictures came to represent particular images in a consistent way, we can begin to describe the product as a form of picture-writing, or pictograms.Ideogram: the picture developed as more abstract and used other than its entity is considered to be part of a system of idea-writing, or ideogram Hieroglyph: 古埃及象形文字② Logograms（语标书写法）When symbols come to be used to represent words in a language, they are described as examples of word-writing, or logograms. “Arbitrariness”—a writing system which was word-based had come into existence.Cuneiform--楔形文字—the Sumerians (5000 and 6000 years ago)Chinese is one example of its modern writing system.Advantages: two different dialects can be based on the same writing system.Disadvantages: vast number of different written forms.③ Syllabic writing（音节书写法）When a writing system employs a set of symbols which represent the pronunciations of syllables, it is described as syllabic writing.The Phoenicians: the first human beings that applied the full use of a syllabic writing system (ca 1000 BC)④ Alphabetic writing（字母书写法）Semitic languages (Arabic and Hebrew): first applied this ruleThe Greeks: taking the inherently syllabic system from the Phoenicians via the RomansLatin alphabet and Cyrillic alphabet (Slavic languages)⑤ Rebus writingRobus writing evolves a process whereby the symbol used for an entity comes to be used for the sound of the spoken word used for that entity.Chapter 2 What is linguistics?[A] The definition of linguisticsLinguistics is generally defined as the scientific study of language.Process of linguistic study:① Certain linguistic facts are observed, generalization are formed;② Hypotheses are formulated;③ Hypotheses are tested by further observations;④ A linguistic theory is constructed.Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication.[B] The scope of linguisticsGeneral linguistics: the study of language as a wholePhonetics: the general study of the characteristics of speech sounds (or the study of the phonic medium of language) (How speech sounds are produced and classified)Phonology: is essentially the description of the systems and patterns of speech sounds in a language. (How sounds form systems and function to convey meaning)Morphology: the study of the way in which morphemes are arranged to form words (how morphemes are combined to form words)Syntax: the study of those rules that govern the combination of words to form permissible sentences (how morphemes and words are combined to form sentences)Semantics: the study of meaning in abstractionPragmatics: the study of meaning in context of useSociolinguistics: the study of language with reference to societyPsycholinguistics: the study of language with reference to the workings of the mindApplied linguistics: the application of linguistics principles and theories to language teaching and learningAnthropological linguistics, neurological linguistics; mathematical linguistics; mathematical linguistics; computational linguistics[C] Some important distinctions in linguistics① Prescriptive vs. Descriptive ② Synchronic vs. Diachronic③ Speech and writing The description of a language at some point in time;Spoken language is primary, not the written The description of a language as it changes through time.\④ Langue and paroleProposed by Swiss linguists F. de Sausse (sociological)Langue: refers to the abstract linguistic system shared by all the members of a speech communityParole: refers to the realization of langue in actual use⑤ Competence and performanceProposed by the American linguist N. Chomsky (psychological)Competence: the ideal user’s knowledge of the rules of his languageChapter 3 Phonetics and phonology[A] The definition of phoneticsPhonetics: the study of the phonic medium of language: it is concerned with all the sounds that occur in t he world’s languages.Articulatory phonetics: the study of how speech sounds are made, or articulated.Acoustic phonetics: deals with the physical properties of speech as sound waves in the air.Auditory (or perceptual) phonetics: deals with the perception, via the ear, of speech sounds.Forensic phonetics: has an application in legal cases involving speaker identification and the analysis of recorded utterances.[B] Organs of speechV oiceless: when the vocal cords are spread apart, the air from the lungs passes between them unimpeded.V oiced: when the vocal cords are drawn together, the air from the lungs repeated pushes them apart as it passes through, creating a vibration effect.All the English vowels are typically voiced (voicing).The important cavities:The pharyngeal cavityThe oral cavityThe nasal cavityLips, teeth, teeth ridge (alveolus), hard palate, soft palate (velum), uvula, tip of tongue, blade of tongue, back of tongue, vocal cords[C] Orthographic representation of speech soundsBroad and narrow transcriptionsIPA (International Phonetic Alphabet/Association)Broad transcription: the transcription with letter-symbols onlyNarrow transcription: the transcription with diacriticsE.g.:[l]à[li:f]--à a clear [l] (no diacritic)[l]à[bild]--àa dark [l] (~)[l]à[helW]--àa dental [l] ( )[p]à[pit]--àan aspirated [ph](h)[p]à[spit]--àan unaspirated [p] (no diacritic)[n]à[5bQtn]àa syllabic nasal [n] (7)[D] Classification of English consonantsIn terms of manner of articulation (the manner in which obstruction is created)① Stops: the obstruction is total or complete, and then going abruptly[p]/[b], [t]/[d], [k]/[g]② Fricatives: the obstruction is partial, and the air is forced through a narrow passage in the month[f]/[v], [s]/[z], [W]/[T], [F]/[V], [h] (approximant)③ Affricates: the obstruction, complete at first, is released slowly as in fricatives[tF]/[dV]④ Liquids: the airflow is obstructed but is allowed to escape through the passage between part or parts of the tongue and the roof of the mouth[l]àa lateral sound; [r]à retroflex⑤ Glides: [w], [j] (semi-vowels)Liquid + glides + [h]à approximants⑥ Nasals: the nasal passage is opened by lowering the soft palate to let air pass through it[m], ], [] [By place of articulation (the place where obstruction is created)① bilabials: upper and lower lips are brought together to create obstructions[p]/[b], [w]à(velar)② labiodentals: the lower lip and the upper teeth[f]/[v]③ dentals: the tip of the tongue and the upper front teeth[W]/[T]④ alveolars: the front part of the tongue on the alveolar ridge[t]/[d], [s]/[z], [n], [l], [r]⑤ alveo-palatals (palato-alveolars): tongue and the very front of the palate, near the alveolar ridge[F]/[V], [t]/[d]⑥ palatal: tongue in the middle of the palate[j]⑦ velars: the back of the tongue against the velum[k], [g], [N] … [w]⑧ glottals: the glottal is the space between the vocal cords in the larynx[h][E] Classification of English vowelsFronti: Central BackClose i `u:uSemi-close e E:Semi-open E C:Open AB Q RB:① The highest position of the tongue: front, central, back;② The openness of the mouth: close, semi-close, semi-open, open;③ The roundness (shape) of the month (the lips):All the front, central vowels are unrounded vowels except [B]All the back vowels, except [A:] are rounded vowels④ The length of the sound: long vowels & short vowelsCardinal vowelsLarynx à (tense) or (lax)Monophthongs, diphthongs[F] The definition of phonologyPhonetics is interested in all the speech sounds used in all human languages; how they are produced, how they differ from each other, what phonetic features they possess, how they can be classified, etc.Phonology, on the other hand, is interested in the system of sounds of a particular languages; it aims to discover how speech sounds in a language form patterns and how these sounds are used to convey meaning in linguistic communication.[G] Phone, phoneme, and allophonePhone: the different versions of the abstract unit – phonemePhoneme: the mean-distinguishing sound in a language, placed in slash marksAllophone: a set of phones, all of which are versions of one phoneme[G] Phonemic contrast, complementary distribution, and minimal pairPhonemic contrast: when two phonemes can occur in the same environments in two words and they distinguish meaning, they’re in phonemic contrast.E.g. pin & bin à /p/ vs. /b/ rope & robe à /p/ vs. /b/Complementary distribution: two or more than two allophones of the same phonemes are said to be in complementary distribution because they can not appear at the same time, or occur in different environment, besides they do not distinguish meaning.Minimal pair: when two different forms are identical in every way except for one sound segment which occurs in the same place in the strings, the two sounds are said to form a minimal pair.When a group of words can be differentiated, each one from the others, by changing one phoneme (always in the same position), then all of these words constitute a minimal sets.[H] Some rules in phonology① sequential rulesSyllableOnset rimeNucleus coda[Consonant] vowel [consonant(s)]Phonotactics of 3Cs occurring in onset:No1:___/s/___voiceless stops: /p/, /t/, /k/___approximants: /r/, /l/, /w/, /j/No2:The affricates [tF]/[dV] and the sibilants [s], [z], [F], [V] are not to be followed by another sibilants.② assimilation rulesCo-articulation effects: the process of making one sound almost at the same time as the next is called co-articulation.Assimilation & elision effectsAssimilation: two phonemes occur in sequence and some aspect of one phoneme is taken or copied by the otherE.g. nasalize a vowel when it is followed by a nasal sound.③ deletion rule-ElisionDefinition: the omission of a sound segment which would be present in deliberate pronunciation of a word in isolationE.g. delete a [g] when it occurs before a final nasal consonant[I] Suprasegmental features① StressWord stress & sentence stressThe stress of the English compounds always on the first element② ToneDefinition: Tones are pitch variations, which are caused by the differing rates of vibration of the vocal cords.Pitch variations can distinguish meaning just like morphemes.Tone language, like Chinese, has four tones.Level, rise, fall-rise, fall③ IntonationWhen pitch, stress and sound length are tied to the sentence rather than the word in isolation, they are collectively known as intonation. English: the four basic types of intonation, or the four tonesThe falling tone, the rising tone, the fall-rising tone, and the rise-fall toneChapter 4 Morphology[A] The definition of morphologyMorphology is a branch of grammar which studies the internal structure of words and the rules by which words are formed. Inflectional morphologyDerivational morphology (lexical morphology)Morpheme: the smallest meaningful components of words(A minimal unit of meaning or grammatical function)[B] Free morphemes & bound morphemesFree morphemes: can stand by themselves as single wordsà Lexical morphemes [n.a.v] & functional morphemes [conj.prep.art.pron.]Bound morphemes: can not normally stand alone, but which are typically attached to another formà Derivational morphemes----àaffix (suffix, infix, prefix) + rootà Inflectional morphemes à 88 types of inflectional morphemes in EnglishNoun+ -’s, -s [possessive; plural]Verb+ -s, -ing, -ed, -en [3rd person present singular; present participle; past tense, past participle]Adj+ -er, -est [comparative; superlative][C] Derivational vs. inflectionalInflectional morphemes never change the grammatical category of a wordInflectional morphemes influence the whole category;Derivational morphemes are oppositeOrder: root (stem) + derivational + inflectional[D] Morphological RulesN. +lyà a.; A. +lyà adv.; guard overgeneralization[E] Morphs and allomorphsMorphs: the actual forms used to realize morphemesAllomorphs: a set of morphs, all of which are versions of one morpheme, we refer to them as allomorphs of that morpheme.[F] Word-formation process① Coinageàthe invention of totally new terms② Borrowingàthe taking over of words form other languagesLoan-translation (Claque)à a direct translation of the elements of a word into the borrowing languageStand alone to be the opposite of word-formation③ Compoundingà a joining of two separate words to produce a single formFeatures of compoundsa)Orthographically, a compound can be written as one word, with or without a hyphen in between, or as two separate words.b)Syntactically, the part of speech of the compound is generally determined by the part of speech of the second element.c)Semantically, the meaning of a compound is often idiomatic, not always being the sum total of the meanings of its components.d)Phonetically, the stress of a compound always falls on the first element,While the second element receives secondary stress.④ Blendingà taking over the beginning of one word and joining it to the end of other word⑤ Clippingà a word of more than one syllable reduced to a shorter form⑥ Back formationà a process by which new words are formed by taking away the suffix of an existing word Hypocorismsàclipping or +ie⑦ Conversionà category change, functional shift⑧ Acronymsà new words are formed from the initial letters of a set of other words⑨ Derivationà the new words are formed by the addition of affixes to the roots, stems, or words⑩ Abbreviationà a shortened form of a word or phrase which represents the complete formAnalogyChapter 5 Grammar[A] Types of grammarThe study of grammar, or the study of the structure of expressions in a language, has a very long tradition.①Mental grammar: a form of internal linguistic knowledge which operates in the production and recognition of appropriately structured expressions in that language. à Psychologist② Linguistic etiquette: the identification of the proper or best structures to be used in a language. à Sociologist③ The study and analysis of the structures found in a language, with the aim of establishing a description of the grammar of English, e.g. as distinct from the grammar of Russia or French. à Linguist[B] The parts of speechNouns, adjectives, verbs, adverbs, prepositions, pronouns, conjunctionsà the grammatical categories of words in sentences[C] Traditional grammar (Categories and analysis)Other categories: number, person, tense, voice and genderAgreement:English languageßnatural genderGrammatical genderà French[D] Types of grammar concerning analysisThe prescriptive approach: The view of grammar as a set of rules for the proper use of a languageThe descriptive approach: analysts collect samples of the language they are interested in and attempt to describe the regular structures of the language at it is used, not according to some view of how it should be used.[E] Structural and immediate constituent analysis (IC Analysis)Structural analysis: to investigate the distinction of forms (e.g. morphemes) in a languageIC Analysis: how small constituents (Components) in sentences go together to form larger constituents[F] Labeled and bracketed sentencesHierarchical organization of the constituents in a sentenceLabel each constituent with grammatical terms such as Art. N. NPChapter 6 Syntax[A] The definition of syntaxA subfield of linguistics that studies the sentence structure of language[B] The basic components of a sentenceSentenceSubject PredicateReferring expression comprises finite verb or a verb phrase and says something about the subject[C] Types of sentencesSimple sentence: consists of a single clause which contains a subject and a predicate and stands alone as its own sentence.Coordinate (C ompound) sentence: contains two clauses joined by a linking word called coordinating conjunctions, such as “and”, “by”, “or”…Complex sentence: contains two, or more, clauses, one of which is incorporated into the otherEmbedded clauseßà matrix clause① subordinator ②f unctions as a grammatical unit ③ may be complete[D] The linear and hierarchical structures of sentencesWhen a sentence is uttered or written down, the words of the sentence are produced one after another in a sequence, which suggests the structure of a sentence is linear.But the superficial arrangement of words in a linear sequence does not entail that sentences are simply linearly-structured; sentences are organized with words of the same syntactic category, such as NP or VP, grouped together.Tree diagram of constituent structureBrackets and subscript labels[E] Some categoriesSyntactic categories: refer to a word or a phrase that performs a particular grammatical function, such as the subject or the predicateLexical categories: (parts of speech)Major lexical categories (open categories):N. V. Adj. Adv.Minor lexical categories (closed categories):Det. Aux. Prep. Pron. Conj. Int.Phrasal categories: NP, VP, PP, AP[F] Grammatical RelationsThe structural and logical functional relations of constituentsIt concerns the way each noun phrase in the sentence relates to the verbSubject of and direct object ofStructural subject, structural objectLogical subject (the doer of the action), the logical object (the recipient of the action)These two groups of subjects and objects may have different positions[G] Combinational rulesAre small in numberà Yield all the possible sentencesRule out the impossible ones① phrase structure rules (rewrite rules)Sà NP VP(A sentence consists of, or is rewritten as, a noun phrase and a verb phrase)NPà (Det.) (Adj.) N (PP) (S)An optional determiner….and obligatory noun,VPà V (NP) (POP) (S)APà A (PP) (S)PPà P NP② the recursiveness of phrase structure rulesSignificantly, the above rules can generate an infinite number of sentences, and sentences with infinite length, due to their recursive properties.③ X- bar theoryHeadà an obligatory word that givers the phrase its nameXP or X-phraseXPà (Specifier) X (complement)Formula:X”à Spec X’X-bar theory (X-bar schema)X’à X complTree diagramX”Specifier X’X complement[H] Syntactic movement and movement rulesSyntactic movement: occurs when a constituent in a sentence moves out of its original place to a new placeTransformational rules① NP-movement and WH-movementNP-movement: active voice à passive voicePostposing, preposingWH-movement: affirmativeà interrogativeLeftward matter to the sentence initial-position② Other types of movementAux-movement: the movement of an auxiliary to the sentence-initial position③ D-structure and S-structureTwo levels of syntactic representation of a sentence structure:One that exists before movement takes placeThe other that occurs after movement takes placeFormal linguistic exploration:D-structure: phrase structure rules + lexiconSentence at the level of D-structureThe application of syntactic movement rules transforms a sentence fromD-structure level to S-structure levelTransformational-generative line of analysis④Move α– a general movement ruleMove any constituent to any placeCertain constituents can move to only certain positions[I] Universal Grammar (UG)Principles-and-parameters theory:UG is a system of linguistic knowledge and a human species-specific gift which exits in the mind or brain of a normal human being and which consists of some general principles and parameters about natural languages.① general principles of UGCase condition principle: a noun phrase must have case and case is assigned by V or P to the object position or by Aux to the subject position Adjacency condition or Case assignment: a case assignor and a case recipient should stay adjacency to each other.It is strictly observed in English well-formed sentences, not other languages (no other phrasal category can intervene between a verb and its direct object)The Adjacency condition must be subject to parametric variation in order to explain the apparent adjacency violations such as in French.② The parameters of UGParameters are syntactic options of UG that allow general principles to operate in one way or another and contribute to significant linguistic variations between and among natural languages.[+strict adjacency]Adjacency parameter[-strict adjacency][Rightward directionality]The Directionality Parameter à involves word order[Leftward directionality]En: VP word order VPà V NPJp: VP word order VPà NP VNatural languages are viewed to vary according to parameters set on UG principles to particular valuesChapter 7 Semantics[A] The definition of semanticsDefinition: the study of meaning from the linguistic point of view[B] Some views concerning the study of meaning① the naming theory: The linguistic forms or symbols, in other words, the words used in a language are taken to be labels of the objects they stand for; words are just names or labels for things.② the conceptualist view: There’s no direct link between a linguistic form and what it refers to (i.e. between language and the real world); rather, in the interpretation of meaning, they are linked through the mediation of concepts in the mind.Thought/reference à conceptSymbol/Form (words) Referent à(real object)Proposed by Ogden & Richards③ contextualism: John FirthThe situational context: in a particular spatiotemporal situationLinguistic context (co-text): the probability of a word’s co-occurrence or collocation with another word④ behaviorism à Bloomfield based on contextualist viewBehaviorists define meaning of a language form as the situation in which the speaker utters it and the response it calls forth in the hearerS: stimulus r: responseJill JackS---------r………s---------R(the small letters r, sàspeech)(the capitalized letter R, Sàpractical events)[C] Sense and referenceSense: is concerned with the inherent meaning of the linguistic form, abstract and de-contextualized.Reference: means what a linguistic form refers to in the real, physical world; it deals with the relationship between the linguistic element and the non-linguistic world of experienceMoving star I once was bitten by a dog.Morning star Mind you. There is a dog over there.[D] Major sense relations① synonymyà the sameness or close similarity of meaninga. dialectal synonyms——synonyms used in different regional dialects。

戴炜栋《新编简明英语语⾔学教程》笔记和课后习题（含考研真题）详解（⾳位学）【圣才出品】第2章⾳位学2.1 复习笔记本章要点：1. Speech Organs发⾳器官2. Distinction, Classification and the Criteria of Description between Constants and Vowels辅⾳和元⾳的区别、分类及描写规则3. Phonemes and Allophones⾳位和⾳位变体4. Phonological Rules and Distinctive Features⾳系规则和区别特征5. Syllable Structure, Stress and Intonation⾳节结构、重⾳和语调本章考点：1. 语⾳学语⾳学的定义；发⾳器官的英⽂名称；英语辅⾳的定义、发⾳部位、发⾳⽅法和分类；英语元⾳的定义和分类、基本元⾳；发⾳语⾳学；听觉语⾳学；声学语⾳学；语⾳标记，国际⾳标；严式与宽式标⾳法。

2. ⾳系学⾳系学的定义；⾳系学与语⾳学的联系和区别；⾳素、⾳位、⾳位变体、最⼩对⽴体、⾃由变体的定义；⾃由变体；⾳位的对⽴分布与互补分布；区别性特征；超语段⾳位学；⾳节；重⾳(词重⾳、句⼦重⾳)；⾳⾼和语调。

本章内容索引：I. The phonic medium of languageII. Phonetics1. The definition of phonetics2. Three research fields3. Organs of speech▼4. Voiceless sounds▼5. Voiced sounds6. Orthographic representations of speech sounds—broad and narrow transcriptions7. Classification of English speech sounds(1) Definition(2) Classification of English consonants(3) Classification of English vowelsIII. Phonology1. Relationship between Phonology and phonetics2. Phone, phoneme3. Allophone4. Some rules in phonology(1) Sequential rules(2) Assimilation rule(3) Deletion rule5. Supra-segmental features—stress, tone, intonation(1) Stress(2) Tone(3) IntonationI. The phonic medium of language（语⾔的语⾳媒介）II. Phonetics（语⾳学）1. The definition of phonetics（语⾳学的定义）Phonetics is defined as the study of the phonic medium of language; it is concerned with all the sounds that occur in the world’s languages.语⾳学被定义为对语⾔的语⾳媒介的研究；它涉及所有出现在世界语⾔中的声⾳。

第7章语言变化7.1 复习笔记本章要点：1. Phonological Change音系变化2. Morphological and syntactic change形态和句法变化3. Lexical and semantic change词汇和语义变化本章考点：新词的增加(创新词，缩略词，紧缩法，词首字母缩略词，逆构词法)；词义的变化(意义扩大，意义缩小，意义转换)。

本章内容索引：I. Definition of historical linguisticsII. Phonological ChangeIII. Morphological and syntactic change1. Addition of affixes2. Loss of affixes3. Chang of word order4. Chang in negation ruleIV. Lexical and semantic change1. Addition of new words(1) Coinage(2) Clipped words(3) Blending(4) Acronyms(5) Back-formation(6) Functional shift(7) Borrowing2. Loss of words3. Semantic Changes(1) Semantic broadening(2) Semantic Narrowing(3) Semantic shiftV. Some recent trends1. Moving towards greater informality2. The influence of American English3. The influence of science and technology(1) Space travel(2) Computer and internet language(3) EcologyVI. Causes of language changeI. Definition of historical linguistics（历史语言学的定义）Historical linguistics, as a branch of linguistics, is mainly concerned with both the description and explanation of language changes that occurred over time.历史语言学是语言学的一个分支，主要研究语言随着时间的变化而产生的变化与变化的原因。

第10章语言习得10.1 复习笔记本章要点：1. Theories of child language acquisition儿童语言习得的理论2. Cognitive development in child language development儿童语言发展中的认知因素3. Language environment and the Critical Period Hypothesis语言环境和临界期假说4. Stages in child language development儿童语言发展的阶段5. Atypical development非典型发展本章考点：行为主义者预言习得观；语法天生主义者的习得观；语言环境和临界期假说。

本章内容索引：I. Theories of child language acquisition1. A behaviourist view of language acquisition2. An innatist view of language acquisition3. An interactionist view of language acquisitionII. Cognitive development in child language developmentIII. Language environment and the Critical Period HypothesisIV. Stages in child language development1. Phonological development2. Vocabulary development3. Grammatical development4. Pragmatic developmentV. Atypical developmentI. Theories of child language acquisition（儿童语言习得的理论）1. A behaviourist view of language acquisition（行为主义者的语言习得观）(1) Main content（主要观点）①A behaviourist view of language acquisition Traditional behaviorists view language as behavior and believe that language learning is simply a matter of imitation and habit formation. A child imitates the sounds and patterns of the people around him; people recognize the child’s attempts and reinforce the attempts by responding differently, the child repeats the right sounds or patterns to get the reward(reinforcement)②So imitation and practice are preliminary, discrimination and generalization are key to language development in this theory. Imitation: word for word repetitionof all or part of an utterance.①传统的行为主义者把语言看作是行为，并且相信语言学习仅仅只是一个模仿和习惯形成的问题。

戴炜栋《新编简明英语语⾔学教程》（第2版）课后习题详解（中）【圣才出品】第4章句法学1. What is syntax?Key: Syntax is a branch of linguistics that studies the rules that governs the formation of sentences.2. What is phrase structure rule?Key: The special type of grammatical mechanism that regulates the arrangement of elements that make up a phrase is calleda phrase structure rule.3. What is category? How to determine a word’s category?Key: Category refers to a group of linguistic items which fulfill the same or similar functions in a particular language such as a sentence, a noun phrase or a verb. T o determine a word’s category, three criteria are usually employed, namely, meaning, inflation and distribution.4. What is coordinate structure? What properties does it have?Key: The structures that are formed by joining two or more elements of the same type with the help of a conjunction are called coordinate structures. It has four properties: first, there is no limit on the number of coordinated categories. Second, a category at any level can be coordinated. Third, coordinated categories must be of the same type. Fourth, the category type of the coordinate phrase isidentical to the category type of the elements being conjoined.5. What elements does a phrase contain and what rule does each element play? Key: The phrase elements are specifiers, complements and modifiers. Specifiers help make more precise the meaning of the head. They typically mark a phrase. The complements provide information about entities and locations whose existence is implied by the meaning of the head. Modifiers specifies optionally expressible properties of heads.6. What is deep structure and what is surface structure?Key: The structure that formed by the XP rule in accordance with the head’s subcategorization properties is called the deep structure. The structure that corresponds to the final syntactic form of the sentence which results from appropriate transformation is called surface structure.7. Indicate the category of each word in the following sentences.a) The old lady got off the bus carefully.b) The car suddenly crashed onto the river bank.c) The blinding snowstorm might delay the opening of the school.d) This cloth feels quite soft.Key:8. The following phrases include a head, a complement, and a specifier. Draw the appropriate tree structure for each.a) rich in mineralsb) often read detective storiesc) an augment against the proposalsd) already above the windowKey: a) rich in mineralsb) often read detective storiesc) the argument against the proposalsd) already above the window9. The following sentences contain modifiers of various types. For each sentence, first identify the modifier(s), then draw the tree structures.a) A crippled passenger landed the airplane with extreme caution.b) A huge moon hung in the black sky.c) The man examined his car carefully yesterday.d) A wooden hut near the lake collapsed in the storm.Key: (The modifiers are represented by italics.)a) A crippled passenger landed the airplane with extreme caution.b) A huge moon hung in the black sky.c) The man examined his car carefully yesterday.d) A wooden hut near the lake collapsed in the storm.10. The following sentences all contain conjoined categories. Draw a tree structure for each of the sentences.a) Jim has washed the dirty shirts and pants.b) Helen put on her clothes and went out.c) Mary is fond of literature but tired of statistics.Key: a) Jim has washed the dirty shirts and pants.b) Helen put on her clothes and went out.c) Mary is fond of literature but tired of statistics.11. The following sentences all contain embedded clauses that function ascomplements of a verb, an adjective, a preposition or a noun. Draw a tree structure for each sentence.a) You know that I hate war.b) Gerry can’t believe the fact that Anna flunked the English exam.c) Chris was happy that his father bought him a Rolls-Royce.d) The children argued over whether bats had wings.Key: a) You know that I hate war.。

新编简明英语语言学教程戴伟栋版第1章导言本章要点：1. The definition and main branches of linguistics study语言学的定义和研究范围2. Important distinction in Linguistic语言学的一些重要区分3. The definition and the design features of language语言的定义和识别特征4. Function of language语言的功能本章考点：语言学考点：语言学的定义，语言学中几组重要的区别，每组两个概念的含义、区分及其意义；普通语言学的主要分支及各自研究范畴；宏观语言及应用语言学的主要扥只及各自的研究范畴。

语言的考点：语言的定义；语言的识别特征（任意性，能产性，二重性，移位性，文化传递性）；语言的功能1,The definition of linguistics语言的定义：Linguistics is generally defined as the scientific study of language(based on the systematic investigation of linguistic data, conducted with reference to general theory of language structure)2.The scope of linguistics语言学的范围A：micro-linguisticsPhonetics（语音学）: the study of the sounds used in linguistic communication.Phonology（音系学）: the study of how sounds put together and used to convey meaning in communication.(语音分布和排列的规则及音节的形式) Morphology（形态学）: the study of the way in which the symbols are arranged and combined to form words.Syntax（句法学）: the study of rules in the combination of words to form grammatically permissible sentences in language.Semantics（语义学）: the study of meaning.Pragmatics（语用学）: the study of the meaning in the context of language use. B：macro-linguisticsSociolinguistics: the study of all social aspects of language and its relation with the society form the core of the branch.Psycholinguistics: the study of language and its relation with psychology.Applied linguistics: the study of application of language to the solution of practical problems. Narrowly it is the application of linguistic theories and principles to language teaching, especially the teaching of foreign and second languages.3. Some important distinctions in linguistics 语言学中的重要区分A: Descriptive vs Prescriptive 描写式与规定式Descriptive: if a linguistic study aims to describe and analyze the language people actually use.Prescriptive: if the linguistic study aims to lay down rules for ―correct and standard‖ behavior in using lan guage, i.e. to tell people what should they say and what they should not say, it is said to be Prescriptive.B: Synchronic vs Diachronic 共时性和历时性Synchronic: the description of a language at some point of time in history is a synchronic study.Diachronic: the description of a language as it changes through time is a diachronic study.C: Speech vs writing 言语和文学These are major media of communication.D: Langue vs parole 语言与言语(Saussure 索緖尔)Langue: refers to the abstract linguistic system shared by the all the members of a speech community.Parole: refers to the realization of language in actual use.E: Competence vs performance 语言能力和语言应用(Chomsky乔姆斯基) Competence: refers to a user’s underlying knowledge about the system of the rules.Performance: refers to the actual use in concrete situations.乔姆斯基和索绪尔的区别：索绪尔采用的是社会学的观点，他的语言观念是社会惯例性的。

戴版语言学Chapter One——--IntroductionPart one——-—What is linguistics？1. Definition-——-linguistics is generally defined as the scientific study of language。

Scientific means it is based on the systematic investigation of linguistic data，conducted with reference to some general theory of language structure。

No Article before language in this definition means that linguistics studies language in general. Linguists’ task： basically study and understand the general principles upon which all languages are built。

I nterest of linguists is “what is said”2. The scopes of linguisticsGeneral linguistics--—-the study of language as a whole--—--the core of linguisticsPhonetics-—-—the study of sounds used in linguistic communication。

Phonology--——the study of how sounds are put together and used to convey meanings in communication.Morphology-———the study of the way in which the symbols are arranged and combined to form words。

戴炜栋《新编简明英语语言学教程》笔记和课后习题（含考研真题）详解-第6~8章【圣才出品】第6章语用学6.1 复习笔记本章要点：1. Speech act theory言语行为理论2. Cooperative principle and its maxims合作原则及其准则3. Gricean theory of conversational implicature格莱斯会话含义理论本章考点：语用学的定义；语义学与语用学的区别；语境与意义；言语行为理论(发话行为、行事行为和取效行为)；合作原则。

实例分析言语行为、合作原则的违反和会话含义。

本章内容索引：I. Pragmatics1. Definition2. Pragmatics vs. semantics3. Context4. Sentence meaning vs. utterance meaningII. Speech act theory1. Austin’s model of speech acts2. Searle’s classificati on of speech acts3. Indirect speech actsIII. Principle of conversation1. Cooperative Principle and its Maxims2. Violation of the MaximsIV. Conversational Implicature1. Definition2. Characteristics of Conversational Implicature(1) Calculability.(2) Cancellability(3) Non-detachability(4) Non-conventionality.V. Cross-cultural Pragmatic FailureI. Pragmatics（语用学）【考点：名词解释，与语义学的关系】1. Definition（定义）It is the study of how speakers of a language use sentences to effect successful communication.它是研究某一语言的言者是如何利用句子成功进行交际的。