Changes in the subsurface stratification of the Sun with the 11-year activity cycle

C H A P T E R431219Box 43-1.Causes of HemoperitoneumCLINICAL DIAGNOSISHistory and Present IllnessPain is the focal issue in the evaluation of the patient sus-pected of having an acute abdomen.8,9,14The history should therefore characterize and document the pain as precisely as possible. The duration of the pain is impor-tant, but the location, mode of onset, and character of the pain help in making a diagnosis. Abdominal pain that per-sists for 6 hours or more with severe intensity increases the likelihood that surgical operation will be required. If the pain ebbs after a few hours, however, the probability of surgical disease decreases, but not to zero. Visceral pain caused by distention, inflammation, or ischemia usually feels dull and poorly localized in the midabdomen. Depending on the organ involved, the pain may be felt in the epigastrium, the periumbilical area, or the lower abdomen (Fig. 43-2). Diseases of the kidneys or ureters produce pain in the flanks. Parietal pain, however, is sharper and better localized. Localized parietal peritonitis can produce pain confined to one of the four quadrants of the abdomen.In an evaluation of the location of the pain, the concept of referred pain becomes important. Subdiaphragmatic disorders can produce pain referred to the shoulder. Blood or pus beneath the left diaphragm can cause left shoulder pain. Biliary disease can cause referred pain in the right shoulder or the back. Diseases above the diaphragm such as basal pneumonia can cause pain referred to the neck or shoulder in the C4 distribution. Upper abdominal pain suggests peptic ulcer, acute chole-cystitis, or pancreatitis. Conversely, ovarian cysts, diver-ticulitis, and ruptured tubo-ovarian abscesses produce lower abdominal pain. Small bowel obstruction usually causes midabdominal pain sometimes referred to the back (Fig. 43-3).Migratory pain shifting from one place to another can give insight into the diagnosis. For example, pain that moves from the epigastrium to the periumbilical area to the right lower quadrant suggests acute appendicitis. Distention and inflammation of the appendix produce visceral pain perceived in the periumbilical area. When the inflammation spreads and produces parietal peritonitis, the pain localizes in the right lower quad-rant of the abdomen. Another example of moving or migratory pain occurs with perforated duodenal ulcer. The leakage of duodenal contents from a perforated ulcer causes intense and localized epigastric pain. However, if the leaked duodenal content gravitates down the right paracolic gutter into the right lower quadrant, the patient may also experience right lower quadrant pain. Although the location of abdominal pain may be helpful, particularly early in the course of the disease, it may not be typical in all patients. Late in many cases, the pain may become generalized because of diffuse peritonitis.Box 43-2.Abdominal Pain Secondary to Inflammatory Lesions of the Gastrointestinal Subsystem Box 43-3.Abdominal Pain Secondary to Obstructing Lesions of the Gastrointestinal TractBox 43-4.Abdominal Pain Secondary to Lesions of the Gynecologic SubsystemA BA B CFIGURE 43-6.Acute cholecystitis. Ultrasound evaluation shows two small stones (curved arrow)present in the neck of the gallbladder. The wall of the gallbladder in the fundus (straight arrow)FIGURE 43-7.Thrombus in portal vein evident on pulsed Doppler ultrasonography. An echogenic thrombus (arrow)is withinFIGURE 43-8.Acute appendicitis. On ultrasonography, a radiographically nonopaque appendicolith (arrow)is evident within a thick-walled, distended appendix (longitudinal view).A BIntramural hematoma of small bowel. Uniform, concentric, high-density thickening of the wall of jejunal loops is A BFIGURE 43-12.Acute pyelophlebitis resulting from diverticulitis with abscess. A,Minute quantities of gas (arrows)within peripheral branches of the portal venous system were not visible on a plain radiograph. B,A gas-containing thrombus (arrow)is visible in the inferior mesenteric vein at its junction with the splenic vein. C,A chain of abscesses (arrow)extended along the course of the thrombosed inferior mesenteric vein. D,The septic thrombus led directly to a pericolonic abscess (arrow)caused by diverticulitis of the sigmoid colon.FIGURE 43-13.Hemorrhage and false aneurysm complicating pancreatitis. A,Intraparenchymal hemorrhage enlarges the body and tail of the pancreas. The lumen of the false aneurysm (arrow)is shown as an area of increased density resulting from the enhancement of the FIGURE 43-14.Peritonitis. CT scan shows inflammatoryFIGURE 43-15.Pyopneumoperitoneum secondary to a perforated descending colon. A,Pyopneumoperitoneum interface (large arrow) and inflammatory thickening of visceral peritoneum (small arrows) are shown. Seven liters of grossly infected ascitic fluid (A) were drained FIGURE 43-16.Acute small bowel intussusception. The patient had a sudden onset of severe mid-abdominal pain with nonspecific plain film findings. Cross-sectional (A) and longitudinal (B) CT scans showed a small bowel intussusception (arrows). Mesenteric fat (f) accompaniesBox 43-5.Nonsurgical Causes of Abdominal Pain。

河北医药2021年4月第43卷第8期Hedei MeXicg结oxmgm2021,Vd43Apr No.81191 doi：10・3969/j・issn・1002-7396.2021.06.006-论著-小白菊内酯对脑缺血大鼠的脑保护作用及机制乔会敏陈林玉杜媛媛吴冰洁董梅张祥建【摘要】目的探讨小白菊内酯对脑缺血大鼠的脑保护作用及机制。

方法改良线栓法制备大鼠大脑中动脉闭塞(MCAO)模型；实验分为假手术组，溶剂对照组和小白菊内酯治疗组。

比较3组的患侧脑水肿、脑梗死体积和神经功能缺损评分，观察小白菊内酯的血脑屏障保护作用，实验采用RT-qPCR和Western blot检测各组紧密连接蛋白5(CmuPix-5)基因和蛋白表达变化；试剂盒比较各组超氧化物歧化酶(SOD)、过氧化氢酶(CAT)和丙二醛(MDA)的水平变化；实验采用RT-qPCR和Western blot检测各组Toll样受体4(TLR4)、核因子-qB(NF-qB)基因和蛋白表达变化。

结果小白菊内酯组神经功能缺损评分较溶剂对照组明显降低，小白菊内酯组脑梗死体积较溶剂对照组明显减少(P<0.05)，小白菊内酯组脑组织含水量较溶剂对照组明显减低(P<0.05)，小白菊内酯组CmuPix-5的蛋白表达明显高于溶剂对照组(P<0.05)。

小白菊内酯组CmuPix-5的基因表达明显高于溶剂对照组(P<0.05)；小白菊内酯组TLR4和NF-qB的蛋白表达明显低于溶剂对照组(P<0.05),小白菊内酯组TLR4和NF-qB的基因表达明显低于溶剂对照组，小白菊内酯组SOD和CAT水平明显高于溶剂对照组，小白菊内酯组MDA水平明显低于溶剂对照组(P<0.05)。

结论小白菊内酯对脑缺血大鼠具有神经保护作用，TLR4、NF-qB,SOD、CAT和MDA参与了小白菊内酯的抗炎及抗氧化应激作用机制。

【关键词】小白菊内酯；脑缺血；炎症反应；氧化应激【中图分类号】R743.3【文献标识码】A【文章编号】1002-7386(2021)08-141-05Neurrprrtectiva effectn and action mechanism o f parthenoUde in rats with cerebral ischemia QIAO Huimio,CHENLioyu,DU Yuanyuan,nt rO DeparOnent g Neurologu The SeconO Hospital og Hebei Mepfal Unfersif,Hebei,Lhfifhuang050000,Chinn[Abstrrct i Objechva To ioveshgate the oexmpmtective eTects and mechanism of padheoolide ix rats with ceredrai ischemia.Methods The modified syture-cccluPed method was used to estad/sh the rat models with mibdle ceredrai aderyocclusion(MCAO).The rats were divided into sham opera/on group,sobeot cont/X group and partheooyde treatmeot group.The braix edema,ceredrai infarction volume,and yexrolovicai deficit scores of the dfected side ix each group were compared,and the protective eTect o f partheooyde on the blood-Fraix bar/vr was oPserved.RT-qPCR and Western Blot were used todetect changes ix geov and proteix expression of tight juoction proteix5(ClauPix5).The kit was used to compare thechanges ix the levels of superoxide dismutase(SOD),catalase(CAT)and mamyhialUedyyv(MDA)ix each group.RTqPCR and Western Blot was used to detect the changes of expression levels of Toll-Cbv receptor4(TLR4)and yuclear factor-k B(NF-qB)geov and proteix.Resnlts The yexrolovicai deficit scores and the ceredrai infarction velume as well as braixtissue water conteot ix padheooyde group were significaxtly lower thao those ix sobeot control group(P< 0.05).Howeverthe proteix expression levels of ClauPix5geov and proteix ix padheyoyde group were significaxtly higher thao those ix solveotcontrol group(P<0.05),but the expression levels of TLR4and NF-qB geov and proteix m pauheno/de group were significaxtly lower thao those ix sobeot control group(P<0.05),And the SOD and CAT levels ix partheooyde group were significaxtly higher thao those ix sobeot control group,while the MDA levels were significaxtly lower thao those ix solveotcontrol group(P<0.05).Conclusion Padheyo/de has a yexmprotective eTect on rats with ceredrai ischemia.TLR4,NF-k B,SOD,CAT and MDA are iovolved ix the axti-ii/lammatom and anticxida/ve stress mechanism of partheooyde.【Key words】padheyo/de；ceredrai infarction；in/ammatory reaction；oxiba/ve stress在急性脑卒中中,氧化应激和炎症在神经功能缺损中起重要作用。

事物更新蜕变的英语短语Transformation and Evolution of Things.The world is constantly in a state of flux, with things constantly undergoing transformation and evolution. This is a natural cycle of life, where everything from the smallest atom to the largest galaxy is subject to change. Transformation and evolution are not just limited to the physical world; they extend to ideas, cultures, and technologies as well.In the realm of nature, transformation and evolution are visible in the cycles of life and death. Trees, for instance, undergo seasonal changes, shedding their leaves in autumn and sprouting new ones in spring. This cycle is not just a visual representation of time passing, but also a deeper process of growth and renewal. Similarly, animals go through stages of growth, from infancy to adulthood, and even undergo physical changes as they adapt to their environment.At the microscopic level, atoms and molecules are constantly rearranging themselves, leading to chemical reactions and the formation of new compounds. This constant motion and interaction is what drives the continuous transformation and evolution of matter.In the realm of technology, transformation and evolution are even more rapid. With the advent of new scientific discoveries and inventions, old technologies are quickly replaced by newer, more efficient ones. The industrial revolution, for instance, marked a significant shift in the way people lived and worked, with the introduction of machines and automation. Similarly, the digital revolution has transformed the way we communicate, access information, and even think.Transformation and evolution are also evident in social and cultural contexts. As societies evolve, so do their values, beliefs, and traditions. New ideas and movements emerge, challenging old norms and establishing new ones. This constant flux is what keeps cultures vibrant anddynamic.However, transformation and evolution are not always smooth or painless. They often involve challenges,conflicts, and even crises. Change can be difficult to accept, especially when it threatens established order or comfortable routines. But it is also through these challenges that we grow and learn, adapting to newrealities and embracing new possibilities.In conclusion, transformation and evolution areinherent to the fabric of existence. They are the enginesof progress and innovation, driving us forward into anever-evolving future. As we navigate through this constant flux, it is important to remain open and adaptable, embracing change as an opportunity for growth and progress. After all, it is through transformation and evolution that we reach our full potential as individuals and as a species.。

・论著・兰索拉唑用药前后幽门螺杆菌在胃内分布的变化金　珠1△,董秀云1,林三仁1,叶嗣懋1,周丽雅1,成红艳2(1.北京大学第三医院消化科,北京　100083;2.徐州市第四医院消化科)[摘　要]目的:探讨抑酸药兰索拉唑对幽门螺杆菌Helicobacter pylori(简称H.pylori)在胃内分布的影响。

方法:检查43例有H.pylori感染的十二指肠溃疡患者在服用兰索拉唑前后的胃镜活检组织切片,活检部位分别为窦小弯及体大弯,对活检组织切片做HE及W arthin2Starry嗜银染色,观察窦体两部位H.pylori检出率、密度及胃炎活动程度的变化。

结果:(1)窦小弯用药前、用药后4周及3个月H.pylori的检出率分别为93.02%,58.14%和86.05%,用药后4周H.pylori检出率及密度明显低于用药前及用药后3个月(均P<0.01)。

(2)体大弯用药后4周和3个月H.pylori的密度较用药前增加。

(3)窦小弯用药后4周胃炎活动性的检出率明显低于用药前及用药后3个月,胃炎活动程度也轻于后两者。

(4)体大弯用药后4周和3个月胃炎活动性检出率较用药前增加,胃炎活动程度也加重。

(5)窦小弯及体大弯用药前后胃炎活动性与H.pylori检出率之间变化呈正相关(分别为r=0.9951,r=0.9608)。

结论:兰索拉唑可使幽门螺杆菌在胃内的定植部位发生改变,窦小弯H.pylori检出率下降、密度减少,而体大弯密度增加,此种影响在用药后1个月左右最为明显,胃炎活动性与H.pylori检出率的变化关系密切。

[关键词]螺杆菌,幽门;兰索拉唑;胃炎[中图分类号]R57313 [文献标识码]A [文章编号]16712167X(2005)022*******D istr i buti on of H elicobacter pylo ri i n stomach before and after the adm i n istra ti on ofLan soprazoleJ I N Zhu1△,DONG Xiu2yun1,L I N San2ren1,YE Si2mao1,ZHOU L i2ya1,CHE NG Hong2yan2(1.Depart m ent of Gastr oenter ol ogy,Peking University Third Hos p ital,Beijing100083,China;2.The Forth Hos p ital ofXuzhou)ABSTRACT　O bjecti ve:To investigate the effect of the acid inhibit or-Lans op raz ole on the distributi onof Helicobacter pylori(H.pylori)in st omach.M ethods:B i op sy s peci m ens were taken fr om the duodenalulcer patientswho under went gastr oscopy bef ore and after the treat m ent of Lans op raz ole.The bi op sy s pec2i m ens were taken fr om the lesser curvature of the antru m and the greater curvature of the cor pus res pec2tively.H&E and W arthin2Starry staining were used f or detecting the changing of active gastritis and thepositive rate of H.pylori.Results:(1)The positive rates of H.pylori bef ore treat m ent,4weeks aftertreat m ent and3months after treat m ent,in the lesser curvature of the antru m were93.02%,58.14%,and86.05%,res pectively.The positive rate and density of H.pylori4weeks after treat m ent were greatly decreased compared with those before treat m ent(P<0.001)and als o l ower than those3months aftertreat m ent(P<0.05).(2)The positive rate of H.pylori bef ore treat m ent,4weeks after treat m ent and3months after treat m ent in greater curvature had differences without statistical significance.However,thedensity of H.pylori4weeks after treat m ent was increased compared with that bef ore treat m ent.Conclu2si on:Lans op raz ole can change the col onizati on site of H.pylori in the st omach,decrease the positive rateand the density of H.pylori in lesser curvature of the antrum,but increase the density of H.pylori in thegreater curvature of the cor pus.This effect is most obvi ous in one month after treat m ent.Active gastritisis related t o H.pylori.KE Y WO R D S　Helicobacter pylori;Lans op raz ole;Gastritis 目前公认幽门螺杆菌(Helicobacter pylori,简称H.pylori)感染是十二指肠溃疡发生的主要原因,很多文献报道十二指肠溃疡患者H.pylori的感染率极高,可达80%～100%。

Discovery of a New Class of Potential Multifunctional Atypical Antipsychotic Agents Targeting Dopamine D3and Serotonin5-HT1A and5-HT2A Receptors:Design,Synthesis,and Effects on BehaviorStefania Butini,†,‡Sandra Gemma,†,‡Giuseppe Campiani,*,†,‡Silvia Franceschini,†,‡Francesco Trotta,†,‡Marianna Borriello,†,§Nicoletta Ceres,†,§Sindu Ros,†,‡Salvatore Sanna Coccone,†,‡Matteo Bernetti,†,‡Meri De Angelis,†,‡Margherita Brindisi,†,‡Vito Nacci,†,‡Isabella Fiorini,†,‡Ettore Novellino,†,§Alfredo Cagnotto,†,|Tiziana Mennini,†,|Karin Sandager-Nielsen,⊥Jesper Tobias Andreasen,⊥Jorgen Scheel-Kruger,⊥Jens D.Mikkelsen,#and Caterina Fattorusso†,§European Research Centre for Drug Disco V ery and De V elopment,Uni V ersity of Siena,Italy,Dipartimento Farmaco Chimico Tecnologico, Uni V ersita´di Siena,V ia Aldo Moro,53100Siena,Italy,Dipartimento di Chimica delle Sostanze Naturali e Dipartimento di Chimica Farmaceutica e Tossicologica,Uni V ersita`di Napoli Federico II,V ia D.Montesano49,80131Napoli,Italy,Istituto di Ricerche Farmacologiche Mario Negri,Via La Masa19,20156Milano,Italy,NeuroSearch A/S,Pederstrup V ej93,Ballerup DK-2750,Denmark,and Neurobiological Research Unit,Uni V ersity Hospital Rigshospitalet,Copenhagen,DenmarkRecei V ed June6,2008Dopamine D3antagonism combined with serotonin5-HT1A and5-HT2A receptor occupancy may representa novel paradigm for developing innovative antipsychotics.The unique pharmacological features of5i area high affinity for dopamine D3,serotonin5-HT1A and5-HT2A receptors,together with a low affinity fordopamine D2receptors(to minimize extrapyramidal side effects),serotonin5-HT2C receptors(to reduce therisk of obesity under chronic treatment),and for hERG channels(to reduce incidence of torsade des pointes).Pharmacological and biochemical data,including specific c-fos expression in mesocorticolimbic areas,confirmed an atypical antipsychotic profile of5i in vivo,characterized by the absence of catalepsy atantipsychotic dose.IntroductionSchizophrenia is among the most serious mental illnesses;it has a considerable social and economic impact and globally it affects approximately1%of the world population.1 Antipsychotic medication is the main therapeutic intervention for schizophrenia.Although the pathophysiology of the disease has yet to be clearly defined,the development of antipsychotic drugs in recent decades has been heavily influenced by the dopamine hypothesis,mainly supported by the capability of antipsychotic drugs of interfering with dopamine receptors in vivo and in vitro and by evidence that the clinical efficacy of typical antipsychotic drugs is correlated with their occupancy at dopamine D2receptors(D2R).2The early agents for the treatment of psychosis,the“typical”antipsychotics(haloperidol,1,Chart1),were breakthrough therapies for the positive symptoms of schizophrenia,but they failed to manage its negative symptoms and cognitive impair-ment.Nevertheless,typical antipsychotics carry a heavy side-effect burden(i.e.,extrapyramidal symptoms(EPS)and hyper-prolactinemia)and are ineffective in one-third of schizophrenic patients.3The“atypical”antipsychotics(e.g.,clozapine(2)and olan-zapine(3)),are characterized by a multireceptor affinity profile, which combines a potent antagonism for serotonin5-HT2A with a dopamine D2and D3receptors blockade.4Among the atypical antipsychotic agents approved by regulatory authorities,cloza-pine still remains invaluable for psychosis,presenting high clinical efficacy and a reduced incidence of EPS and hyper-prolactinemia.Olanzapine may precipitate or unmask diabetes in susceptible patients,5and its use was associated with a12% increase in excessive appetite compared to haloperidol.6Mean-while,ziprasidone,risperidone,and quetiapine may be respon-sible for drug-induced long QT syndrome(risk of malignant ventricular arrhythmia).A new antipsychotic agent(aripiprazole4,Chart1)has recently been launched.It acts as a partial agonist at D2R.7,8Its unique mechanism of action might underlie its efficacy and low risk of side effects seen with other antipsychotics.However, unmet clinical needs still remain and include(i)more effective antipsychotic therapy for treatment of refractory patients,(ii) improved treatment of negative symptoms,and(iii)improved treatment of cognitive dysfunction.Several strategies for the development of novel antipsychotics have started to provide additional tools for relieving the symptoms of schizophrenia.In recent years,the pharmaceutical industry and academia have shown significant interest in the development of novel antipsychotics characterized by interaction with less obvious receptors such as metabotropic glutamate receptors and tachykinin receptors.9Second-generation antipsychotics combine D2R occupancy with activity at serotoninergic receptors(such as5-HT1A receptors(5-HT1A R)and5-HT2A receptors(5-HT2A R),i.e., clozapine)to provide drug therapies for resistant schizophrenic patients,with prompter therapeutic benefits and the improvement of cognitive symptoms.10In contrast,we decided to exploit a novel multireceptor affinity profile approach,which combines antagonism at dopamine D3receptors(D3R)and at5-HT2A R and partial agonism at serotonin5-HT1A R,with a low affinity for D2R(no liability of EPS at antipsychotic doses)and5-HT2C receptors(5-HT2C R)(reducing the risk of obesity under chronic treatment).*To whom correspondence should be addressed.Phone:0039-0577-234172.Fax:0039-0577-234333.E-mail:campiani@unisi.it.†European Research Centre for Drug Discovery and Development.‡Universita`degli Studi di Siena.§Universita`degli Studi di Napoli“Federico II”.|Istituto Mario Negri,Milano.⊥NeuroSearch A/S.#University Hospital Rigshospitalet.J.Med.Chem.2009,52,151–16915110.1021/jm800689g CCC:$40.75 2009American Chemical SocietyPublished on Web12/15/2008The serotoninergic system plays an important role in the regulation of prefrontal cortex (PFC)functions,including emotional control,cognitive behavior,and working memory.PFC pyramidal neurons and GABA interneurons contain several serotonin receptor subtypes with a particularly high density of 5-HT 1A R and 5-HT 2A R.It has recently been demonstrated in PFC that NMDA receptor channels are the target of 5-HT 1A R and that both receptors modulate the excitability of cortical neurons,thus affecting cognitive functions.11Indeed,a variety of preclinical data has suggested that the 5-HT 1A R may be a therapeutic target for the development of improved antipsychotic drugs.Although the role of 5-HT 1A R in antipsychotic drug efficacy profile remains speculative,5-HT 1A R affinity contributes to the clinical efficacy of most of the atypical antipsychotic drugs (clozapine,olanzapine,aripiprazole)and their low liability for EPS.12A growing number of studies show that 5-HT 1A R activation attenuates antipsychotic-induced side effects in hu-mans,13nonhuman primates,14and antipsychotic-induced cata-lepsy in rats.An association has indeed been postulated between agonist activity at 5-HT 1A R and anxiolytic or antidepressant effects,improvements in cognitive and nega-tive symptoms,and decreased development of EPS in schizophrenia.15Recent studies have provided the first in vivoevidence that activation of 5-HT 1A R can play a role in aripiprazole-mediated behavior in rats.16,17Furthermore,because glutamatergic transmission is dysfunctional in schizo-phrenia and because glutamate release is decreased by 5-HT 1A R activation,18agonist properties at postsynaptic 5-HT 1A R may be relevant to the therapeutic profile of atypical antipsychotic agents,improving negative symptoms and cognitive deficits.This topic has recently been reviewed by Meltzer and Sumiyoshi,19who underline the additional beneficial effects found in many preclinical models based on the reciprocal interaction with the 5-HT 1A R (agonists)and 5-HT 2A R (antagonists).Serotonin,through its interaction with 5-HT 2A R,inhibits neuronal activity in the substantia nigra and ventral tegmental area.5-HT 2A R antagonists may increase the firing rate of midbrain dopaminergic neurons in a state-dependent manner and potentiate the increase in the activity of nigrostriatal dopamine-containing neurons in response to moderate D 2R antagonism by antipsychotics.Therefore,5-HT 2A R antagonism may prevent or alleviate EPS induced by acute or long-term treatment with typical drugs such as 1.Although the role of dopamine D 2R and serotonin 5-HT 2A R has been defined,the role of D 3R is still controversial.Recently,D 3R has been claimed as a potential target for antischizophrenic drug development.20This is mainly based on the specific dis-tribution of D 3Rs in the mesolimbic dopaminergic system,along with the observation of elevated levels of these receptors in patients that are off antipsychotics.D 3R functions are primarily related to the mesolimbic,rather than the nigrostriatal,dopam-inergic system,thus the blockade of D 3R does not elicit EPS.Furthermore,because dopamine through D 3R modulates the cholinergic system at the prefrontal cortex level,D 3R antagonists (devoid of muscarinic effects)may robustly enhance acetyl-choline release in frontal cortex.21Consequently,D 3R antago-nists might improve cognitive deficits poorly treated by currently available agents,including clozapine.The persistent concern is whether selective D 3R blockade can relieve positive symptoms of schizophrenia.Investigation of dopamine D 3R function was limited because of the lack of highly selective ligands.To validate the novel approach to antipsychotics and to achieve an optimum interaction with dopamine and serotonin receptors,we exploited our knowledge acquired in the develop-ment of tricyclic atypical antipsychotics.22Thus,we selected the arylalkylpiperazine system as a flexible scaffold for achiev-ing a fine balancing of dopamine D 3R and serotonin 5-HT 1A R and 5-HT 2A R affinity,reducing D 1R,D 2R,and 5-HT 2C R occupancy.Starting from highly selective D 3R hits 23that lack significant behavioral effects,the present article deals with the design,synthesis,and behavioral investigation of a rationally designed set of arylpiperazines as novel and potent antipsy-chotics,characterized by high affinity for D 3R,5-HT 1A R,and 5-HT 2A R.Their structure -activity relationships (SARs)for dopamine and serotonin receptors were associated with variation of the aromatic system and the substituents on the arylpiperazine moiety.Among the analogues synthesized and tested (5a -m ),compound 5i ,a selective antagonist at D 3R and 5-HT 2A R,and partial agonist at 5-HT 1A R,was selected for further biological investigation.Its atypical antipsychotic profile is herein dis-cussed,together with the molecular modeling study.Despite its structural similarity to aripiprazole (nanomolar affinity for D 2R,D 3R,5-HT 1A R,and 5-HT 2A R,Table 2),5i shows a unique pharmacological profile,being designed to validate the novel approach to atypical antipsychotics based on a D 3,5-HT 1A ,and 5-HT 2A multireceptor affinity profile.Chart 1.Title and ReferenceCompounds152Journal of Medicinal Chemistry,2009,Vol.52,No.1Butini et al.Furthermore,long QT syndrome,experienced with several antipsychotics,has prompted considerable efforts in trying to define the molecular basis of this phenomenon.Conse-quently,efforts to predict long QT syndrome risk have been focused on assays testing hERG channel activities.Investiga-tion of hERG channel blockade is now a key step along the drug discovery trajectory of the pharmaceutical industry.Therefore,hERG channel interaction was introduced as a further parameter in our design strategy of the novel antipsychotics.Table 1.Physical and Chemical Data for Compounds 5a -maYields refer to isolated and purified materials.b Recrystallization solvent:methanol.c All the compounds were analyzed within (0.4%of the theoretical values.Antipsychotics Targeting D 35-HT 1A ,and 5-HT 2A Receptors Journal of Medicinal Chemistry,2009,Vol.52,No.1153ChemistryThe synthesis of compounds 5a -m (Chart 1and Table 1)is described in the Schemes 1-4.The secondary amine synthons 8and 13were synthesized following the synthetic strategies described in Schemes 1and pound 8was prepared starting from previously described ethyl 7-methoxyindole-2-carboxylate 6,24which was N -alkylated with bromoacetonitrile to afford the cyano-derivative 7.25Reduction of nitrile 7using an excess of lithium aluminum hydride gave rise to a cyclic lactam intermediate that was further reduced in situ to afford the target amine 8.25The synthesis of the known -carboline 13was realized by a modification of the literature procedure 26as described in Scheme 2.Formylation of the indole-derivative 9at C3was performed using N -chlorosuccinimide (NCS),triphenylphos-phine,and N ,N -dimethylformamide (DMF).27The aldehyde 10thus obtained was treated with nitromethane and ammonium acetate to afford 4-methoxy-3-(2-nitrovinyl)-1H -indole 11.28This latter was subsequently reduced by lithium aluminumhydride,and the corresponding tryptamine derivative 12was submitted to a classic Pictet -Spengler reaction,affording the -carboline 13.26The synthetic pathway for obtaining compounds 5a -i ,m is shown in Scheme 3.The bromo-derivatives 14a ,b and 15were obtained according to the procedure previously reported in the literature.23Subsequent alkylation of suitable arylpiperazines (commercially available,or obtained by a previously reported methodology,23or according to Schemes 1and 2)gave the final compounds 5a -i ,m .The ether-derivatives 5j -l (Scheme 4)were synthesized starting from the aromatic hydroxy-derivatives 16a ,b ,which were O -alkylated with the appropriate commercially available dibromoalkane in the presence of cesium carbonate as a base.Table 2.Binding Affinities for D 1,D 2,D 3,5-HT 1A ,5-HT 2A ,and 5-HT 2C Receptors (K i nM (SD)a and hERG Channels (K i µM)of Compounds 5a -m and Reference Antipsychoticscompd D 1bD 2c D 3r d5-HT 1A e 5-HT 2A f 5-HT 2C g hERG h 5a >10000859(1210.54(0.07876(22NT iNT i0.39(2)5b 4600(870>100000.099(0.002 5.0(0.341(5136(250.20(3)5c 5500(11301039(1900.27(0.0214.7(0.623.4(6173(230.30(4)5d >100001012(2933.5(3.528.0(1.3164(121086(190 1.84(2)5e >100006475(646 6.0(0.5118(16149(39434(47NT i 5f >10000339(86 3.7(0.5NT i 389(34NT i NT i 5g 4315(880229(76 3.2(0.4NT i300(63NT iNT i5h 4370(852122(370.105(0.0029.3(1.983(2818.4(3.00.20(4)5i 3290(418263(31 4.5(0.811.9(1.715.3(3.2206(140.93(2)5j NA j 63(68.2(0.9 4.0(0.7127(28NT i NT i5k NT i215(1532.92(324.2(2122.76(15NT i0.16(2)5l 7124(48875(70.14(0.0318.0(4.357(11154(140.21(2)5m >100003530(9188.6(0.933(3200(401360(1910.26(2)1318(22 2.6(0.50.9(0.041800(310164(884700(5000.12(8)2353(67210(31319(55160(3010(2 4.8(0.417(3)325(3.520(1739(5.9610(85 4.0(1.0 4.1(0.936(2)41960(1800.8(0.07 3.3(0.5 5.6(0.28.7(0.922(1.7 1.02(2)Risperidone50(23.8(0.36.7(0.7190(150.15(0.0232(2.20.92(2)a Each value is the mean (SD of three determinations and represents nM K i value.b [3H]SCH 23390,rat striatum.c [3H]spiperone,rat striatum.d [3H]-7-OH-DPAT,Sf9cells.e [3H]-8-OH-DPAT,rat hippocampus.f [3H]ketanserin,rat cortex.g [3H]mesulergine,guinea pig cortex.h Each value is the mean of 2-8determinations (number of determinations are given in parentheses),SD were all within 10%of the mean.i NT not tested.j NA not active at 100µM.Table 3.Multiple Sequence Alignment of the Trans-Membrane Ligand-Binding Domain of Considered Human DAR and 5-HTR Subtypes TM1-7similarity (%)receptor subtype TM2sequence a ,b TM3sequence a ,b TM4sequence a ,b TM5sequence a ,b TM6sequence a ,b TM7sequence a ,b D 3LVMP W VVY L FVTL D VMMC ITAVW VLA F FVIY SS VV S FYLP FIVC W LP FFL SATT W LG Y V 81D 2LVMP W VV Y L FVTL D VMMC ISIV W VLS F FVVY SS IV S FYVP FIIC W LP FF I SAFT W LG Y V 635-HT 2C LVMPLSLLA WISL D VLFS IAIV W AISI FVLIG S FVAFFIP FLIM W CP FF I NVFV W IG Y V 615-HT 1A LVLPMAALY FIAL D VLCC ISLT W LIG F YTIY S TFGAFYIP FILC W LP FF I AIIN W LG Y S 595-HT 2A LVMPVSMLT WIYL D VLFS IIAV W TISV FVLIG S FVSFFIP FVVM W CP FF I NVFV W IG Y L 57D 1LVMP W KAVAWVAF D IMCSISVA W TLSVYAIS SS VI S FYIPFVCC W LP FF IDVFV W FG W AaBold:conserved Asp residue on TM3,serine residues on TM5,and aromatic residues lining the ligand binding pocket.b Underlined:residues displayed in Figure 1A,C.Scheme 1.Synthesis of Intermediate 8Scheme 2.Synthesis of Intermediate 13154Journal of Medicinal Chemistry,2009,Vol.52,No.1Butini et al.The bromo-derivatives 17a -c were reacted with 2,3-dichlo-rophenylpiperazine to give compounds 5j -l .23Results and DiscussionFor in vitro and in vivo testing,compounds 5a -m were used as mono-,di-,or trihydrochloride salts.The binding affinities for 5-HT 1A ,5-HT 2C ,5-HT 2A ,D 1,D 2,and D 3receptors of compounds 5a -m ,together with clozapine,olanzapine,and haloperidol,are given in Table 2.Furthermore,Table 2lists the affinity of the tested compounds for hERG channels.Figure 3summarizes the effects of 5i in animal models sensitive to mesolimbic mediated antipsychotic activity (meth-amphetamine (MAMP))and phencyclidine (PCP)induced hyperactivity)and striatal mediated side effects (catalepsy).Figure 4reports the effect of 5i on Fos protein induction in the nucleus accumbens shell subregion,and core subregion and in the dorsolateral part of the rostral striatum.Table 4reports a summary of the behavioral effects of 5c ,5h ,5i ,5l ,and the reference compounds.1.Rational Design,Binding Studies,and Structure -Activity Relationships (SARs).Design Strategy.The challenge in designing new potential antipsychotics is to balance,in a single molecular structure,the required activity and selectivity toward specific multiple receptor subtypes (multireceptor affinityprofile).We had previously acquired experience in tricyclic antipsychotics 22and in arylpiperazines designed to selectively interact with D 3R to modulate cocaine-seeking behavior.23In this work,we therefore decided to exploit specific modifications of the versatile arylpiperazine scaffold.We were following an innovative pharmacological hypothesis aimed at modulating activity toward highly homologous dopamine receptors,such as D 2R and D 3R,while still maintaining a good affinity for serotonin 5-HT 1A and 5-HT 2A receptors and minimizing affinity for the D 1R and 5-HT 2C R subtypes.Furthermore,to improve the drugability of the novel antipsychotics,we directed our design strategy at limiting hERG potassium channel inhibition by up to 1µM,thus minimizing the risk of long QT syndrome and cardiac side effects.To drive the structural modifications of this new series of arylpiperazine derivatives,we performed a conformational and electronic analysis of the ligands,along with a structural and bioinformatic analysis of the above-mentioned serotonin and dopamine receptor subtypes (see Experimental Section for details).The amino acid (AA)sequences of the receptors were aligned 29with the aim of mapping their active sites’homology and a model of the putative binding site for our competitive ligands was produced (Homology,Insight2005,Accelrys,San Diego)(Table 3,Figure 1A,C).Indeed,all the considered receptors (i.e.,D 1,D 2,D 3,5-HT 1A ,5-HT 2A ,and 5-HT 2C )belong to the 7tm_1family of G-protein coupled receptors (GPCRs).In particular,the two endogenous aromatic amines,dopamine and serotonin,share a homologous binding site.30Many GPCRs models have been proposed,derived from analogies with high-resolution structures of rhodopsin.Despite this,the actual seven trans-membrane (TMs)helices connectivity,arrangement,and 3D structure in the different GPCR subtypes is still unknown.However,biophysical and mutagenesis studies on rhodopsin and a number of ligand-activated GPCRs provided evidence that the formation of the receptor active state involves movements of TM5,TM6,and TM7with respect to TM3.31-34In particular,different clusters of aromatic residues,critical to receptor structure and ligand recognition,were identified.31,35,36The very recently solved structure of the 2-adrenergic receptor in complex with the inverse agonist carazolol 37-39confirmed the data obtained from mutagenesis studies 35and offered a new template for the generation of receptor 3D models (see Experimental Section).The generated receptor models provided the rational bases for driving structural modification of the arylpiperazine skeleton in order to achieve the desired dopamine/serotonin receptor subtype selectivity.Consequently,we first identified,in the arylpiperazine skeleton,different pharmacophoric moieties (Chart 2)aimed at binding to the corresponding interaction sites identified in different secondary structures of the receptor models (Figure 1).In this view,the polymethylene tether length is crucial for guaranteeing the required structural flexibility in order to adapt the different pharmacophoric moieties to multiple receptors’binding sites.Indeed,in agreement with the reported structural and biochemical data on dopamine and serotonin receptors,we hypothesized that our competitive ligands bind by placing their heteroaromatic moiety (namely the “head”)into the “relevant aromatic pocket”22c formed by the motif W i ,F i +3,F i +4on the TM6helix,which is conserved throughout the biogenic amine receptors (Table 3,Figure 1).35,38At the same time,the H-bonding group of our compounds is thought to interact with the equally conserved Ser/Thr residues on TM5helix,reported to be important for receptor interaction/activation as well as for ligand specificity (see the discussion below forScheme 3.Synthesis of Compounds 5a –i,mScheme 4.Synthesis of Compounds 5j -lAntipsychotics Targeting D 35-HT 1A ,and 5-HT 2A Receptors Journal of Medicinal Chemistry,2009,Vol.52,No.1155details).31,40Finally,the Asp residue on TM3,present in all GPCRs amine receptors,is likely to interact with the protonated piperazine nitrogen of our ligands (Table 1and 3,Figure 1).Moreover,because the binding sites of both dopamine and serotonin contain additional aromatic pockets,modification of the chemical-physical features of the “tail”of our compounds could drive the molecule to assume alternative binding modes in the active site,adapting (or not)to different receptor subtypes.Indeed,in addition to the above-mentioned Trp residue on TM6,all the considered receptors have in common a further Trp residue on TM4and TM7helices (dopamine subtypes also on TM2),lining the substrate binding site (Figure 1A,C and Table 3).Mutagenesis studies in the 5-HT 2A R also support an interaction of serotonergic ligands with the conserved Trp on TM7.41However,crucial changes in the AA composition of dopamine and serotonin binding sites determine the molecular bases for substrate and ligand selectivity (Figure 1and Table 3).In particular,residues that are critical for pharmacological specificity are often one turn of helix away from the critical “conserved”residues.35,38Hence,taking into account the structural homology among our dopamine and serotonin receptor models,as well as the structural comparison with other known dopamine/serotonin competitive ligands,we rationally modified the electronic and conformational features of our ligands on the basis of our experience in the field of antipsychotics 22and in the develop-ment of selective D 3R ligands.23Accordingly,we maintained the 4-methylene linker in the amide series of compounds,because it was previously demonstrated to be the optimal spacer for high D 3R affinity,42while we tested 4-and 5-methylene linkers in the ether series (5j -l ,Table 1).However,we varied the chemical-physical parameters of:(i)the heteroaromatic system at the “head”,(ii)the functional group (X)connecting the “head”to the methylene linker,(iii)the phenyl ring at the “tail”,by modifying the nature,position,and number of substituents (Chart 2and Table 1).Following this rationale,we were able to obtain the optimal affinity profile for entering into further in vivo experiments.Dopamine Receptors.According to dopamine receptors’classification (D 1-like and D 2-like subfamilies),dopamine D 1R showed the lowest degree of sequence homology with both D 2R and D 3R,and with 5-HTRs,presenting relevant AA changesinFigure 1.Binding sites (A:longitudinal view;C:transversal view)of 5-HTR and DAR 3D models.The inactive state (template: 2adrenergic receptor;PDB code:2RH1)of D 2R (yellow),D 3R (white),5-HT 2A R (cyan),and 5-HT 2C R (green),and the active state (template:bovine rhodopsine;PDB code:2I37)of 5-HT 1A R (orange)are superimposed by C R atoms.Key residues on TM3,TM5,TM6,and TM7are displayed.AA involved in subtype selectivity are highlighted by white circles.Serine residues on TM5are labeled as discussed in the main text.Longitudinal (B)and transversal (D)view of 5b (magenta),5j (yellow),5k (orange),and 5l (green)AM1global minimum conformers,superimposed by fitting their pharmacophoric moieties (i.e.,“head”ring centroid;protonated piperazine nitrogen hydrogen;H-bond donor group;“tail”ring centroid).The hypothesized interactions with TM3,TM5,TM6,and TM7receptor helices areevidenced.Figure 2.Illustrated representation of the central pore cavity of hERG channels according to the model reported by Stansfeld et al.46The central pore helix P and the S6helix are indicated by orange and blue brackets,respectively.Key binding residues for blockers identified by mutagenesis studies are evidenced.156Journal of Medicinal Chemistry,2009,Vol.52,No.1Butini etal.TM1,TM2,TM5,TM6,and TM7helices involved in ligand -receptor interaction/activation (Table 3).35,40Accord-ingly,we easily designed arylpiperazines devoid of D 1R affinity (Table 2).However,despite the high degree of identity between D 2R and D 3R active sites,we were able to selectively modulate D 2R occupancy in our series of compounds.The D 2R and D 3R substrate binding site both present on TM2,TM4,and TM7helices,an aromatic residue placed one turn of helix away (i.e.,at the i +3/i +4position)with respect to the conserved Trp residue,thus forming additional aromatic pockets (Table 3).Nevertheless,on D 3R TM7helix,there is a Thr residue,not conserved in D 2R,just before the conservedTrpFigure 3.Effect of compound 5i on spontaneous exploratory locomotor activity (A),MAMP (B),and PCP-induced hyperactivity (C).(A)Compound 5i caused a dose-dependent reduction in spontaneous exploratory locomotor activity,marginally reducing activity at 3mg/kg (p <0.05)and potently reducing activity at 10mg/kg (p <0.001).(B)Compound 5i dose-dependently reduced MAMP-induced hyperactivity in doses of 3and 10mg/kg when compared to VEH +MAMP (p <0.01and p <0.001respectively).(C)Likewise,PCP-induced hyperactivity was also significantly reduced by compound 5i ,reaching statistical significance at 3and 10mg/kg (p <0.001for both)when compared to VEH +PCP.n )7pr dose group.Results are expressed as means (SEM of distance traveled.Statistical evaluation was performed by two-way ANOVA followed by Tukey test for multiple comparisons.###:p <0.001versus vehicle treatment;**:p <0.01versus MAMP/PCP treatment;***:p <0.001versus MAMP/PCPtreatment.Figure 4.Effect of a single intraperitoneal dose of 5i on Fos induction 60min after the treatment in the nucleus accumbens shell subregion (A),the nucleus accumbens core subregion (B),and the dorsolateral part of the rostral striatum (C).The results are expressed as means (SEM of the number of Fos-immunoreactive cells/mm 2in all regions.*P <0.05,**P <0.01,***P <0.001when compared to respective vehicle-treatedgroup.Figure 5.Outline of 5i multireceptor affinity profile and its significance for optimizing the atypical antipsychotic profile.Antipsychotics Targeting D 35-HT 1A ,and 5-HT 2A Receptors Journal of Medicinal Chemistry,2009,Vol.52,No.1157。

语言学教程复习题与答案(胡壮麟版第四章)I. Decide whether each of the following statements is True or False: 1. Syntax is a subfied of linguistics that studies the sentence structure of language, including the combination of m orphemes into words. 2.Grammatical sentences are formed following a set of syntactic rules.3. Sentences are composed of sequence of words arranged in a simple linear order, with one adding onto another following a simple arithmetic logic.4.Universally found in the grammars of all human languages, syntactic rules that comprise the system of internalized linguistic kn owledge of a language speak-er are known as linguistic competence.5. The syntactic rules of any language are finite in number, but there is no limit to the number of sentences native speakers of that language are able to produce and comprehend.6. In a complex sentence, th e two clauses hold unequal status, one subordinating the other.7. Constituents that can be substituted for one another without loss of grammaticality belong to the same syntactic category.8. Minor lexical categories are open because these categories are not fixed and new members are allowed for.9. In English syntactic analysis, four phrasal categories are commonly recognized and discussed, namely, noun phrase, verb phrase, infinitiv e phrase, and auxiliary phrase. 10. In English the subject usually precedes the verb and the direct object usually follows the verb.11.What is actually internalized in the mind of a native speaker is a complete list of words and phrases rather than grammatical knowledge.12. A no un phrase must contain a noun, but other elements are optional.13. It is believed that phrase structure rules, with the insertion of the lexicon, generate sentences at the level of D-struct ure.14. WH-movement is obligatory in English which changes a sentence from affirmative to interrogative.II. Fill in each of the following blanks with one word which begins with the l etter given: 15. A s________ sentence consists of a single clause which contains a sub-ject a nd a predicate and stands alone as its own sentence. 16.A s______ is a structurally independ ent unit that usually comprises a number of words to form a complete statement, question o r command. 17.A s______ may be a noun or a noun phrase in a sentence that usually prec edes the predicate.18. The part of a sentence which comprises a finite verb or a verb phrase and which says something about the subject is grammatically called p_________.19. A c_________ sentence contains two, or more, clauses, one of which is incorporated into the other.20. In the complex sentence, the incorporated or subordinate clause is normally called an e_ ______ clause.21. Major lexical categories are o___ categories in the sense that new words a re constantly added.22. A _____ Condition on case assignment states that a case assignor an d a case recipient should stay adjacent to each other.23. P_______ are syntactic options of UG that allow general principles to operate in one way or another and contribute to signific ant linguistic variations between and among natural languages.24. The theory of C____ condit ion explains the fact that noun phrases appear only in subject and object positions.III. There are four given choices for each statement below. Mark the choice that can best complete t he statement: 25.A sentence is considered ____ when it does not conform to the grammatical-cal knowledge in the mind of native speakers.A. rightB. wrongC. grammaticalD. ungrammatical 26. A __________ in the embedd ed clause refers to the introductory word that introduces the embedded clause. A. coordinato r B. particle C. preposition D. subordinator 27. Phrase structure rules have ____ properti es. A. recursive B. grammatical C. social D. functional 28. Phrase structure rules allow us to better understand ____________A. how words and phrases form sentences.B. what constitutes the grammaticality of strings of wordsC. how people produce and recognize possible sentencesD. All of the above. 29. Syntactic movement is dictated by rules traditionally called ________. A. transformational rul esB. generative rules C. phrase structure rules D. x-bar theory 30. The theory of case conditio n accounts for the fact that __________. A. noun phrases appear only in subject and object positions. B. noun phrases can be used to modify another noun phrase C. noun phrase can be used in adverbial positions D. noun phrase can be moved to any place if necessary. 31. The sentence structure is ________. A. only linear B. Only hierarchical C. complex D. both linear and hierarchical 32. The syntactic rules of any language are ____ in number.A. largeB. smallC. finiteD. infinite 33. The ________ rules are the rules that g roup words and phrases to form grammatical sentencesA. lexicalB. morphologicalC. linguisticD. combinational 34._______ rules may change the syntactic representation of a sentence. A. Generative B. Transformational C. X-bar D. Phrase structureIV. Define the following terms: 35. syntax 36. Sentence 37. coordinate sentence 38. synta ctic categories 39. grammatical relations 40. linguistic competence 41. transformational rules42. D-structure V. Answer the following questions:43. What are the basic components of a sentence? 44. What are the major types of sentence s? Illustrate them with examples. 45. Are the elements in a sentence linearly structured? Why?46. What are the advantages of using tree diagrams in the analysis of sentence structures? 4 7. What is NP movement. Illustrate it with examples.I. Decide whether each of the following statements is True or False: l.F 2.T 3.F 4.T 5. T 6.T 7.T 8.F 9.F 10.T 11.F 12.T 13.T 14.T II. Fill in each of the following blanks with one word which begins with the letter given: 15. simple, 16. sentence 17. subject 18. predicate 19. complex 20.embedded 21. open 22.adjacency 23.Parameters 24.Case III. There ar e four given choices for each statement below. Mark the choice that can best complete the statement: 25. D 26. D 27. A 28. D 29. A 30. A 31. D 32. C 33. D 34. BIV. Define the following terms: 35. syntax: Syntax is a subfield of linguistics. It studies the sentence structur e of language. It consists of a set of abstract rules that allow words to be combined with o ther words to form grammatical sentences. 36. Sentence: A sentence is a structurally indepen dent unit that usually comprises a number of words to form a complete statement, question or command. Normally, a sentence consists of at least a subject and a predicate which conta ins a finite verb or a verb phrase. 37. coordinate sentence: A coordinate sentence contains t wo clauses joined by a linking word called coordinating conjunction, such as "and", "but", "o r". 38. syntactic categories: Apart from sentences and clauses, a syntactic category usually refe rs to a word (called a lexical category) or a phrase ( called a phrasal category) that performs a particular grammatical function. 39. grammatical relations: The structural and logical functi onal relations of constituents are called grammatical relations. The grammatical relations of a sentence concern the way each noun phrase in the sentence relates to the verb. In many cas es, grammatical relations in fact refer to who does what to whom .40. linguistic competence: Universally found in the grammars of all human languages, syntactic rules comprise the syst em of internalized linguistic knowledge of a language speaker known as linguistic competence.41. Transformational rules: Transformational rules are the rules that transform one sentence type into another type.42. D-structure: D- structure is the level of syntactic representation that exists before movement takes place. Phrase structure rules, with the insertion of the lexicon, generate sentences at the level of D-structure.V. Answer the following questions: 43.What are the basic components of a sentence? Normally, a sentence consists of at least a s ubject and its predicate which contains a finite verb or a verb phrase. 44. What are the maj or types of sentences? Illustrate them with examples. Traditionally, there are three major ty pes of sentences. They are simple sentence, coordinate( compound) sentence, and complex se ntence. A simple sentence consists of a single clause which contains a subject and a predicat e and stands alone as its own sentence, for example: John reads extensively. A coo rdinate sentence contains two clauses joined by a linking word that is called coordinating con junction, such as "and", "but", "or". For example: John is reading a linguistic book, and Mary is preparing for her history exam. A complex sentence contains two, or more, clauses, one of which is incorporated into the other. The two clauses in a complex sentenc e do not have equal status, one is subordinate to the other. For exam-ple: Before John gave her a lecture, Mary showed no interest in lin-guistics. 45. Are the elements in a sentence li nearly structured? Why? No. Language is both linearly and hierarchically structured. When a sentence is uttered or written down, the words of the sentence are produced one after an other in a sequence. A closer examination of a sentence shows that a sentence is not comp osed of sequence of words arranged in a simple linear order with one adding onto another f ollowing a simple arithmetic logic. In fact, sen-tences are also hierarchically structured. They are orga-nized by grouping together words of the same syntactic category, such as noun phra se (NP) or verb phrase (VP), as can be seen from the following tree diagram:S NP VP Det N Vt NPDet N The boy likes the music. 46. Wh at are the advantages of using tree diagrams in the analysis of sentence structures? The tre e diagram can not only reveal a linear order, but also a hierarchical structure that groups wo rds into structural constituents. It can, in addition, show the syntactic category of each struct ural constituent, thus it is believed to most truthfully illustrate the constituent relationship am ong linguistic elements. 47. What is NP movement. Illustrate it with examples. NP movemen t in-volves the movement of a noun phrase. NP-movement occurs when, for example, a sent ence changes from the active voice to the passive voice: (A)The man beat the child. (B). The child was beaten by the man. B is the result of the m ovement of the noun phrases "the man" and "the child" from their original positions in (A) to new positions. That is, "the man" is postposed to the right and "the child" is preposed to the left. Not all instances of NP-movement, however, are related to changing a sentenc e from the active voice to the passive voice. For example: (C) It seems they are quite fit for the job. (D) They seem quite fit for the job. These sentences are identical in meanin g, but different in their superfi-cial syntactic representations. It is believed that they have the same underly-ing structure, but (27b) is the result of an NP movement.语言学教程复习题与答案(胡壮麟版第五章)I. Decide whether each of the following statements is True or False: 1. Dialectal synonyms can often be found in different regional dialects such as British English and American Engl ish but cannot be found within the variety itself, for example, within British English or Ame rican English. 2. Sense is concerned with the relationship between the linguistic element and the non-linguistic world of experience, while the reference deals with the inherent meaning of the linguistic form. 3. Linguistic forms having the same sense may have different refere nces in different situations. 4. In semantics, meaning of language is considered as the intrinsi c and inherent relation to the physical world of experience. 5. Contextualism is based on t he presumption that one can derive meaning from or reduce meaning to observable context s. 6. Behaviourists attempted to define the meaning of a language form as the situation in which the speaker utters it and the response it calls forth in the hearer. 7. The meaning of a sentence is the sum total of the meanings of all its components. 8. Most languages have sets of lexical items similar in meaning but ranked differently according to their degree of formality. 9. “it is hot.”is a no-place predication because it contains no argument.10. In grammatical analysis, the sentence is taken to be the basic unit, but in semantic analy sis of a sentence, the basic unit is predication, which is the abstraction of the meaning of a sentence. II. Fill in each of the following blanks with one word which begins with the let ter given: 11. S________ can be defined as the study of meaning. 12. The conceptualist vie w holds that there is no d______ link between a linguistic form and what it refers to. 13.R______ means what a linguistic form refers to in the real, physical world; it deals with the relationship between the linguistic element and the non-linguistic world of experience. 14. W ords that are close in meaning are called s________. 15. When two words are identical in s ound, but different in spelling and meaning, they are called h__________. 16.R_________ o pposites are pairs of words that exhibit the reversal of a relationship between the two items.17. C ____ analysis is based upon the belief that the meaning of a word can be divided i nto meaning components. 18. Whether a sentence is semantically meaningful is governed by rules called s________ restrictions, which are constraints on what lexical items can go with what others. 19. An a________ is a logical participant in a predication, largely identical with the nominal element(s) in a sentence. 20. According to the n ____ theory of meaning, the words in a lan-guage are taken to be labels of the objects they stand for. III. There are fou r choices following each statement. Mark the choice that can best complete the statement: 21. The naming theory is advanced by ________.A. PlatoB. BloomfieldC. Geoffrey LeechD. Firth 22. “We shall k now a word by the company it keeps.”This statement represents _______. A. the conce ptualist view B. contexutalism C. the naming theory D.behaviourism 23. Whic h of the following is not true? A. Sense is concerned with the inherent meaning of the lin guistic form. B. Sense is the collection of all the features of the linguistic form. C. Sense is abstract and de-contextualized. D. Sense is the aspect of meaning dictionary compilers are not interested in. 24. “Can I borrow your bike?”_______ “You have a bike.”A. is synonymous withB. is inconsistent withC. entailsD. presupposes 25. ____ _______ is a way in which the meaning of a word can be dissected into meaning compone nts, called semantic features. A. Predication analysis B. Componential analysis C. Phonemic analysis D. Grammatical analysis 26. “alive”and “dead”are ______ ________. A. gradable antonyms B. relational opposites C. complementary antony ms D. None of the above 27. _________ deals with the relationship between the ling uistic element and the non-linguistic world of experience. A. Reference B. C oncept C. Semantics D. Sense 28. ___________ refers to the pheno广告网址n that words having different meanings have the same form. A. PolysemyB. SynonymyC. HomonymyD. Hyponymy 29. Words that are close in meaning are called ______________. A. homonyms B. polysemy C. hyponyms D. synonyms 30. The grammaticality of a sentence is governed by _ ______. A. grammatical rules B. selectional restrictions C. semantic rules D. semantic fea tures IV. Define the following terms: 31. semantics 32. sense 33 . reference 34. synonymy 35. polysemy 36. homonymy 37. homophones 38. Homographs 39. complete homonyms 40. hyponymy 41.antonymy 42 componential analysis 43.grammatical meaning 44. predication 45. Ar gument 46. predicate 47. Two-place predication V. Answer the following questions: 48. Why do we say that a meaning of a sentence is not the sum total of the meanings of all its components? 49. What is componential analysis? Illustrate it with exampl es. 50. How do you distinguish between entailment and presupposition in terms of truth val ues? 51. How do you account for such sense relations between sentences as synonymous re lation, inconsistent relation in terms of truth values? 52. According to the way synonyms di ffer, how many groups can we classify synonyms into? Illustrate them with examples. 53. W hat are the major views concerning the study of meaning? How they differ?I. Decide whether each of the following statements is True or False: l.F 2.F 3.T 4.F 5. T 6.T 7.F 8.T 9.T 10.T II. Fill in each of the following blanks with one word which begins with the letter given: 11. Semantics 12. direct 13.Reference 14. synonyms 15.homopho nes 16.Relational 17. Componential 18. selectional 19. argument 20. naming III. There are fo ur choices following each statement. Mark the choice that can best complete the statement: 2l.A 22.B 23.D 24.D 25.B 26.C 27.A 28.C 29.D 30.A IV. Define the following terms: 31. Se mantics: Semantics can be simply defined as the study of meaning in language. 32. Sense: Se nse is concerned with the inherent meaning of the linguistic form. It is the collection of all the features of the linguistic form; it is abstract and de -contextualised. 33. Reference: Refere nce means what a linguistic form refers to in the real, physical world; it deals with the relati onship between the linguistic element and the non-linguistic world of experience 34. Synonym y :Synonymy refers to the sameness or close similarity of meaning. 35. Polysemy :Polysemy r efers to the fact that the same one word may have more than one meaning. 36. Homonymy:Homonymy refers to the pheno广告网址n that words having different mean-ings have the same form, i.e. , different words are identical in sound or spelling, or in both. 37. homoph ones :When two words are identical in sound, they are called homophones 38. homographs : When two words are identical in spelling, they are homographs. 39. complete homonyms.:Wh en two words are identical in both sound and spelling, they are called complete homonyms.40.Hyponymy :Hyponymy refers to the sense relation between a more general, more inclusive word and a more specific word. 41. Antonymy :Antonymy refers to the relation of opposite ness of meaning. 42. Componential analysis : Componential analysis is a way to analyze word meaning. It was pro-posed by structural semanticists. The approach is based on the belief t hat the meaning of a -word can be divided into meaning components, which are called sema ntic features. 43.The grammatical meaning : The grammatical meaning of a sentence refers to its grammaticality, i.e. , its grammatical well-formedness . The grammaticality of a sentence i s governed by the grammatical rules of the language. 44. predica-tion :The predica-tion is the abstraction of the meaning of a sentence. 45. ar-gument : An ar-gument is a logical particip ant in a predication. It is generally identical with the nominal element (s) in a sentence. 46. predicate : A predicate is something that is said about an argument or it states the logical re lation linking the arguments in a sentence. 47. two-place predication :A two-place predication is one which con-tains two arguments. V. Answer the following qu estions: 48. Why do we say that a meaning of a sentence is not the sum total of the mea nings of all its components? The meaning of a sentence is not the sum total of the mean ings of all its components because it cannot be worked out by adding up all the meanings of its constituent words. For example; (A) The dog bit the man. (B) The man bit the dog. If the meaning of a sentence were the sum total of the meanings of all its co mponents, then the above two sentences would have the same meaning. In fact they are diff erent in meanings. As we know, there are two aspects to sentence meaning: grammatical mea n-ing and semantic meaning. The grammatical meanings of “the dog”and “the man”in (A) are different from the grammatical meanings of “the dog”and “the man”in (B). T he meaning of a sentence is the product of both lexical and grammatical meaning. It is the product of the meaning of the constituent words and of the grammatical constructions that r elate one word syntagmatically to another. 49.What is componential analysis? Illustrate it with examples. Componential analysis, pro-pos ed by structural semanticists, is a way to analyze word meaning. The approach is based on t he belief that the meaning of a word can be divided into meaning components, which are c alled semantic features. Plus and minus signs are used to indicate whether a certain semantic feature is present or absent in the meaning of a word, and these feature symbols are usuall y written in capitalized letters. For example, the word “man”is ana-lyzed as consisting of the semantic features of [+ HUMAN, + ADULT, + ANIMATE, +MALE] 50. How do yo u distinguish between entailment and presupposition in terms of truth values? Entailment is a relation of inclusion. Suppose there are two sentences X and Y: X: He has been to Fran ce. Y: He has been to Europe. In terms of truth values, if X is true, Y is necessarily tru e, e.g. If he has been to France, he must have been to Europe. If X is false, Y may be t rue or false, e. g. If he has not been to France, he may still have been to Europe or he h as not been to Europe. If Y is true, X may be true or false, e.g. If he has been to Europe, he may or may not have been to France. If Y is false, X is false, e.g. If he has not been to Europe, he cannot have been to France. Therefore we conclude that X entails Y or Y i s an entailment of X. The truth conditions that we use to judge presupposition is as follows: Suppose there are two sentences X and Y X: John' s bike needs repairing. Y: J ohn has a bike. If X is true, Y must be true, e.g. If John' s bike needs repairing, John mus t have a bike. If X is false, Y is still true, e. g. If John' s bike does not need repairing, Jo hn still has a bike. If Y is true, X is either true or false, e.g. If John has a bike, it may or may not need repairing. If Y is false, no truth value can be said about X, e.g. If John doe s not have a bike, nothing can be said about whether his bike needs repairing or not. There fore, X presupposes Y, or Y is a presupposition of X. 51. How do you account for such sense relations between sentences as synonymous relation, inconsistent relation in terms of tr uth values? In terms of truth condition, of the two sentences X and Y, if X is true, Y is true; if X is false, Y is false, therefore X is synonymous with Y e.g. X; He was a bachelor all his life. Y: He never married all his life. Of the two sentences X and Y, if X is true, Y is false; if X is false, Y is true, then we can say A is inconsistent with Y e.g. X: John ismarried. Y: John is a bachelor.52. According to the ways synonyms differ, how many groups can we classify synonyms into? Illustrate them with examples.According to the ways synonyms differ, synonyms can be divided into the following group s. i. Dialectal synonyms They are synonyms which are used in different regional dialects. Bri tish English and American English are the two major geographical varieties of the English la nguage. For examples: British English American English autumn fall lift elevator Then dialectal synonyms can also be foun d within British, or American English itself. For example, "girl" is called "lass" or "lassie" in Scottish dialect, and "liquor" is called "whisky" in Irish dialect. ii. Stylistic synonyms They a re synonyms which differ in style or degree of formality. Some of the stylistic synonyms ten d to be more formal, others tend to be casual, and still oth-ers are neutral in style. For exa mple: old man, daddy, dad, father, male parent chap, pal, friend, companion iii. Synonyms that differ in their emotive or evaluative meaning They are the words that have the same meaning but express different emotions of the user. The emotions of the user indi cate the attitude or bias of the user toward what he is talking about . For exam-ple, “colla borator” and “accomplice” are synonymous, sharing the meaning of "a person who helps another", but they are different in their evaluative meaning. The former means that a person who helps another in do-ing something good, while the latter refers to a person who helps another in a criminal act. iv. Collocational synonyms They are synonyms which differ in the ir collocation. For example, we can use accuse, charge, rebuke to say that someone has done something wrong or even criminal, but they are used with different preposi-tions accuse. . . of, charge. . . with, rebuke. . .for. v. V. Semantically different synonyms Semantically differe nt synonyms refer to the synonyms that differ slight-ly in what they mean. For example, "a maze" and "astound" are very close in meaning to the word "surprise," but they have very s ubtle differences in meaning. While amaze suggests confusion andbewilderment, " astound" implies difficulty in believing. " 53. What are the major views concerning the study of meaning? How do they differ? One of the oldest w as the naming theory, proposed by the ancient Greek scholar Plato, who believed that the w ords used in a language are taken to be la-bels of the objects they stand for. The conceptua list view holds that there is no direct link between a lin-guistic form and what it refers to.The form and the meaning are linked through the mediation of concepts in the mind. Conte xtualism is based on the presumption that one can derive meaning from or reduce meaning to observable contexts. Two kinds of context are recognized; the situational context and the linguistic context. For example, the meaning of the word "seal" in the sentence "The seal co uld not be found" can only be determined ac-cording to the context in which the sentence occurs: The seal could not be found. The zoo keeper became worried. (seal meaning an aqu atic mammal) The seal could not be found. The king became worried. (seal meaning the kin g's stamp)Behaviorism drew on behaviorist psychology when he tried to define the meaning of lingui stic forms. Behaviorists attempted to de-fine the meaning of a language form as " the situati on in which the speaker utters it and the response it calls forth in the hearer".语言学教程复习题与答案(胡壮麟版第六章)Historical Linguistics I. Decide whether each of the following statements is True or False: 1. One of the tasks of the historical linguists is to explore methods to reconstruct linguistic history and establish the relationship between languages. 2. Language change is a gradual and constant process, therefore often indiscernible to speakers of the same generation. 3. The hi story of the English language is divided into the periods of Old English, Middle English and Modern English. 4. Middle English began with the arrival of Anglo-Saxons, who invaded th e British Isles from northern Europe. 5. In Old English, all the nouns are inflected to mark nominative, genitive, dative and accusative cases. 6. In Old English, the verb of a sentence often precedes the subject rather than follows it. 7. A direct consequence of the Renaissance Movement was the revival of French as a literary language. 8. In general, linguistic change i n grammar is more noticeable than that in the sound system and the vocabulary of a langua ge. 9. The sound changes include changes in vowel sounds, and in the loss, gain and move ment of sounds. 10. The least widely-spread morphological changes in the historical develop ment of English are the loss and addition of affixes. 11. In Old English, the morphosyntac tic rule of adjective agreement stipulated that the endings of adjective must agree with the h ead noun in case, number and gender. 12.。

TPO 07 Paragraph 11．The wordin thepassage is closest in meaning to○achievement○requirement○purpose○feature2．Which of the following is NOT mentioned in paragraph 1 as a change that occurred in the fauna of the Mediterranean?○Most invertebrate species disappeared during a wave ofextinctions.○A few hardy species wiped out many of the Mediterranean’sinvertebrates.○Some invertebrates migrated to Atlantic Ocean.○New species of fauna populated the Mediterranean whenThe Geologic History ofthe MediterraneanIn 1970 geologists Kenneth J. Hsu and William B.F. Ryan were collecting research data while aboard the oceanographicresearch vessel Glomar Challenger. An of this particular cruise was to investigate the floor of the Mediterranean and to resolve questions about its geologic history. One question was related to evidence that the invertebrate fauna (animals without spines) of the Mediterranean had changed abruptly about 6 million years ago. Most of the older organisms were nearly wiped out, although a few hardy species survived. A few managed to migrate into the Atlantic. Somewhat later, the1the old migrants returned.Paragraph 33．What does the author imply by○The most obvious explanation for the origin of the pebbles was not migrants returned, bringing new species with them. Why did the near extinction and migrations occur?■Another task for the Glomar Challenge r’s scientists was to try to determine the origin of the domelike masses buried deep beneath the Mediterranean seafloor. ■These structures had been detected years earlier by echo-sounding instruments, but they had never been penetrated in the course of dri lling. ■Were they salt domes such as are common along the United States Gulf Coast, and if so, why should there have been so much solid crystalline salt beneath the floor of the Mediterranean? ■With question such as these clearly before them, the scientists2supported by the evidence.○The geologists did not find as many pebbles as they expected.○The geologists were looking for a particular kind of pebble.○The different pebbles could not have come from only one source.4．Which of the following can be inferred from paragraph 3 about the solid gypsum layer?○It did not contain any marine fossil.○It had formed in open-ocean conditions.○It had once been soft, deep-sea mud.○It contained sediment from nearby deserts.5. Select the TWO answer choice from paragraph 3 that identify materials discovered in the deepest part of the Mediterranean basin. To receive credit aboard the Glomar Challenger processed to the Mediterranean to search for the answers. On August 23, 1970, they recovered a sample. The sample consisted of pebbles of gypsum and fragments of volcanicIn the days following, samples of solid gypsum were repeatedly brought on deck as drilling operations penetrated the seafloor. Furthermore, the gypsum was found to possess peculiarities of composition and structure that suggested it had formed on desert flats. Sediment above and below the gypsum layer contained tiny marine fossils, indicating open-ocean conditions. As they drilled into the central and deepest part of the Mediterranean basin, the3you must select TWO answers.○Volcanic rock fragments.○This silt layers○Soft, deep-sea mud○Crystalline salt6. What is the main purpose of paragraph 3?○To describe the physical evidence collected by Hsu and Ryan.○To explain why some of the questions posed earlier in the passage could not be answered by the findings of the Glomar Challenger.○To evaluate techniques used by Hsu and Ryan to explore the sea floor.○To describe the most difficult problems faced by the GlomarChallenger expedition.Paragraph 47. According to paragraph 4, which of the following was responsible for the evaporation of the Mediterranean’s scientists took solid, shiny, crystalline salt from the core barrel. Interbedded with the salt were thin layers of what appeared to be windblown silt.The time had come to formulate a hypothesis. The4waters?○The movements of Earth’s crust○The accumulation of sediment layers○Changes in the water level of the Atlantic Ocean○Changes in Earth’s temperature8. The word “scores” in the passage is closest in meaning to○members○large numbers○populations○different types9. According to paragraph 4, what caused most invertebrate species in the Mediterranean to become extinct?○The evaporation of chemicals necessary for their survival○Crustal movements that connected the Mediterranean to the investigators theorized that about 20 million years ago, the Mediterranean was a broad seaway linked to the Atlantic by two narrow straits. Crustal movements closed the straits, and the landlocked Mediterranean began to evaporate. Increasing salinity caused by the evaporation resulted in the extermination ofof invertebrate species. Only a few organisms especially tolerant of very salty conditions remained. As evaporation continued, the remaining brine (salt water) became so dense that the calcium sulfate of the hard layer was precipitated. In the central deeper part of the basin, the last of the brine evaporated to precipitate more soluble sodium chloride (salt). Later, under the weight of overlying sediments, this salt flowed plastically upward to5saltier Atlantic○The migration of new species through the narrow straits○Their inability to tolerate the increasing salt content of theMediterranean10. Which of the sentences below best expresses the essential information in the highlighted sentence in the passage? Incorrect choices change the meaning in important ways or leave out essential information.○The strait of Gibraltar reopened when the Mediterranean and the Atlantic became connected and the cascades of water from one sea to the other caused crustal adjustments and faulting.○The Mediterranean was dramatically refilled by water from the Atlantic when crustal adjustments and faulting opened the Strait of Gibraltar, the place where the two seas are joined.○The cascades of water from the form salt domes. Before this happened, however, the Mediterranean was a vast desert 3,000 meters deep. Then, about 5.5 million years ago came the deluge.tore into the hardened salt flats, broke them up, and ground them into the pebbles observed in the first sample taken by the Challenger. As the basin was refilled, normal marine organisms returned. Soon layer of oceanic ooze began to accumulate above the old hard layer.The salt and gypsum, the faunal changes, and the unusual gravel provided abundant6Atlantic to the Mediterranean were not as spectacular as the crustal adjustments and faulting that occurred when the Strait of Gibraltar was connected to those seas.○As a result of crustal adjustments and faulting and the creation of the Strait of Gibraltar, the Atlantic and Mediterranean were connected and became a single sea with spectacular cascades of water between them.11. The word “Turbulent” in the passage is closest in meaning to○fresh○deep○violent○temperateParagraph 212. Look at the four squares ■ that indicate where the following sentence could be added to the passage.Thus, scientists had information about the shape of the domes but not evidence that the Mediterranean was once a desert.gypsum: a mineral made of calcium sulfate and water7about their chemical composition and origin.Where would the sentence best fit?13．An expedition to the Mediterranean answered some long-standing questions about the ocean’s history.●●●Answer choices1. The Glomar Challenger expedition investigated changes in invertebrate fauna and some unusual geologic features.2. Researchers collected fossils to determine which new species migrated from the Atlantic with older species.3. Scientists aboard the Glomar Challenger were the first to discover the existence of domelike masses underneath the seafloor.4. Samples recovered from the■Another task for the Glomar Challenger’s scientists was to try to determine the origin of the domelike masses buried deep beneath the Mediterranean seafloor. ■These structures had been detected years earlier by echo-sounding instruments, but they had never been penetrated in the course of drilling. ■Were they salt domes such as are common along the United States Gulf Coast, and if so, why should there have been so much solid crystalline salt beneath the floor of the Mediterranean? ■8旗开得胜expedition revealed importantdifferences in chemical composition andfossil distribution among the sedimentlayers.5. Evidence collected by the GlomarChallenger supports geologists' beliefsthat the Mediterranean had evaporatedand become a desert, before it refilledwith water.6. Mediterranean salt domes formedafter crustal movements opened thestraits between the Mediterranean andthe Atlantic, and the Mediterraneanrefilled with water.9旗开得胜10Paragraph 11. Which of the sentences below best expresses the essential information in the highlighted sentence in the passage? Incorrect choices change the meaning in important ways or leave out essential information.○The regularity and power of stone walls inspired Romans attempting to unify the parts of their realm.○Although the Romans used different types of designs when building their walls, they used regular controls to maintain their realm.○Several types of control united the Roman realm, just as design and cement held Roman walls together.○Romans built walls to unite the various parts of their realm into a single entity, which was controlled by powerful laws.2. According to paragraph 1, all of the following are controls that held together the roman world EXCEPTAncient Rome and GreeceThere is a quality of cohesiveness about the Roman world that applied neither to Greece nor perhaps to any other civilization, ancient or modern. Like the stone of Roman wall, which were held together both by the regularity of the design and by that peculiarly powerful Roman cement, so the various parts of the Roman realm were bonded into a massive, monolithic entity by physical, organizational, and psychological controls. The physical bonds included the network of military garrisons, which were stationed in every province, and the network of stone-built roads that linked the provinces with Rome. The organizational bonds were based on the common principles of law and administration and on the universal army of officials who enforced common standards of conduct. The psychological controls were built on fear and punishment —on the absolute certainty○administrative and legal systems○the presence of the military○a common language○transportation networksParagraph 23.The phrase “obsession with” in the passage is closest in meaning to○thinking about○fixation on○interest in○attitude toward4.According to paragraph 2, which of the following was NOT characteristic of Rome’s early development?○Expansion by sea invasion○T erritorial expansion○Expansion from one original settlement ○Expansion through invading armies5.Why does the author mention “Alexander the Great” in the passage?○T o acknowledge that Greek civilization that anyone or anything that threatened the authority of Rome would be utterly destroyed.The source of Roman obsession with unity and cohesion may well have lain in the pattern of Rome’s early development. Whereas Greece had grown from scores of scattered cities, Rome grew from one single organism. While the Greek world had expanded along the Mediterranean seas lanes, the Roman world was assembled by territorial conquest. Of course, the contrast is not quite so stark: in Alexander the Great the Greeks had found the greatest territorial conqueror of all time; and the Romans, once they moved outside Italy, did not fail to learn the lessons of sea power. Yet the essential difference is undeniable. The Key to the Greek world lay in its high-11also expanded by land conquest○T o comp are Greek leaders to Roman leaders○T o give an example of Greek leader whom Romans studied○T o indicate the superior organization of the Greek militaryParagraph 36.is closest in meaning to○accepted○combined○introduced○encouraged7.Paragraph 3 suggests which of thefollowing about the people of Latium?○Their economy was based on trade relations with other settlements.○They held different values than the people of Rome.○Agriculture played a significant r ole in the society. powered ships; the key to Roman power lay in its marching legions. The Greeks were wedded to the sea; the Romans, to the land. The Greek was a sailor at heart; the Roman, a landsman.Certainly, in trying to explain the Roman phenomenon, one would have to place great emphasis on this almost instinct for the territorial imperative. Roman priorities lay in the organization, exploitation, and defense of their territory. In all probability it was the fertile plain of Latium, where the Latins who founded Rome originated, that created the habits and skills of landed settlement, landed property, landed economy, landed administration, and a12○They possessed unusual knowledge of animal instinctsParagraph 48.Paragraph 4 indicates that somehistorians admire Roman civilization because of○the diversity of cultures within Roman society○its strength○its innovative nature○the large body of literature that it developed9.In paragraph 4, the author develops adescription of Roman civilization by○comparing the opinions of Roman intellectuals to Greek intellectuals○identifying which characteristics of roman civilization were copied from Greece○explaining how the differences between Roman and Greece developed as time passed○contrasting characteristics of Roman land-based society. From this arose the Roman genius for military organization and orderly government. In turn, a deep attachment to the land, and to the stability which rural life engenders,the Roman virtues: gravitas, a sense of responsibility, peitas, a sense of devotion to family and country, and iustitia, a sense of the natural order.Modern attitudes to Roman civilization range from the infinitely impressed to the thorough disgusted. ■As always, there are the power worshippers, especially among historians, who are predisposed to admire whatever is strong, who feel more attracted to the might of Rome than to the subtlety of Greece. ■At the same time, there is a solid body of opinion that dislikes Rome. ■For many, Rome is at best the imitator and the continuator of Greece on a larger scale. ■Greek civilization had quality; Rome,13civilization with characteristics of Greek civilization10.According to paragraph 4, intellectual Romans such as Horace held which of the following opinions about their civilization?○Ancient works of Greece held little value in the Roman world.○The Greek civilization had been surpassed by the Romans.○Roman civilization produced little that was original or memorable.○Romans valued certain types of innovations that had been ignored by ancient Greeks.Paragraph 5mere quantity. Greece was the inventor; Rome, the research and development division. Such indeed was the opinion of some of the more intellectual Romans.” had the Greeks held novelty in such disdain as we,” asked Ho race in his Epistle, “what work of ancient date would now exist?”Rome’s debt to Greece was enormous. The Romans adopted Greek14Paragraph 611.The wordin thepassage is closest in meaning to○abilities○areas○combinations○models12.Which of the following statements about leading Roman soldiers and statesmen is supported by paragraphs 5 and 6?○They could read and write the Greek language.○They frequently wrote poetry and plays.○They focused their writing on military matters.○They wrote according to the philosophical laws of the Greeks.Paragraph 413.Look at the four squares ■ that religion and moral philosophy. In literature, Greek writers were consciously used as models by their Latin successors. It was absolutely accepted that an educated Roman should be fluent in Greek. In speculative philosophy and the sciences, the Romans made virtually no advance on early achievements.Yet it would be wrong to suggest that Rome was somehow a junior partner in Greco-Roman civilization. The Roman genius was projected into newespecially into those of law, military organization, administration, and engineering. Moreover, the tensions that arose within the Roman state produced literary and artistic sensibilities of the highest order. It was no accident that many leading Roman soldiers and statesmen were writers of high caliber.15indicate where the following sentence could be added to the passage.They esteem symbols of Roman power, such as the massive Colosseum. Where would the sentence best fit?14.The Roman world drew its strength from several important sources●●●Answer choices1. Numerous controls imposed by Roman rulers held its territory together.2. The Roman military was organized differently from older military organizations.3. Romans valued sea power as did the Latins, the original inhabitants of Rome.4. Roman values were rooted in a strong attachment to the land and the stability of rural life.5. Rome combined aspects of ancient Greek civilization with its own contributions in new areas. civilization range from the infinitely impressed to the thorough disgusted. ■As always, there are the power worshippers, especially among historians, who are predisposed to admire whatever is strong, who feel more attracted to the might of Rome than to the subtlety of Greece. ■At the same time, there is a solid body of opinion that dislikes Rome. ■For many, Rome is at best the imitator and the continuator of Greece on a larger scale. ■Greek civilization had quality; Rome, mere quantity. Greece was the inventor; Rome, the research and development division. Such indeed was the opinion of some of the more intellectual Romans.” had the Greeks held novelty in such166. Educated Romans modeled their own literature and philosophy on the ancient Greeks disdain as we,” asked Horace in his Epistle, “what work of ancient date wo uld now exist?”17Paragraph 11.The wordin thepassage is closest in meaning to○emerged○was understood○spread○developed2.According to paragraph 1, why do researchers doubt that agriculture developed independently in Africa?○African lakes and rivers already provided enough food for people to survive without agriculture.○The earliest examples of cultivated plants discovered in Africa are native to Asia.○Africa’s native plants are very difficult to domesticate.○African co mmunities were not large enough to support agriculture.无老师网站:ibtsat3.In paragraph 1, what does theAgriculture, Iron, andthe Bantu PeoplesThere is evidence of agriculture in Africa prior to 3000 B.C. It may have developed independently, but many scholars believe that the spread of agriculture and iron throughout Africa linked it to the major centers of the Near East and Mediterranean world. The drying up of what is now the Sahara desert had pushed many peoples to the south into sub-Sahara Africa. These peoples settled at first in scattered hunting-and-gathering bands, although in some places near lakes and rivers, people who fished, with a more secure food supply, lived in larger population concentrations. Agriculture seems to have reached these people from the Near East, since the first domesticated crops were millets and sorghums whose18author imply about changes in the African environment during this time period?○The climate was becoming milder, allowing for a greater variety of crops to be grown.○Although periods of drying forced people south, they returned once their food supply was secure.○Population growth along rivers and lakes was dramatically decreasing the availability of fish.○A region that had once supported many people was becoming a desert where few could surviveParagraph 24.According to paragraph 2,camels were important because they ○were the first domesticated animal to be introduced to Africa○allowed the people of the West African savannahs to carve out large empires origins are not African but west Asian. Once the idea of plantingtheir own crops, such as certain varieties of rice, and they demonstrated a continued receptiveness to new imports. The proposed areas of the domestication of African crops lie in a band that extends from Ethiopia across southern Sudan to West Africa. Subsequently, other crops, such as bananas, were introduced from Southeast Asia.Livestock also came from outside Africa. Cattle were introduced from Asia, as probably were domestic sheep and goats.19○helped African peoples defend themselves against Egyptian invaders○made it cheaper and easier to cross the Sahara5.According to paragraph 2, which of the following were subjects of rock paintings in the Sahara?○Horses and chariots○Sheep and goats○Hyksos invaders from Egypt○Camels and cattleParagraph 36.What function does paragraph 3 serve in the organization of the passage as a whole○It contrasts the development of iron technology in West Asia and West Africa. Horses were apparently introduced by the Hyksos invaders of Egypt (1780-1560 B.C.) and then spread across the Sudan to West Africa. Rock paintings in the Sahara indicate that horses and chariots were used to traverse the desert and that by 300-200 B.C., there were trade routes across the Sahara. Horses were adopted by peoples of the West African savannah, and later their powerful cavalry forces allowed them to carve out large empires. Finally, the camel was introduced around the first century A.D. This was an important innovation, because the camel’s abilities to thrive in harsh desert conditions and to carry large loads cheaply made it an effective and efficient means of transportation. The camel transformed the desert from a barrier into a still difficult, but more20○It discusses a non-agricultural contribution to Africa from Asia.○It introduces evidence that a knowledge of copper working reached Africa and Europe at the same time.○It compares the rates at which iron technology developed in different parts of Africa.Paragraph 47.The wordin thepassage is closest in meaning to ○fascinating○far-reaching○necessary○temporary8.Theword in thepassage is closest in meaning to ○military○physical○ceremonial accessible, route of trade and communication.Iron came from West Asia, although its routes of diffusion were somewhat different than those of agriculture. Most of Africa presents a curious case in which societies moved directly from a technology of stone to iron without passing through the intermediate stage of copper or bronze metallurgy, although some early copper-working sites have been found in West Africa. Knowledge of iron making penetrated into the forest and savannahs of West Africa at roughly the same time that iron making was reaching Europe. Evidence of iron making has been found in Nigeria, Ghana, and Mali.This technological shift causein the complexity of African societies. Iron21○permanent9.According to paragraph 4, all of the following were social effects of the new metal technology in Africa EXCEPT: ○Access to metal tools and weapons created greater social equality.○Metal weapons increased the power of warriors.○Iron tools helped increase the food supply.○T echnical knowl edge gave religious power to its holders.Paragraph 510.Which of the sentences below best expresses the essential information in the highlighted sentence in the passage? Incorrect choices change the meaning in important ways or leave out essential information.○While American iron makers developed the latest furnaces, African iron makers continued using earlier represented power. In West Africa the blacksmith who made tools and functions. Iron hoes, which made the land more productive, and iron weapons, which made the warrior more powerful, had symbolic meaning in a number of West Africa societies. Those who knew the secrets of making ironand sometimes political power.22techniques.○Africans produced iron much earlier than Americans, inventing technologically sophisticated heating systems.○Iron making developed earlier in Africa than in the Americas because of the ready availability of carbon and iron ore.○Both Africa and the Americas developed the capacity for making iron early, but African metallurgy developed at a slower rate.Paragraph 611.The wordin thepassage is closest in meaning to○afraid of○displaced by○running away from○responding to12.Paragraph 6 mentions all of the following as possiblecauses of theright into the Iron Age, taking the basic technology and adapting it to local; conditions and resources.The diffusion of agriculture and later of iron was accompanied by a great movement of people23“Bantu explosion” EXCEPT○superior weapons○better hunting skills○peaceful migra tion○increased populationParagraph 613.Look at the four squares ■ that indicate where the following sentence could be added to the passage.T hese people had a significant linguistic impact on the continent as well.Where would the sentence best fit?14.Agriculture and iron working probably spread to Africa from neighboring regions.●●●Answer choices who may have carried these innovations. These people probably originated in eastern Nigeria. ■Their migration may have been set in motion by an increase in population caused by a movement ofthe desiccation, or drying up, of the Sahara. ■They spoke a language, prior-Bantu (“Bantu” means “the people”), which is the parent tongue of a language of a large number of Bantu languages still spoken throughout sub-Sahara Africa. Why and how these people spread out into central and southern Africa remains a mystery, but archaeologists believe that their iron weapons allowed them to conquer their hunting-gathering opponents, who still used stone implements. ■Still, the process is uncertain, and peaceful migration—or simply rapid241 .Once Africans developed their own crops, they no longer borrowed from other regions.2. The harshness of the African climate meant that agriculture could not develop until after the introduction of iron tools.3. The use of livestock improved transportation and trade and allowed for new forms of political control.4. As the Sahara expanded, the camel gained in importance, eventually coming to have religious significance.5. The spread of iron working had far-reaching effects on social, economic, and political organization in Africa.6. Today's Bantu-speaking peoples are descended from a technologically advanced people who spread throughout Africa. demographic growth—may have also caused the Bantu explosion. ■25。

2024年自考-自考专业(英语)-英语词汇学考试历年真题常考点试题带答案（图片大小可任意调节）第1卷一.单选题(共20题)1.We are interested in the weather because it _______ us so directly—what we wear, what we do and even how we feel.A.benefitsB.affectsC.guidesD.effects2.“Woman” becomes “ Frau” in German, “femme” in French and “f ùnǔ” in Chinese. This example shows that in different languages the same concept can be represented by different ______ .A. soundsB.formsC.unitiesD.meanings3.Modern economics ________ the country ’s agricultural poli cies.A.undergoesB.understandsC.underliesD.undertakes4.Idioms nominal in nature have a(n) ______ as the key word in each and function as a noun in sentences.A.verbB.adjective5.Oxford Advanced Learner s Dictionary ’ , 3rd Edition (1980), is among the best-known British ______ dictionaries.A.unabridgedB.deskC.pocketD.bilingual6.______ of meaning is a process by which a word that originally had a specialized meaning has now become generalized.A.DegradationB.ElevationC.ExtensionD.Specilization7.Each of us should _______ aside a few minutes to have a rest every day.A.pushB.provideC.turnD.set8.You should help them ________ when your friends quarrel with each other.e into sighte to termse into playe to power9.Collins COBUILD English Language Dictionary (1987) has some unique features such as definition, extra column and ______.A. pronunciationB.grammar codesage examplesnguage codes10.Modern English vocabulary develops through the following channels EXCEPT ______.A.creationB.borrowingC.semantic changeD. lexical change11.The Indo-European language family is made up of the languages of the following EXCEPTA.EuropeB.the Far EastC.IndiaD.the Near East12.If you try to learn too many things at a time, you may get ________.A. concentratedB.confusedC.confirmedD.convinced13.What he told us was more of a(n) ________ than a reality.A.illusionB.demonstrationC.illustrationD.reputation14.Aliens are borrowed words which have retained their original pronunciation and spelling. Which of the following words comes from Chinese?A.BazaarB.KowtowC.RajahD.Blitzkrieg15.To write up his novel, John is looking for an environment free ________ outside distraction.A. onB.withC.fromD.in16.It took a few seconds for her eyes to ________ to the darkness.A.allocateB.adoptC.applyD.adjust17.Which of the following is NOT one of the extra-linguistic factors that cause changes in meaning?A.Cultural reason.B.Historical reason18.The differences between synonyms exist in the following areas EXCEPT ______.A.denotationB.connotationC.referenceD.application19.Generally, a dictionary covers the following contents EXCEPT ______.A. spellingB.pronunciationC.definitionD.syntactical rules20.In grammatical context, the meaning of a word may be influenced by the ______in which it occurs.A.structureB.sentenceC.phraseD.clause第2卷一.单选题(共20题)1.Among the following words, “ ______ ” contains a negative prefix.A.amoralB.de-composeC.antiwarD.foretell2.Which of the following words does NOT have suffixes?A.NorthwardB.WidenC.HappyD.Worker.3.One can figure out the meaning of “ airmail ” to be “ mail by air ” by its ______.B.morphological motivationC.semantic motivationD.etymological motivation4.Which of the following is partially converted?A. A whiteB.A drunkC.The poorD.Finals5.Washing the food down with water as a substitute ________ chewing is not a good habitA.ofB.forC.toD.from6.Which of the following statements is TRUE?A.Grammatical meaning refers to the part of speech, tenses of verbs and stylistic features ofwords.B.Unlike conceptual meaning, associative meaning is unstable and indeterminate.C.Affective meaning indicates the listener ’ s attitude towards the person or thing in questionD.Collocation cannot affect the meaning of words.7.Police are ________ the disappearance of two children.A. looking upB.looking throughC.looking intoD.looking on8.We were told that the stone figure _______ back to the 16th century was of great value.A. datedB.datingingD.kept9.Which of the following is NOT one of the context clues?A.DefinitionB.PolysemyC.SynonymyD.Antonymy.A. whatB.thatC.whichD.why11.Happiness doesn ’t alway s _______ money.A.go throughB.go in forC.go withD.go over12.There is an ambiguity in the sentence “ He is a hard businessman ” due to ______.A.polysemyB.homonymyC.synonymyD.antonymy13.A mong the following words, “ ______ ” does NOT have inflectional affixes.A. likedB.children’sC.happierD.it’s14.We cannot leave this tough job to a person ________.A.who nobody has confidenceB.in whom nobody has confidenceC.for whom nobody has confidenceD.who everyone has confidence of15.It has been years ________ I returned home.A.afterB.thatC.sinceD.when16.Which of the following is NOT one of the characteristics of idioms?A.The part of speech of each element in an idiom is very important.B.The constituents of idioms can eplaced. ’ t be rC.The word order in an idiom can ’ t be changed.D.An idiom functions as one word.breaks he wanted.A.longB.shortC.muchD.little18.The professor worked for 7 hours at a ________.A.stretchB.extendC.expandD.prolong19.Which of the following is NOT one of the main sources of new words in the present-day English vocabulary?A.The rapid development of modern science and technology.B.Social, economic and political changesC.The invasion of foreign countries.D.The influence of other cultures and languages.20.How many monomorphemic words are there in the following words? cats boss work improper triedA.1B.2C.3D.4第1卷参考答案一.单选题1.参考答案： B本题解析：affect 多作为动词来用，表示影响。