法律英语作业(中文)
- 格式:docx
- 大小:18.37 KB
- 文档页数:4
法律英语练习题答案法律英语练习题答案在学习法律英语的过程中,练习题是不可或缺的一部分。
通过解答练习题,我们可以巩固对法律英语的理解,提高自己的语言能力和专业知识。
下面是一些常见的法律英语练习题及其详细答案,希望对大家的学习有所帮助。
练习题一:请解释以下法律术语的含义:1. Tort2. Plaintiff3. Defendant4. Liability5. Jurisdiction答案一:1. Tort:指的是民事侵权行为,即一方在未经对方同意的情况下,通过自己的行为或不作为,侵犯了对方的合法权益,给对方造成了损害。
常见的侵权行为包括人身伤害、财产损失等。
2. Plaintiff:原告,指的是在民事诉讼中提起诉讼的一方,即受到侵权行为损害的一方。
3. Defendant:被告,指的是在民事诉讼中被控告的一方,即被指控犯有侵权行为的一方。
4. Liability:责任,指的是法律上的义务或责任。
在民事诉讼中,责任通常指的是被告对原告所造成的损害承担赔偿责任。
5. Jurisdiction:管辖权,指的是法院对案件的审理权限。
不同的法院有不同的管辖权,根据案件的性质、金额等因素来决定哪个法院有权审理该案件。
练习题二:请将以下英文法律名词翻译成中文:1. Contract2. Arbitration3. Injunction4. Intellectual property5. Negligence答案二:1. 合同2. 仲裁3. 禁令4. 知识产权5. 过失练习题三:请解释以下法律原则的含义:1. Presumption of innocence2. Due process3. Burden of proof4. Reasonable doubt5. Double jeopardy答案三:1. Presumption of innocence:无罪推定,指的是在刑事诉讼中,被告在未被证明有罪之前,应被认定为无罪。
简析公司法规制公司的法律(在英国,就是公司法)在不同的国家会不同吗?尽管研究公司法的学者们很少提及这一问题,但是对公司法的比较研究还是非常重要的。
最近关于公司法的研究主要集中于欧洲、美国和日本等发达经济体在公司治理、股份所有权、金融资产和企业文化等方面的比较分析。
在这些方面,尽管不同的国家有各自的特征,但是各国家公司形式的根本一致还是令人印象非常深刻的。
其实,公司都具有一套基本类似的法律性质,同样,它们也面临着一套基本类似的法律问题。
就公司形式而言,就要考虑公司的根本法律属性,展望本文以下讨论,我们认为公司具有五个方面的属性,它们为大部分商务人士所知悉。
这五个方面的属性是:法人资格、有限责任、股权转让、董事会领导下的公司管理及出资者所有权。
这些属性因现代大型企业所面对的紧急需要而产生,具体原因我们将在下文中从四个方面进行说明。
总之,任何国家的公司法都必须围绕公司的这五大属性进行拟制。
事实上,有一些企业缺乏其中的某些属性,但是我们想强调的是,在市场经济条件下,所有的大型公司都采用具备五大属性的法人形式。
除此之外,绝大多数小型合伙企业也经常采用这种形式,尽管有时因为特殊需要,这些公司可能会缺失五大属性中的一种或多种。
(通过本书,我们将遵循通常所谓的“封闭公司”的概念,来讨论那些股份不能自由转让的不同于“公众公司”的公司,股份不能转让的原因要么是股份被一小部分人所持有,要么是对股东的转让权有所限制。
)很显然,公司法的首要功能是为公司提供一个具备五个核心属性的法定形式。
如果这种形式能够广泛推广,并且被广泛采纳,那么借助于其中的某些规则,比如改变背景财产权及提供备用开支等规则,公司法就能够鼓励企业家通过公司实体这一媒介进行交易,进而还可以降低交易成本。
当然,从整体看来,那些用来规制公司形式的法律条款的数量仅仅是公司法中的一小部分,然而,这些条款却构成了公司法的核心部分。
在这一章,我将探寻具有五大属性的公司的缔约效率,我们也相信这五大属性已经推动了世界范围内对这种公司形式的采用。
一.将下列句子翻译成汉语:1. A good judge can extend the boundary of justice.优秀的法官能够拓展正义的疆界。
2. A judge cannot be a witness in his own cause.法官不可以在其受理的案件中当证人。
3. A judge cannot punish a wrong done to himself.法官不可以对自己做的过错进行惩处。
4. A judge incurs no civil liability for judicial acts, even if guilty of fraud and corruption.法官即使犯有诈欺与贪污罪也不会因其司法行为而承担民事责任。
5. An upright judge has more regard to justice than to me.法官能公正,重法不重人。
6. If the judge departs from the sentencing guideline range he must have a lawful reason for such a departure.法官必须有合法的理由方可偏离根据判刑准则所确定的量刑范围。
7. Judges shall handle cases impartially and in accordance with the law.法官应当依法秉公办案。
8. Most disputes that arise in any society are not handled through the court system.社会的大多数争议并非都要通过法院体系解决。
9. No one can be at once suitor and judge.起诉者不能兼为法官。
10. No one can be judge in his own case.任何人不能审判自己的案件。
要求:作业按次数分页打印。
完成稿可打印,可手写。
提交时间:6月15日前。
第一次作业翻译教材第七课刑法练习第2 题listening compression 段落第二段。
在起诉后,被告的律师做了一个精神病的辩护,证明欣克利是在精神错乱(精神病的状态下)不能控制自己的情况下进行射击的。
在审判时,在起诉时,精神病医生证实,欣克利精神正常的,但在辩护时,精神病医生证实欣克利是处于神志不清的状况的。
通过欣克利的质疑并随着他的逮捕,FBI代理人已经掌握了一些与这个精神病辩护问题的相关的背景信息。
但是,华盛顿地区法院规则中背景信息不能被用作证据,因为这是一个欣克利申请律师之后在讯问进行的结果,是违反米兰达规则中的法律原则的。
这个法院判决被华盛顿起诉法院所证实,而且政府也没有采取进一步公诉的行动。
在评议后,审判陪审团发现,欣克利是精神有问题的精神病,换句话说,被告不应该对开枪(枪杀)负责任。
第二次作业:关于陈满无罪释放案:英译中The acquittal of 54-year-old Chen Man who spent 23 years in prison having been wrongly convicted of arson and murder became an instant hot topic minutes after his release on Monday.陈满因放火和谋杀错误定罪而被监禁23年的,54岁时无罪释放,在他星期一获释后几分钟内成为一个即时热点话题。
Chen from Sichuan province was handed a suspended death sentence in 1994 having been accused of killing a man in Haikou, capital of Hainan province, and then setting a fire to destroy evidence.陈满被控在海南省的首都海口杀了一个人而且放火烧毁证据,在1994年从四川省上交并判处死缓。
法律英语_教材汉翻英答案(完整版)《法律英语》课后“汉翻英”答案 (完整版)Lesson One1)Common law is the law developed by judges through decisions of courts and similar tribunals.2) Equity is a type of law that developed in parallel with common law since the end of the 14th century, which applies to civil cases and is one of the sources of the common-law system.3) In the U.S., one of the functions of the federal courts is to interpret federal statutes and the constitution.4) The civil-law system mainly prevails in continental Europe as well as other countries and regions heavily influenced by continental European countries.5) Before the Federal Rules of Civil Procedure was promulgated in 1938, the federal courts of the United States procedurally separated law and equity. Lesson Two1) Private law regulates the relationship between individuals whiles public law concerns the relationship between person (including natural persons and artificial persons) and the state.2) Codification is not the essential difference between the civil-law system and the common-law system.3) In many civil-law jurisdictions, precedents are not considered as binding.4) Domestic law is different from international law in that domestic law refers to the laws within a given state which regulates the acts of individuals and other legal entities within its jurisdiction.5) Substantial law refers to laws that define and recognize rights and obligations as well as duties and responsibilities whileprocedural law refers to laws that provides for the mechanism for the realization or performance of rights and duties as well as duties and responsibilities.Lesson Three1) In some countries alcoholic beverages are prohibited from being sold to children.2) Since the 1980s, China has set up and improved the employment service system, which includes employment introduction, employment training, unemployment insurance and employment services.3) Various forms of resistance to desegregation were prevailing in those years.4) It is unjust and unlawful to discriminate against people of other races.5) Just as individuals in a democratic country have equal voting rights regardless of whether they are rich or poor, powerful or weak, all countries in the General Assembly have the same voting rights.Lesson Four1) A crime is an act which may lead to the imposition of punishment.2) Some reports accused BP of criminal negligence in the oil spill in the Gulf of Mexico.3) Modern U.S. criminal law provides that there must be clear definition for all the constituting elements of each and every crime.4) Generally those who provide assistance to people in their criminal act are punishable as accessories or accomplices.5) Failure to act may be punished where the person is undera duty to act. Lesson Five1) Parties to a contract shall fully perform their obligations in accordance with the stipulations of the contract.2) A contract is an agreement between parties which creates, modifies or terminates a civil relationship. A contract established in accordance with law is protected by law.3) A citizen or a legal person shall bear civil liabilities for his failure to fulfill his contractual or other obligations.4) No modification or revocation of a contract may prejudice the parties’claims for damages.5) For a party’s non-performance or his performance unfaithful to the contractual stipulations, the other party to a contract is entitled to demand specific performance or other remedies, and also, compensation for the resulted losses.Lesson Seven1) One who is at fault for infringing upon the civil right or interest of another person shall be subject to the tort liability.2) Where a defective product causes any harm to another person, the manufacturer shall assume the tort liability.3) One who shall assume the tort liability for infringing upon the civil right or interest of another person, whether at fault or not, as provided for by law, shall be subject to the legal provisions in the tort law.4) Where a tort endangers the personal or property safety of another person, the victim of the tort may require the tortfeasor to assume the tort liability such as cessation of infringement, removal of obstruction and elimination ofdanger.5) A network user or network service provider who infringes upon the civil right or interest of another person through network shall assume the tort liability.Lesson Seventeen1) Before the judgment what is to be done is to dispose of the case, while after the judgment is rendered, all that remains to be done is to enforce it.2) If the matter involved in the appeal is of great importance, it ought to be submitted for review.3) There are exemptions from jury service for members of the legal profession, the police force, etc.4) Judges often require that the parties agree upon a schedule of issues so as to accelerate the trial process.5) In the High Court an official shorthand note is, unless the judge otherwise directs, taken of any evidence given orally in Court and of the summing up by the judge. Upon payment of the prescribed fee, a transcript can be made available.Lesson Eighteen1) The arbitration award shall be final and binding on both parties.2) The dispute shall be submitted for arbitration by a mutually nominated arbitrator.3) Where no settlement can be reached, the dispute shall be submitted for arbitration.4) Each party may also directly apply for arbitration to the Personnel Dispute Arbitration Commission.5) Traditionally, our contracts did not contain provisions for arbitration in a third country.。
法律英语作业文档HOMEWORK《一》解释下列术语Legal system法系Legal English 法律英语Common law……………………普通法Civil law……………………………大陆法Advocate是指学习法律、依法获准执业、为当事人提供法律意见,并有资格出庭参加案件公开审理的律师,即辩护律师(英美不用);指法国等地律师、法律顾问。
1、attorney, attorney at law;广泛用于美国,指授权为当事人代理案件的律师;,2、barrister词源自英格兰法律,多用于英国、新加坡等国和香港地区,又称大律师、辩护律师,指有资格出席高等法院法庭的律师。
3、solicitor多用于英国、新加坡等国和香港地区,又称初级律师、诉讼律师,在香港称为事务律师,多从事诉讼、咨询等事务性工作,有资格出席初级法庭包括刑事案件的庭审。
4、counsel指接受指派,专门为个人、公司和政府公务部门提供法律服务的人,称为法律顾问。
Counselor经常与counsel或counselor at law互用,多指从事出庭诉讼的律师。
Counselor-at-law又拼为counselor at law用法同counselor和counselor at law。
5、Defense counsel指辩护律师。
6、Counsel pro hoc vice指仅仅代理某案件的律师。
7、Agent ad litem诉讼代理人,常用于书面用语。
Party (the agent) appointed by anotherparty (the principal) to represent its interests in a court case.8、Benngoshi日本人对律师的称呼,称为“辩护士”。
9、Esquire主要用于美国,是对律师的尊称,多以缩写形式出现,加在律师姓名之后,如John Smith Esq., Will Lee Esq.10、Gentleman of the (long) robe是对律师的比喻性称谓,不直接修饰某律师。
法律英语翻译练习与答案HUA system office room 【HUA16H-TTMS2A-HUAS8Q8-HUAH1688】练习1:外国合营者如果有意以落后的技术和设备进行欺骗,造成损失的,应赔偿损失。
If the foreign joint venturer causes any losses by deception through the intentional use of backward technology and equipment, it shall pay c o m p e n s a t i o n f o r t h e l o s s e s.修改提示:单复数考虑不周;用语不够简洁。
答案(修改要点):causes any losses →causes any loss(es) 造成一项或多项损失时都应当赔偿,不能仅用复数形式。
pay compensation for the losses →pay compensation therefor(therefor=for that/them)练习2:人民法院、人民检察院和公安机关办理刑事案件,应当分工负责,互相配合,互相制约,以保证准确有效地执行法律。
原译文:The people’s courts, people’s procuratorates and public security organs shall, in handling criminal cases, divide their functions, each taking responsibility for its own work, and they shall co-ordinate their efforts and check each other to ensure correct and effective enforcement of law.修改提示:“分工负责”,应理解为:侧重点在“负责”,而非“分工”,即分工过程中各负其责;respective 比own 更为妥当、准确;原来的译文中,and theyshall …比较啰嗦,更严重的问题是,使to ensure …割断了与divide their functions 的联系。
第1篇Court: Supreme Court of the People's Republic of ChinaCase No.: (2022) CHN 12345Facts:In April 2021, Zhang Wei, a 35-year-old Chinese national, was charged with securities fraud in the Supreme Court of the People's Republic of China. The case involved allegations that Zhang Wei, while working as a senior manager at XYZ Corporation, engaged in insider trading and false reporting of financial information, which resulted in significant financial losses to the company's shareholders.Background:Zhang Wei joined XYZ Corporation in 2015 and was promoted to theposition of Senior Manager in 2018. His responsibilities included overseeing the company's financial reporting and securities trading activities. During his tenure, Zhang Wei had access to non-public, material information about the company's financial performance andfuture business prospects.According to the prosecution, Zhang Wei engaged in the following illegal activities:1. Insider Trading: Zhang Wei traded in the company's securities while in possession of non-public, material information that was likely to have a significant effect on the price of the securities.2. False Reporting of Financial Information: Zhang Wei instructed the company's financial department to manipulate the financial statements to make the company's financial performance appear better than it actually was.3. Misappropriation of Funds: Zhang Wei is accused of misappropriating company funds for his personal use.Legal Issues:The case raised several legal issues, including:1. Definition of Insider Trading: The court had to determine whether Zhang Wei's trading activities constituted insider trading under Chinese law.2. Burden of Proof: The prosecution had to prove beyond a reasonable doubt that Zhang Wei had engaged in insider trading and false reporting of financial information.3. Applicability of the Law: The court had to consider whether the applicable laws and regulations were properly applied to the facts of the case.Judgment:After a thorough investigation and hearing, the Supreme Court of the People's Republic of China found Zhang Wei guilty of all charges. The court held that:1. Insider Trading: Zhang Wei's trading activities were in violation of Article 73 of the Securities Law of the People's Republic of China, which prohibits the use of insider information for trading in securities.2. False Reporting of Financial Information: Zhang Wei's instructions to manipulate the financial statements were in violation of Article 63 of the Securities Law, which requires companies to disclose true, accurate, and complete information.3. Misappropriation of Funds: Zhang Wei's misappropriation of company funds was in violation of Article 272 of the Criminal Law of thePeople's Republic of China, which punishes the illegal appropriation of public or private property.The court sentenced Zhang Wei to five years in prison and ordered him to pay a fine of RMB 1 million. Additionally, the court ordered Zhang Wei to compensate the company for the losses incurred as a result of his illegal activities.Analysis:This case is significant for several reasons:1. Clarification of Insider Trading Law: The court's decision provides a clear interpretation of the definition of insider trading under Chinese law, which is crucial for the protection of investors and the integrity of the securities market.2. Enforcement of Financial Regulations: The case demonstrates the Chinese government's commitment to enforcing financial regulations and ensuring the fair and transparent operation of the securities market.3. Prevention of Corporate Fraud: The sentence imposed on Zhang Wei serves as a deterrent to other individuals who may be tempted to engage in fraudulent activities for personal gain.Conclusion:The People v. Zhang Wei is a landmark case that underscores the importance of compliance with securities laws and regulations. Thecourt's decision sends a strong message that individuals who engage in insider trading, false reporting of financial information, and other fraudulent activities will be held accountable for their actions. The case also highlights the need for continuous improvement and enforcement of financial regulations to protect investors and maintain the integrity of the securities market.---中文摘要:案名:中国人民诉张伟案法院:中华人民共和国最高人民法院案号: (2022) CHN 12345事实:2021年4月,35岁的中国公民张伟在中国最高人民法院被控证券欺诈。
法律英语汉译英法律英语汉译英(专业词汇部分)Unit One第一课美国联邦下的法律1.成文法statutory law★2.普通法common law3.判例法case law4.立法机构legislature5.法院court6.宪法Constitution7.立法权law-making power8.私法private law9.合同法contract law10.侵权法tort law11.商法business law12.公司法corporate governance law13.专利和版权patent and copyright14.合同/契约争议contractual disputes15.刑事案件criminal case16.民事案件civil case17.民事侵权诉讼civil tort actions18.家庭法family law19.法律选择choice of law20.多个司法管辖区multi-jurisdiction21.诉讼litigation/lawsui t/suit/action★22.实体权substantive right23.准据法/适用法applicable/governing/proper law★24.签订conclude25.证券欺诈案件 a case include claims of securities fraud26.履行perform27.履行地performance28.受理/处理案件to hear the case★29.原告pl aintiff★30.被告defendant★31.与合同最密切联系most involved with the contract32.选择法庭choice of forum第二课双重法院体系1.司法的judicial2.初审法庭trial court3.终审法院court of last resort★4.上诉法院court of appeals5.上诉,申诉appeal…to6.证人witness7.证据evidence8.陪审团jury9.查明事实的人,事实发现者fact-finder10.上诉的,有权受理上诉的appellate11.遗嘱probate12.小额诉讼法院small claims court13.律师attorney14.程序procedure15.提出(申请)file★16.申请小额索赔file claims for small sums of money17.定罪conviction★18.仲裁人,公断人,裁决人arbiter19.最高法院the Supreme Court20.先例procedureUnit Two第一课抗辩制1.上诉人appellant2.被上诉人appellee3.诉由,案由cause of action★4.向某人提起诉讼,到法院告某人to bring an action/lawsuit against sb.5.第三那人被告third-party defendant6.庭审程序trial procedure★7.英美法系国家的司法程序Anglo-American judicial procedure8.认定事实find the fact9.证据submission10.抗辩制adversary system11.提起诉讼begin suit12.界定争议shape the issues13.出示证据produce evidence14.争议当事人parties to the controversy15.纠问的inquisitorial16.庭前调查pre-trial investigation17.大陆法传统civil law tradition18.庭辩风格style of presentation and argument19.有利害关系的当事人interested parties第二课开启一个诉讼1.起诉sue2.诉讼当事人litigant3.司法救济,救济;减轻,缓解relief4.提供法律救助to furnish a relief5.纠正,补偿redress6.诉诸法院bring to court★7.和解settlement★8.仲裁arbitration9.自力救济self-help10.搁置纠纷let matters rest11.损害赔偿damages★12.实际履行specific performance13.对事管辖权jurisdiction over the subject matter14.对人管辖权jurisdiction over the parties15.管辖权jurisdiction16.违约之诉damages for breach of contract17.法庭forum18.最低限度联系minimum contacts19.实体公正substantial justice20.审判地venue21.规定(援引法条)provide/read第三课诉状和对抗诉状的动议1.诉状pleading2.起诉状complaint3.向法院提交诉讼状或答辩状/办理立案to file a pleading/lawsuit with the court4.陈述,阐明to set forth5.书记员clerk6.传票summons7.出具传票to issue a summons8.向某人送达传票、起诉书、法律文书to serve a summons, complaint, legal document on sb.9.通知notify10.同意出庭an entry of appearance11.指控,声称allegation12.成为争议问题put in issue13.积极抗辩affirmative defense14.反诉counterclaim15.(用辩解)减轻extenuate16.未到庭,未履行义务to be in default17.驳回dismiss18.传票送达service of process/service of summons19.法律上的充分性legal sufficiency20. 提出异议,反对challenge第四课调查取证1.庭前取证,调查pre-trial discovery2.录取证词,宣誓证明depose3.证词笔录,书证deposition4.宣誓under oath5.书面质询written interrogatories6.人身伤害案件personal injury case7.保持中立take no part8.意外因素surprise element9.争议controversy10.律师counsel11.庭前会议pretrial conference12.即决判决,简易判决summary judgment13.书证,书面陈述affidavit14.提出请求即决判决的动议make a motion for summary judgment15.(证据)允许提出的,可采纳的admissible16.扰乱对方harassment of an opponent17.要求对争议进行庭审的申请notice of trial/issue第五课庭审1.主张…..权利assert the right to2.将……列入陪审员名单impanel3.组成陪审团to impanel the jury4.绝对异议权peremptory challenge★5.候选陪审员prospective juror6.以明确的理由对陪审员候选人提出异议to challenge aprospective juror for cause7.发誓swear8.开案陈词make opening statements9.询问证人examine the witness10.出示文书produce the document11.证据,物证exhibit12.直接质证direct examination13.交叉质证cross examination14.不允许出示的证据inadmissible evidence15.举证完毕rest16.指令裁定(法官指令陪审团作出的裁定)directed verdict17.否决,驳回overrule18.(法官)对陪审团的指导jury instruction/jury charge/charge to the jury19.结案辩论final argument20.判决某人胜诉to enter a judgment for sb.21.判决某人败诉to enter a judgment against sb.22.举证责任burden of proof23.有分量的证据,占优势的证据preponderance of the evidence24.退庭retire25.(陪审团)未能达到足够多数人赞同的,未能做出决定的hung26.法官推翻陪审团才定的判决judgment notwithstanding the verdict(judgment n.o.v)27.达成裁定reach verdict第六课上诉和执行1.执行enforcement2.复审review3.中级法院intermediate court4.初审法院trial court5.下级法院lower court6.斟酌,自由裁量discretion7.由……斟酌决定,由…..自由裁量at the discretion of8.推翻原判,逆转reverse9.维持原判,确认,确信affirm10.认定事实determination in question11.上诉担保书appeal bond12.抄本,复本,文字记录transcript13.命令decree14.(不服下级法官判决)进行上诉to appeal from (a decision of a lower court)15.口头辩论oral argument16.判决(意见)书opinion17.败诉方losing party18.债权人creditor19.重新审理rehear20.执行令writ of execution21.行政司法长官,县治安官sheriff22.发回重审remand23.动产personal property24.判决债务人judgment debtor25.收益proceeds26.不动产real estate/real property27.未清偿判决债务由司法行政官主持的拍卖judicial sale28.留置权,扣留权lien29.对…..有司法留置权to have a judicial lien on30.留置,扣押(动词)garnish31.留置,扣押(名词)garnishment32.扣押(动词)attach33.扣押(名词)attachment。
法律英语课后翻译题法律英语翻译第一课1、The Federal courts and many state courts of original jurisdiction hear both civil and criminalcases.2、In appellate courts, attorneys are confined to the role of discussing disputed points of law bymeans of written briefs and limited oral arguments.3、If you were to start a lawsuit in a court, you would have to see that the defendant or hisproperty must be found within the jurisdiction of the court.4、In the civil suits, the purpose of the pleadings to frame an issue filled by the litigants is forfair and just trial.5、If the case is tried by a jury, the issues of fact are settled, within limits determined by thejudge, by the jury’s verdict.第二课1、A corporation is a legal entity created by law, with an identify distinct from that of itsmembers or organizers, and endowed with certain powers to be exercised in its designated corporate name.2、A corporation is a fictitious person existing in contemplation of law. One of its distinctiveattributes is its capacity of perpetual succession, or stockholders.3、The earliest types of corporations in England were not business corporations and were notthe kind of organizations with which we are presently concerned. The earliest chartered English trading or business companies were joint-stock companies, such as the East India Company and the Houdon’s Bay Company.4、Corporations are variously classified according to different bases. Under one basis ofclassification, corporations are either aggregate(the usual form) or sole. They are either public or private. And private corporations are either profit(the ordinary business corporation) or nonprofit(the charitable corporation). In addition to the foregoing classifications, t he term “holding company” is frequently applied to a corporation whose sole or principal business is holding the stock of one or more other corporations.5、By definition, a corporation is an entity distinct from its individual members orstockholders,and is vested in the corporation itself, and not in the stockholders; and neither is ordinarily charged with the debts or obligations of the other.第三课The Nature of Contract of LawA contract, in the simplest definition, is a promise enforceable by law. The promise may be t o do something or to refrain from doing something. The making of a contract requires the mutual assent of two or more persons, one of them ordinarily making an offer and another accepting. If one of the parties fails to keep the promise, the other is entitled to legal recourse. The law of contracts considers such questions as whether a contract exists, what the meaning of it is, whether a contract has been broken, and what compensation is due the injured party.第四课1、Joint venture is two or more investors for the purpose of gaining profit, forming a companywith limited liability, usually in the country of one of the investors in accordance with the laws and regulations of that country.。
第1篇Court: Supreme Court of the State of New YorkDate: January 15, 2023Facts:In the summer of 2022, John Smith, a resident of New York City, purchased a used car from Mary Johnson, a local car dealer. The car was advertised as being in "good condition" and having a clean title. Smith, relying on these representations, entered into a verbal agreement with Johnson to purchase the car for $15,000. The transaction was completed, and Smith drove the car away immediately.A few weeks later, Smith discovered that the car had several mechanical issues, including a faulty transmission and a cracked engine block. Upon inspection, it was determined that the car had been involved in a previous accident and had not been properly repaired. Smith immediately contacted Johnson, demanding a refund or a substantial discount on the purchase price. Johnson refused, arguing that the car was sold "as is" and that she had disclosed all known defects to Smith.Smith, feeling deceived and dissatisfied with the purchase, filed a lawsuit against Johnson in the Supreme Court of the State of New York, seeking damages for fraud, breach of warranty, and unjust enrichment.Legal Issues:The primary legal issues in this case are whether Johnson’s representations about the car’s condition constitute fraud, whether the "as is" clause in the agreement is enforceable, and whether Smith is entitled to damages for the defects discovered in the car.Analysis:Fraud:To establish fraud, Smith must prove that Johnson made a false statement of material fact, knew the statement to be false, intended to induce Smith to rely on the statement, and that Smith reasonably relied on thestatement to his detriment. In this case, Johnson advertised the car as being in "good condition" and having a clean title, which were false statements. The court will need to determine whether Johnson knew these statements to be false and whether she intended to deceive Smith.Breach of Warranty:Under New York law, a seller of goods is deemed to make implied warranties of merchantability and fitness for a particular purpose. These warranties arise automatically when the seller sells goods in the course of business. In this case, Johnson sold the car as a used car dealer, and thus, implied warranties would apply. Smith must prove that the car was not merchantable (i.e., fit for the ordinary purposes for which such goods are used) and not fit for a particular purpose (i.e., the purpose for which Smith purchased the car).As-Is Clause:The "as is" clause in the agreement may be enforceable if it is clear, conspicuous, and not unconscionable. However, if the clause is found to be unconscionable, it may be voided. Smith argues that the clause is unconscionable because it is a standard form contract that does not allow for any negotiation or modification.Unjust Enrichment:Smith may also seek damages for unjust enrichment if he can prove that Johnson unjustly enriched herself at his expense. This would require Smith to prove that Johnson received a benefit at his expense and that it would be unjust to allow her to retain that benefit.Decision:After considering the evidence presented by both parties, the court finds that Johnson’s representations about the car’s condition were false and material, and that she knew these statements to be false and intended to deceive Smith. Therefore, the court finds that Johnson committed fraud.The court also finds that the "as is" clause in the agreement is enforceable because it is clear and conspicuous. However, the courtfinds that the clause is unconscionable in light of the circumstances of the transaction, as Smith was not given the opportunity to inspect the car thoroughly before entering into the agreement. Therefore, the "as is" clause is voided.The court further finds that the car was not merchantable and not fitfor the purpose for which Smith purchased it. Therefore, the court finds that Johnson breached the implied warranties of merchantability and fitness for a particular purpose.Based on these findings, the court awards Smith damages in the amount of $12,000, representing the difference between the fair market value of the car and the amount Smith paid for it. The court also awards Smith damages for his emotional distress and the inconvenience caused by the defective car.Judgment:The court hereby enters judgment in favor of John Smith against Mary Johnson in the amount of $12,000, plus interest and costs.中文翻译:案名:史密斯诉约翰逊法院:纽约州最高法院日期: 2023年1月15日事实:2022年夏季,约翰·史密斯,纽约市居民,从当地汽车经销商玛丽·约翰逊处购买了一辆二手车。
法律英语学习(英汉对照)1. The National People’s Congress is the highest organ of state power. 全国人民代表大会是最高国家权力机关。
2. The judicial organs of China consist of people’s courts,people’s procurator and the public security departments. 我国的司法机关由人民法院人民检查院和公安部门组成。
3. In the application of the law all citizens are deemed as equals. 一切公民在适用法律上一律平等。
4. The criminal law is one of the basic laws of our country. 刑法是我国基本法之一。
5. Criminal responsibility shall be borne for intentional crimes. 故意犯罪应当负刑事责任6. In China, the principal penalties are public surveillance,detention,fixed-time imprisonment,life imprisonment and death. 我国的主要刑罚是管制,拘役,有期徒刑,无期徒刑和死刑7. The court’s job is administering justi ce and upholding the law. 法院的任务是执行法律和维护法律。
8. The accused was declared innocent. 被告人被宣布为无罪。
9. The court acquitted him of a crime. 法院宣判他无罪。
10. The court pronounced the accused not guilty. 法院宣判被告无罪。
第一幕秘书:Hello, I’m the secretary of the Beijing Automobile Co. What can I do for you?律师2:I’m a lawyer from the East China Jiao Tong University law firm. My name is X X. This is my partner X X, we had made a appiontment with your General Manager yesterday. We must have a talk with your General Manager (总经理)now.秘书:Ok, this way please, follow me!旁白:Five minutes latter, outside of the General Manager’s office.秘书:Mr wang, these are the East China Jiao Tong University law firm’s lawyers. (秘书下)总经理:Oh, I know. Thanks for your coming. Nice to meet you.律师1、律师2(合):Nice to meet you , too.总经理:Have a seat and let’s get right to it.(让我们开门见山直奔主题) 律师1、律师2:Okay, shoot.总经理:Now, let me introduce you the basic situation. We’d like to set up a Chinese-foreign joint venture with Michigan Automobile Co. We want to have control of the joint venture management and we will provide 20 million USD in capital, plus land, plant and equipment.律师1: I understand, so you need us to draft a joint venture agreement. Ok, we need to sign a power of attorney. (我们需要签一份委托书)总经理:Ok, I need you go with us during talks. If you see a urgent problem, whisper it to me or hand me a note, otherwise, wait until we’re on break or after the negotiation.律师1:Sure, I can live with that. Anything else?总经理:Not really, just that all your comments should be told me at the first time.I get the final say on whether it gets into the meeting.律师2:If you forget something I see as important, I’m going to inform you in writing.总经理:No problem.律师1:It’s my pleasure to cooperate with you, but we’d better to talk about the attorney fees.总经理:Ok, we will pay you according to the standard of attorney fees. If Michigan Co. and we can reach agreement we’d like to pay you another 10,000 yuan .律师2:Wish a wonderful cooperation !旁白:Meanwhile ,the representatives of Michigan Co. interview the lawyers from the American law firm.The second scene: the representatives and lawyers from both sides make the negotiation which is held to negotiate about the joint venture and todraft a letter of intent.第二幕中国的董事长和经理:Nice to meet you.美国的董事长和经理:Nice to meet you too .中国的董事:Last cooperation with your company is very wonderful .After the feasibility study ,our Co. is interested in forming a joint venture to assemble and sell automobiles using your company’s engines.美国的董事:Chinese market is attractive. We’d like to cooperate with you , too.美国的经理:In order to make the negotiation quickly and efficiently ,I suggest introduce the basic situation of companies respectively. Please allow me to introduce our Co. firstly, Our company has 2350 workers including engineers and technical workers 300, has 400 million USD fixed assets .It produces a powerful efficient 4-cylinder automobile engine of its own design.中国的经理:Our company has 40000 workers including engineers and technical workers 48,has fixed assets 450 million yuan .美国的董事:How about your production process?中国的经理:Our factory’s production process is on the first class in China even in the Southeast Asia .Our detection means is excellent and the industrial equipments are advanced as well.美国的经理:How many automobiles does your company manufacture every year?中国的经理:More than 1 million.美国的董事:Ok ,we are satisfied with your company.中国的董事:I’m very pleased. We believe we should have control of the joint venture management because our company provide 20 million USD in capital plus land,plant and equipment.美国的董事:No, I don’t agree with you. We must have control of the joint venture management. After all, we provide 40 million USD in capital plus patents know-how and other technology. Suppose you don’t have patents, you couldn’t manufacture. What’s more, from the last feasibility study which has shown that there is great demand for such engines in China, it can bring you great profits.中国的董事:I’m for your opinion, but you couldn’t ignore we have the excellent production process and cheap labor. If you don’t want to cooperate with us, that is to say, you choose other companies in China or Asia, you should make sure whether they can put your patents and technology into practice. While we can meet your requirement. Of course, you also can choose Japan or Korea, but you need to know where is themarket – it’s China and even Southeast Asia. I believe it can be a large number of transportation expenses. In addition, they don’t have cheap labor either. The last but not the least, we are familiar with the market in China and Southeast Asia. Our company’s condition is unique and perfect.中国的经理:About patents ,we will ask the asset appraisal company to evaluate.美国的董事:Wait a minute.旁白:At the moment, the chairman whispers to his lawyer.美国律师1:According to the Law of the People’s Republic of Chinese-Foreign Quity Joint Ventures. The proportion of the investment contributed by the foreign joint ventures shall generally not be less than 25% of the registered capital of a joint venture. The parties to the venture shall share the risks and losses in proportion to their respective contributions to the registered capital. No assignment of the registered capital of a joint venture shall be made without the consent of the other parties to the venture. Y ou need to think twice.旁白:After a hot discussion.美国的董事:Um, We decide that you have control of the joint venture management, but we should take 48% share. Ok?中国的董事:Ok, we reach the agreement.中国的经理:Now the most important thing has decided. How about the equipments and materials?美国的经理:Our Co. wants to import some equipments and materials from the United States.中国的经理:I think the cost is too high. Our company wants to use Chinese equipments and materials as much as possible.美国的经理:It’s known to all, American equipments are more advanced. Moreover, equipments are vital to manufacture products.中国的经理:But the materials in China are cheaper than American. In addition, the Chinese-foreign joint venture will set up in Beijing. It’s more convenient and cheaper to transport.美国的董事:Okay, considering all the sides, we had better import equipments from the United States while materials must buy from China. How about your viewpoint?中国的董事:No problem.中国的律师1:Y ou should consider the first capital to start the operation of the joint venture.中国的董事:It’ll need 50 million USD in capital to start the operation of the joint venture .Based on the share, we need due 26 million USD andyou will due the left.美国董事:We will due the capital in a week.美国律师2:Y ou ought to determine how soon do you transfer the property.中国经理:In 15 days.美国的经理:Ok! The exciting moment is coming, we should pick a name for our company. Do you have some good idea?中国董事:Changsheng Automobile Chinese-Foreign joint venture.美国董事:Good !美国律师2:The joint venture agreement contract and articles of association signed by the parties to the venture shall be submitted to the competent authorities of foreign economic relations and trade.中国经理:Don’t worry, our lawyer will accomplish it.旁白:After the negotiation, a letter of intent has been draft .After the negotiation attended by the lawyers from both sides, the two sides reach agreement. A ceremony for signing the contract have been held.——原创Thank you !。
一.将下列句子翻译成汉语:1. A good judge can extend the boundary of justice.2. A judge cannot be a witness in his own cause.3. A judge cannot punish a wrong done to himself.4. A judge incurs no civil liability for judicial acts, even if guilty of fraud and corruption.5. An upright judge has more regard to justice than to me.6. If the judge departs from the sentencing guideline range he must have a lawful reason for such a departure.7. Judges shall handle cases impartially and in accordance with the law.8. Most disputes that arise in any society are not handled through the court system.9. No one can be at once suitor and judge.10. No one can be judge in his own case.11. Sentencing is at the discretion of the judge.12. The chairman of the tribunal asked to see all the facts on the income tax claim.13. The judge was appointed to sit in a special case.14. The magistrates committed her for trial at the Crown Court.15. The judge accepted the defendant’s understanding not to harass the plaintiff.16. The judge decided in favor of the plaitiff.17. The judge disallowed the defense evidence.18. The judge exceeded his powers in criticizing the court of appeal.19. The judge found that te plaitiff’s pleadings disclosed no cause of action.20. The judge heard the case in chamber.21. The judge must not hear the evidence or the representations from one side behind the back of the other.22. The judge ordered the actions to be consolidated.23. The judge refused the application, on the ground that he had a judicial discretion to examine inadmissible evidence.24. The judge revised his earlier decision not to consider a submission from defense counsel.25. The judge warned counsel not to prompt the witness.26. The judge was of the opinion that if the evidence was doubtful the claim should be dismissed.27. The justices were ordered to rehear the information.28. The Lord justice said he was not laying down guideline for sentencing.29. The judge consented to the request of the prosecution counsel.30. The practiced of the judge is the interpreter of law.31. A later statute takes away the effect of a prior one.32. Arms and laws do not flourish together.33. Consent makes law.34. Custom has the force of law.35. Customs. religious and philosophies tend to form the basis fo r a nation’s laws.36. Equity is a correction of common legal rules in their defective parts.37. Except as otherwise provided by law.38. Every law has a loop hole.39. Every law has no atom of strength, as far as no public opinion supports it.40. In civilized life, law floats in a sea of ethics.41. It can hardly be taken to be a guarantee that every law shall treat every person the same.42. Law can never be enforced unless fear supports it.43. Law does not compel a man to do what he is impossible to perform.44. Law governs man, reason the law.45. Law is a pervasive feature of social life that profoundly affects us.46. Law is a exercise in communication between authority and the public.47. Law is an ordinance of reason for the common good.48. Law is an utterance determined by the common consent of the commonwealth.49. Law is both an instrument of change and a result of changes.50. Law is established for the benefit of man.51. Law is law, just or not.52. Law is mind without reason.53. Law is order, and good law is good order.54. Law is the crystalization of the habit and thought of society.55. Law is the science of what is good and just.56. Law must be stable and it cannot stand still.57. Law that is deficient is better than law that is uncertain.58. Laws are made to prevent the stronger from having the power to do everything.59. Laws too gentle are seldom obeyed; too severe, seldom executed.60. No crime without law making it so; no penalty without law making it so.二.将下列长句子翻译成汉语。
法律(英译汉)abuse of rights 权利的滥用accept service of the writ 接受令状的送达accessory after the fact 事后从犯accident involving civil liability 民事责任事故according to Marriage Law provisions 根据婚姻法的规定acknowledge the issue of the writ 确认令状的发出acting prosecutor 代理检察员action for infringement of patent 专利侵权诉讼aggravated assault 重伤害aggravating circumstances 从重处罚情节a joint right 共同权利alternation of private right 民事权利变更appellate court 上诉法院as a result of fair dealing and good conscience 根据公允及善意的原则a sense of mutual obligation to support one another 互相供养的责任感be brought to justice 法律追究benefit of cession 财产让与权by a subsequent act 事后的;溯及既往的by virtue of holding an office 依职权而自然获得career criminal 职业罪犯cash held outside the banking system 现金滞留certificate of correction 更正证明书certificate of guarantee 担保书change of circumstances 情势变迁原则civic duty to work 公民劳动义务civil administration 民政civil defendant 民事被告civil jurisdiction 民事管辖civil lawsuit 民事诉讼civil mediation 民事调解civil negligence 民事过失civil penalty 民事罚款civil plaintiff 民事原告civil possession 民事上的占有civil remedy 民事补偿civil right and liability 民事权利与责任claim of patent application 专利申请权collegiate tribunal 合议审判庭communal tenure 共有权compulsory execution 强制执行condemned goods 有问题的货物confidential application 机密申请continuation-in-part application 部分继续申请creditcard fraud 信用卡欺诈crime of passion 激情犯罪criminal investigation 刑事侦查criminal judicial system刑事司法系统customs clearance 结关customs liquidation 清关default fine 违约金deprived of private rights 民事权利剥夺dereliction of duty 渎职discriminatory practice 歧视性条款disposition of merchandise 货物处置dispute concerning private rights 民事权利争议domestic violence 家庭暴力done as a matter of favor 出于善意的embezzle public funds 挪用公款enforcement measure 强制措施enlarge the right of self-management 扩大自主权enterprise law 企业法escape clause 免责条款extension of the term of patent 延长专利期限extradition and repatriation of criminal suspect 引渡和遣返犯罪嫌疑人fault liability 过错赔偿责任field sobriety test 现场清醒度测试/现场酒精测试first-degree murder 一级谋杀案first tribunal 第一审判庭forced confession 刑讯逼供functions and powers 职权hear a case 审理案件hit-and-run 肇事逃逸holder of patent 专利持有人home surveillance 监视居住illegal purchase of foreign exchange 非法套汇impulse crime 冲动犯罪interdependent patents 相互依存的专利issue a summons 传票joint and several liability 连带责任judicial arbitration 司法仲裁judicial power 司法权judicial practice 司法惯例juvenile delinquency 青少年犯罪knock and notice 敲门告知law and order 法律和秩序law enforcement authority 执法部门legal adviser 法律顾问legal guardian 法定监护人legal proceedings 司法程序legal sanctity 法律尊严lie detector tests 测谎试验liquidated damages 违约赔偿金mail fraud 邮政诈骗mass murderer 谋杀多人的凶手medical parole 保外就医mitigating circumstances 从轻处罚的情节pat-down search 拍身搜查police undercover informant 警方卧底线人prohibitory injunction 禁止令property violation 财产侵犯prosecution witness 公诉方证人real or personal property 动产或不动产resident (citizen) jurisdiction 居民(公民)管辖权restriction of personal liberty 限制人身自由revocation of a patent 撤销专利right of access 知情权right of personality 人格权right of reply 答辩权right to inherit private property 私有财产的继承权right to interpret 解释权ringleader 首要分子search warrant 搜查令sentence disparity 量刑不当shelter and investigation 收容调查sole right of use 专用权solitary confinement 禁闭stop and frisk 拦截搜身subject matter 标的(物)substantive law 实体法supplementary agreement 补充协议suspects held pending trial 在押候审term of imprisonment 刑期testimony of witness 证人证言unit crime 单位犯罪withdrawal 回避The quality and prices of the commodities to be exchanged between the importers and exporters in the two countries shall be acceptable to both sides and the prices shall be fixed in accordance with world market prices.两国买卖双方所交换的商品的质量和价格应是双方都能接受的,并且价格应按照国际市场的价格确定。
法律英语(段落翻译与作文)(范文模版)第一篇:法律英语(段落翻译与作文)(范文模版)《法律英语》考试时间不变,向老师申请要了两道大题,范围如下:1、段落英译汉(20分):内容涉及刑事程序法,简单涉及美国宪法第五修正案和米兰达警告等。
2、作文题(20分):评述一下审前取证制度;评述抗辩制。
1、段落英译汉:刑事程序法大家看一下教材第一单元第8课(中文即可),是关于刑事程序的内容。
此题应该是老师自己编的英文材料。
美国第五宪法:No person shall be held to answer for a capital, or otherwise infamous crime, unless on a presentment or indictment of a grand jury, except in cases arising in the land or naval forces, or in the militia, when in actual service in time of war or public danger;nor shall any person be subject for the same offense to be twice put in jeopardy of life or limb;nor shall be compelled in any criminal case to be a witness against himself, nor be deprived of life, liberty, or property, without due process of law;nor shall private property be taken for public use, without just compensation.无论何人,除非根据大陪审团的报告或起诉,不得受判处死罪或其他不名誉罪行之审判,唯发生在陆、海军中或发生在战时或出现公共危险时服现役的民兵中的案件,不在此限。
第1篇Case Number: 123456789Court: Superior Court of the State of CaliforniaDate: March 1, 2023Facts:The plaintiff, John Smith, filed a lawsuit against the defendant, Jane Johnson, claiming negligence on her part that resulted in personalinjury to the plaintiff. The incident in question occurred on January 15, 2023, when the plaintiff was crossing a pedestrian crosswalk at the intersection of Main Street and Second Avenue. At the time, the pedestrian signal indicated that it was safe to cross. However, the defendant, who was driving a vehicle, proceeded through the intersection without yielding to the pedestrian in the crosswalk, causing theplaintiff to sustain injuries.The plaintiff alleged that the defendant violated the provisions of California Vehicle Code Section 21950, which states that a driver shall yield the right-of-way to a pedestrian crossing the road within a marked or unmarked crosswalk at an intersection.Plaintiff's Claim:The plaintiff claimed that the defendant's failure to yield to the pedestrian in the crosswalk was a breach of the duty of care owed to the plaintiff. The plaintiff further alleged that this breach of dutydirectly caused the plaintiff's injuries, which included a broken leg, a fractured arm, and severe emotional distress. The plaintiff sought damages for medical expenses, lost wages, and pain and suffering.Defendant's Defense:The defendant argued that she did not breach any duty of care to the plaintiff. The defendant claimed that she had a green light and, therefore, had the legal right to proceed through the intersection. Furthermore, the defendant contended that the plaintiff was not in thecrosswalk at the time of the incident and that she did not see the plaintiff until it was too late to avoid the collision.Issue:The central issue in this case is whether the defendant's failure to yield to the plaintiff in the crosswalk constitutes negligence under California law.Judgment:After a trial, the jury found in favor of the plaintiff. The court held that the defendant's failure to yield to the plaintiff in the crosswalk, as required by California Vehicle Code Section 21950, was a breach of the duty of care owed to the plaintiff. The court further found thatthis breach of duty was the proximate cause of the plaintiff's injuries.Rationale:The court relied on the provisions of California Vehicle Code Section 21950, which imposes a duty on drivers to yield the right-of-way to pedestrians in marked or unmarked crosswalks at intersections. The court noted that the pedestrian signal at the time of the incident indicated that it was safe to cross, and therefore, the defendant had a clear duty to yield to the plaintiff.The court rejected the defendant's argument that she had a green light and, therefore, had the legal right to proceed through the intersection. The court held that even with a green light, a driver must still exercise caution and yield to pedestrians in crosswalks.The court also dismissed the defendant's contention that she did not see the plaintiff until it was too late. The court found that thedefendant's claim was inconsistent with the evidence presented at trial, including the testimony of the plaintiff and witnesses who observed the incident.Damages:The court awarded the plaintiff damages for medical expenses, lost wages, and pain and suffering. The court found that the plaintiff's medical expenses were $50,000, lost wages were $30,000, and pain and suffering were $200,000. Therefore, the total damages awarded to the plaintiff were $280,000.Conclusion:In this case, the court held that the defendant's failure to yield tothe plaintiff in the crosswalk, as required by California Vehicle Code Section 21950, constituted negligence. The court's decision underscores the importance of遵守交通法规 and the duty of care that drivers owe to pedestrians.中文翻译:案件名称:约翰·史密斯诉简·约翰逊案案件编号: 123456789法院:加利福尼亚州高级法院日期: 2023年3月1日事实:原告约翰·史密斯因被告简·约翰逊的疏忽导致其人身伤害,向被告提起诉讼。
法律英语范文导读:我根据大家的需要整理了一份关于《法律英语范文》的内容,具体内容:我们在这几篇英语作文中可以感觉到,好几个关于法律的点。
下面是我给大家带来法律英语作文,供大家参阅!篇1:纳税If you find that you will be u...我们在这几篇英语作文中可以感觉到,好几个关于法律的点。
下面是我给大家带来法律英语作文,供大家参阅!篇1:纳税If you find that you will be unable to pay your taxes on time, you may first ask for an extension which can give you several weeks to obtain the money owed. If the amount is too substantial to obtain in this amount of time, you might consider taking out a bank loan to pay your taxes. If neither method is an option, you may then request a payment plan from the I.R.S. Depending on your situation, payment may be divided into smaller, separate sums spanning months or years. However, you will be responsible for any interest that is applied to your taxes as a result of such a plan. Regardless of your situation, it is important to file your tax return on time and to notify the I.R.S. as soon as possible of any difficulties you may have in paying your taxes. Failure to do so may result in criminal charges and penalties. For more information on I.R.S. payment plansand deferred payment options, contact a tax specialist or attorney, or your local I.R.S. representative.如果你发现自己将不能按时交税,你可要求几周的延长期来偿还所欠的税款。
简析公司法
规制公司的法律(在英国,就是公司法)在不同的国家会不同吗?尽管研究公司法的学者们很少提及这一问题,但是对公司法的比较研究还是非常重要的。
最近关于公司法的研究主要集中于欧洲、美国和日本等发达经济体在公司治理、股份所有权、金融资产和企业文化等方面的比较分析。
在这些方面,尽管不同的国家有各自的特征,但是各国家公司形式的根本一致还是令人印象非常深刻的。
其实,公司都具有一套基本类似的法律性质,同样,它们也面临着一套基本类似的法律问题。
就公司形式而言,就要考虑公司的根本法律属性,展望本文以下讨论,我们认为公司具有五个方面的属性,它们为大部分商务人士所知悉。
这五个方面的属性是:法人资格、有限责任、股权转让、董事会领导下的公司管理及出资者所有权。
这些属性因现代大型企业所面对的紧急需要而产生,具体原因我们将在下文中从四个方面进行说明。
总之,任何国家的公司法都必须围绕公司的这五大属性进行拟制。
事实上,有一些企业缺乏其中的某些属性,但是我们想强调的是,在市场经济条件下,所有的大型公司都采用具备五大属性的法人形式。
除此之外,绝大多数小型合伙企业也经常采用这种形式,尽管有时因为特殊需要,这些公司可能会缺失五大属性中的一种或多种。
(通过本书,我们将遵循通常所谓的“封闭公司”的概念,来讨论那些股份不能自由转让的不同于“公众公司”的公司,股份不能转让的原因要么是股份被一小部分人所持有,要么是对股东的转让权有所限制。
)
很显然,公司法的首要功能是为公司提供一个具备五个核心属性的法定形式。
如果这种形式能够广泛推广,并且被广泛采纳,那么借助于其中的某些规则,比如改变背景财产权及提供备用开支等规则,公司法就能够鼓励企业家通过公司实体这一媒介进行交易,进而还可以降低交易成本。
当然,从整体看来,那些用来规制公司形式的法律条款的数量仅仅是公司法中的一小部分,然而,这些条款却构成了公司法的核心部分。
在这一章,我将探寻具有五大属性的公司的缔约效率,我们也相信这五大属性已经推动了世界范围内对这种公司形式的采用。
就像公司法本身,我们的首要目标不在于公司形式的建立,而是公司法的另外一种比较重要的功能:限制公司内部不同区域降低价值的形式的存在。
在此我们特别强调公司内部三种类型的冲突:管理者和股东之间的冲突、股东之间的冲突及股东和公司内部其他利益相关者的冲突,比如债权人和员工。
这三类冲突都会导致经济学家所说的“代理”问题。
文章第二章从整体上介绍了这三类代理问题,探寻解决这些冲突的法律策略。
读者或许不以为然,会认为这些代理冲突(我们认为是公司法的主要内容)并不是法人所特有的。
毕竟,任何形式的联合所有公司都要面对所有者、管理者及第三方之间的冲突,我们认同这一点。
公司仅仅是众多联合所有企业形式中的一种,它要面对所有联合所有公司共有的代理问题。
然而,由于公司这种形式被绝大多数大企业所采用,因此它所涉及的问题有很多,并且作为一种特殊形式,公司在很多国家都非常流行。
除此之外,公司这种形式的特色之一,就是它可以决定自己的代理问题,举一个特别明显的例子吧,公司股东享有有限责任,而合伙企业的合伙人却没有这一权利,同时这一特征相对于合伙企业,也使公司的债权人能够获得更为有利的保护。
同样的道理,公司的股东也可以匿名在证券市场转让他们的股份,证券市场是一个鼓励所有权脱离于管理权的机构,同时,它也使公司的管理矛盾(股东代理问题)更加尖锐化。
在这本书中,我们探寻公司法在降低代理问题方面发挥的作用,依此使公司形式更为实用,我们也探寻法人行为和决策方面的最重要类别。
更为详细的是,第三章至第八章分别介绍了有关公司交易和决策的六大类别,涉及到公司的所有者、管理者及其他第三方。
这些关于公司活动类别的大部分内容,所涉及的都具有一般意义,不专属于法人本身。
比如,第三章讲述的是有关公司普通经营决策的管理机制。
然而,第四章讲述的是有关公司与其债权人之间交易如何操作的问题。
在以前,如果所有类型的联合所有公司出现类似的代理问题,公司法会根据具体情况拟制特殊的法律规则。
合算起来,除了确定公司形式要注意的根本事项,本书的后六章几乎覆盖了公司法所有的重要问题。
在每一章,我们都描述了在给定的公司活动大类下,基本的代理问题是怎样显示出来的,然后探寻可以获得的可能的法律解决措施。
我们在说明法律解决措施的同时,都结合一定的案例,这些案例均出自于具有优良
法律传统国家的公司法,比如法国、德国、日本和美国。
我们探寻出了同种模式和异种模式,这些模式在不同的法域具有显著不同的特点,进而总结这些不同点的起因和结果。
有时候为了做一些特殊说明,我们也会参考其他法域的法律。
在探寻通往解决比较法问题的路径时,无论是公司法,还是其他领域,这本书都不同于传统意义上的比较法研究。
在我们的研究中,我们通常会加入一些新兴的主流观点,具体方法是借助于探寻更高层意义上的整合观点及能够提供清晰框架的公司法结构。
除此之外,比较法研究通常集中在各个法域之间的不同点,我们却把重点放在相同点的研究。
我们相信,这样的研究方法能够阐明超越国界的具有潜在共性的法律构架。
在公司法国际整合的根本基础方面,我们的研究方法也能够提供重要的前瞻性参考,这就是,无论在范围方面还是在数十年后的时间方面,公司法都要随着经济全球化的发展而发展。
我们意识到,我们在这儿已经使用的和在标题中提到的“功能性”这一术语,对不同的人们意味着不同的东西,而且将这一术语用在过去(尤其用在社会学领域),已经使这一术语具有一定程度怀疑性。
尽管一些法律文献对“经济争论”的描述有时会发生用词不当,尤其在美国之外,学者在使用“经济分析”和“功能分析”时通常非常谨慎,但是,我们认为将我们的研究路径描述为“经济性”而不是“功能性”更为妥当。
然而,为了眼前的目的,我们没有必要在社会科学方法论方面花费过多的墨水,我们仅仅需要简单地注意到商业活动和商业组织所面临的紧急状况已经使一些实际问题呈现出来,这些问题在全世界范围内的市场经济体都有一定的相似性,因此,各国的公司法都应着眼于这些问题的解决,并且逻辑的力量、竞争、利益集团的压力、相互之间的模仿、兼容性等这些因素,都应趋向于引导不同的法域采用相似的措施来应对这些问题。
这并不是说我们的目标就是探寻不同法域公司法的共性,与此同等重要的是,我们希望提供一种共同的语言和一种一般意义上的分析构架,借助于这种语言和构架,人们能够理解公司法所要达到的目的,也可以用之来比较和评价不同法域政权实现这些目的所付出的功效。
事实上,我们不仅仅希望我们在本书中的分析对研习比较法的学生有用,也希望对那些渴望拥有牢固的知识框架并以此来研究本国公司法的人们有所帮助。
同样地,关于公司法目前的融合程度以及应该融合到什么程度,我们没有给
出确定标准,因为这些问题目前是有争论的,并且合理的观点往往是与众不同的。
事实上,本书中有关此问题的合理观点确实是与众不同的。
我们正在探寻一种概念框架和基本事实,借助于这种框架和事实,有关公司法的其他争议点也可以被探寻出来。