梵文教材12课1

Sanskrit (I)(1)3(9:10-12:10)307Office hours: (1:20-3:10), (11:20-12:10), @ 305tsaiyt@.tw.tw/tsaiyt/1.2.3.4.5.1.2.3.* Thomas Egenes, Introduction to Sanskrit, part I, 3rd revised edition, Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass Publishers, 2003.* Thomas Egenes, Introduction to Sanskrit, part II, Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass Publishers, 2000.alternative reading* 1994, 1997* Rupert Gethin, “Glossary of Technical Terms and Names,” The Foundations of Buddhism, Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1998, pp. 319-322.* Donald S. Lopez, Jr., “Glossary,” The Story of Buddhism: A Concise Guide to Its History and Teachings, HarperSanFrancisco, 2001, pp. 257-264.* Donald W. Mitchell, “Glossary of Technical Terms,” Buddhism: Introducing the Buddhist Experience, Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2002, pp. 350-360.alternative reading* Dharma Publishing Staff (tr.), “Buddhist Terms,” Dhammapada, Berkeley: Dharma Publishing, 1985, pp. 209-353.* Bhikkhu KL Dhammajoti, “Sanskrit-English Glossary,” Sarvāstivāda Abhidharma, 3rd revised edition, Hong Kong: Centre for Buddhist Studies, University of Hong Kong, 2007, pp. 663-698.50% 30% 20%1 2008/09/16 Introduction, Lesson 1* 2005 9 16 1-30. .tw/BDLM/index.htm 2006 163-218.2 2008/09/23 Lessons 1-43 2008/09/30 Lessons 5-64 2008/10/07 Lessons 7-85 2008/10/14 Lessons 9-106 2008/10/21 Lesson 117 2008/10/28 Lesson 128 2008/11/04 Lesson 139 2008/11/11 Lesson 1410 2008/11/18 Lesson 15* Rupert Gethin, “Glossary of Technical Terms and Names,” The Foundations of Buddhism, Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1998, pp. 319-322.11 2008/11/25 Lesson 16* Rupert Gethin, “Glossary of Technical Terms and Names,” The Foundations of Buddhism, Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1998, pp. 319-322.12 2008/12/02 Lesson 17* Donald S. Lopez, Jr., “Glossary,” The Story of Buddhism: A Concise Guide to Its History and Teachings, HarperSanFrancisco, 2001, pp. 257-264.13 2008/12/09 Lesson 18* Donald S. Lopez, Jr., “Glossary,” The Story of Buddhism: A Concise Guide to Its History and Teachings, HarperSanFrancisco, 2001, pp. 257-264.14 2008/12/16 Lesson 19* Donald W. Mitchell, “Glossary of Technical Terms,” Buddhism: Introducing the Buddhist Experience, Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2002, pp. 350-360.15 2008/12/23 Lesson 20* Donald W. Mitchell, “Glossary of Technical Terms,” Buddhism: Introducing the Buddhist Experience, Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2002, pp. 350-360.16 2008/12/30 Lesson 2217 2009/01/06 Lesson 2118 2009/01/13* 2007* 1996* 1990* 榊 1973 1996* R. Antoine, Sanskrit Manual, 6 1985* 2001* Michael Coulson, Sanskrit: An Introduction to the Classical Language, 2nd edition, Lincolnwood: NTC Publishing Group, 1992.* Madhav Deshpande, Saṃskṛtasubodhinī: A Sanskrit Primer, Ann Arbor: Center for South and Southeast Asian Studies, University of Michigan, 1997.* Robert Goldman, Sally Sutherland, Devavāṇīpraveśikā: An Introduction to the Sanskrit Language, 2nd edition, Berkeley: University of California Press, 1987.* Jan Gonda, A Concise Elementary Grammar of the Sanskrit Language: With Exercises, Reading Selections, and a Glossary, translated from the German by Gordon Ford, Jr., 2nd edition, Tuscaloosa : University of Alabama Press, 2006.* George Hart, A Rapid Sanskrit Method, Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass Publishers, 1984.* Vyaas Houston, Sanskrit by Cassette, Warwick: The American Sanskrit Institute, 1991.* M. R. Kale, A Higher Sanskrit Grammar, Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass Publishers, 1972.* Siew-Yue Killingley, Dermot Killingley, Sanskrit, Munchen: LINCOM Europa, 1995.* Arthur MacDonell, A Sanskrit Grammar for Students, 3rd edition, Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1926.* Walter Harding Maurer, The Sanskrit Language: An Introductory Grammar and Reader, 2 volumes, Richmond: Curzon Press, 1995.* Thomas Oberlies, A Grammar of Epic Sanskrit, Berlin: Walter de Gruyter, 2003.* Edward Perry, A Sanskrit Primer, 4th edition, Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass Publishers, 1936.* Bharat Shah, Sanskrit: An Appreciation Without Apprehension, New York: Setubandh Publications, 2004.* J. S. Speijer, Sanskrit Syntax, Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass Publishers, 1988.* Gary Tubb, Emery Boose, Scholastic Sanskrit: A Handbook for Students, New York: American Institute of Buddhist Studies at Columbia University, 2007.* Jacob Wackernagel, Albert Debrunner, Altindische Grammatik, 5 vols, Göttingen: Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht, 1896-1964.* William Whitney, Sanskrit Grammar: Including both the Classical Language, and the older Dialects, of Veda and Brahmana, 2nd edition, Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1889.* Monier Monier-Williams, A Practical Grammar of the Sanskrit Language, Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1878.* 辻 1974* Sanskrit Training (part I) 1990 Sanskrit Training (part II) 1991 Sanskrit Training (part III) 1995* S. S. Janaki, K. Sankarnarayan Sanskrit Training (part IV): Pronunciation & Memorization 1997* A Key to Sanskrit Training 2004* 2001* A. F. Stenzler, 1996* John Brough, Selections from Classical Sanskrit Literature: With English Translation and Notes, London: Luzac & Company, 1951.* Jayantkrishna H. Dave and et al. (eds.), Saral Sanskrit Shikshak, (part I): Text book for Sanskrit Prarambha, 4th edition, (part II): Text-book for Sanskrit Pravesha, 2nd edition, Bombay: Bharatiya Vidya Bhavan, 1966.* Charles Lanman, A Sanskrit Reader: Text and Vocabulary and Notes, Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1959, first published in 1884.* Peter Scharf, Rāmopākhyāna: The Story of Rāma in the Mahābhārata -- An Independent-study Reader in Sanskrit, London: RoutledgeCurzon, 2003.* 1970* 1986* 2000* Roderick Bucknell, Sanskrit Manual: A Quick-reference Guide to the Phonology and Grammar of Classical Sanskrit, Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass Publishers, 1994.* Edwin Gerow, A Glossary of Indian Figures of Speech, The Hague: Mouton, 1971.* Harold Goward, K. Kunjunni Raja, The Philosophy of the Grammarians, Encyclopedia of Indian Philosophies, vol. 5, Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass Publishers, 1990.* J. F. Staal, A Reader on the Sanskrit Grammarians, Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass Publishers, 1985.* William Whitney, The Roots, Verb-forms and Primary Derivatives of the Sanskrit Language, reprinted in 1963, Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass Publishers. (/saraswati/dictionary/9VERBS.HTM)* A Tri-lingual Glossary of the Sukhāvatīvyūha Sūtras: Indexes to the Larger and Small Sukhāvatīvyūha Sūtras 1984* 2004* Kashinath Vasudev Abhyankar, J. M. Shukla, A Dictionary of Sanskrit Grammar, 2nd revised edition, Baroda: Oriental Institute, University of Baroda Press, 1977.* Vaman Shivram Apte, The Student's English-Sanskrit Dictionary, 3rd edition, Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass Publishers, 1920.* Otto Böhtlingk, Rudolph Roth (eds.), Sanskrit-Wörterbuch, 7 vols, (originally published by St. Petersburg: Kaiserlichen Akademie der Wissenschaften, 1855-1875), Wiesbaden: Harrassowitz, 1966. * Otto Böhtlingk (ed.), Sanskrit-Wörterbuch in kürzerer Fassung, 3 vols, (originally published by St. Petersburg: Kaiserlichen Akademie der Wissenschaften, 1879-1882), Kyoto: Rinsen Book, 1991.* Edward Conze, Materials for a Dictionary of the Prajñāpāramitā Literature, Tokyo: Suzuki ResearchFoundation, 1973.* Ernest Eitel, Hand-book of Chinese Buddhism being Sanskrit-Chinese Dictionary with Vocabularies of Buddhist Terms in Pali, Singhalese, Siamese, Burmese, Tibetan, Mongolian and Japanese, 2nd edition, London: Trubner & Co., 1888.* John Grimes, A Concise Dictionary of Indian Philosophy: Sanskrit Terms Defined in English, Albany: State University of New York Press, 1989.* Arthur MacDonell, A Practical Sanskrit Dictionary, Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1954.* R. L. Turner, A Comparative Dictionary of the Indo-Aryan Languages, London: School of Oriental and African Studies, University of London, 1966.* Monier Monier-Williams, A Sanskrit-English Dictionary: Etymologically and Philologically Arranged with special reference to Cognate Indo-European Languages, Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1899.* Monier Monier-Williams, A Dictionary: English and Sanskrit, 4th edition, Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass Publishers, 1976.* Klaus Mylius (ed.), Wörterbuch Sanskrit-Deutsch, Leipzig: VEB Verlag Enzyklopädie, 1980.* Klaus Mylius (ed.), Sanskrit-Deutsch Deutsch-Sanskrit Wörterbuch, Wiesbaden: Harrassowitz, 2005. * Charles Prebish, Historical Dictionary of Buddhism, Metuchen: The Scarecrow Press, 1993.* Margaret and James Stutley, Harper’s Dictionary of Hinduism: Its Mythology, Folklore, Philosophy, Literature, and History, New York: Harper & Row, 1977.* 1997* Sanskrit Dictionary for Beginners 2005* Mahāvyutpatti 1959* 1986* 1999* 1999* 2000* 2004* ABC-1 2005* 2006* 71 2003 1-340.* 1978* 1993* 1990* 1977* 1981* 1978Buddhist Hybrid Sanskrit* Sukumari Bhattacharji, Buddhsit Hybrid Sanskrit Literature, Calcutta: The Asiatic Society, 1992.* Th. Damsteegt, Epigraphical Hybrid Sanskrit: Its Rise, Spread, Characteristics and Relationship to Buddhist Hybrid Sankrit, Leiden: E. J. Brill, 1978.* Franklin Edgerton (ed.), Buddhist Hybrid Sanskrit Reader, New Haven: Yale University Press, 1953. * Franklin Edgerton, Buddhist Hybrid Sanskrit Grammar and Dictionary, 2 volumes, New Haven: Yale University Press, 1953.* Franklin Edgerton, Buddhist Hybrid Sanskrit: Language and Literature, Banaras: Banaras Hindu University, 1954.* Takamichi Fukita, “On and around Hybrid Sanskrit in the Mahāvadānasūtra and the Sa∆ghabhedavastu,” Indogaku Bukkyøgaku Kenkyū 35/1 (1986): 12-14.* Helmut Humbach, “Inscriptions in Hybrid Sanskrit from Gilgit and from Laghmān,” Sanskrit and World Culture 18 (1986): 386-388.* Kameshwar Nath Mishra (ed.), Aspects of Buddhist Sanskrit, Sarnath: Central Institute of Higher Tibetan Studies, 1993.* 7 1998* 1998* 1998 * 1999* 1999* 1999* 1999 1-86.* 2002* 1998 218-236.* Sārasiddhāntakaumudī 2001* 2001 323-336.* Sures Chandra Banerji, A Companion to Sanskrit Literature: Spanning a Period of over ThreeThousand Years, Containing Brief Accounts of Authors, Works, Characters, Technical Terms, Geographical Names, Myths, Legends and Several Appendices, Dehli: Motilal Banarsidass Publishers, 1971.* Sures Chandra Banerji, Historical Survey of Ancient Indian Grammars (Sanskrit, Pali and Prakrit), Delhi: Sharada Publishing House, 1996.* V. K. Chari, Sanskrit Criticism, Honolulu: University of Hawaii Press, 1990.* Pierre-Sylvain Filliozat, The Sanskrit Language: An Overview: History and Structure, Linguistic and Philosophical Representations, Uses and Users, translated from the French by T. K. Gopalan, Varanasi: Indica Books, 2000.* Hans Henrich Hock (ed.), Studies in Sanskrit Syntax: A Volume in Honor of the Centennial of Speijer’s Sanskrit Syntax, Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass Publishers, 1991.* Colin Masica, The Indo-Aryan Languages, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1991.* Bela Rani Sharma, Modern Methods of Teaching Sanskrit, New Delhi: Sarup & Sons. 2002.* J. F. Staal, Word Order in Sanskrit and Universal Grammar, Dordrecht: D. Reidel Publishing Company, 1967.* Lieve van de Walle, Pragmatics and Classical Sanskrit: A Pilot Study in Linguistic Politeness, Amsterdam: J. Benjamins, 1993.* Akira Yuyama, “An Appraisal of the History of Buddhist Sanskrit Studies in East Asia,” Studies on Buddhism: In Honour of Professor A. K. Warder, edited by N. K. Wagle and F. Watanabe, Toronto: University of Toronto, 1993, pp. 194-203.* ・ 1990。

佛教初学课本清石埭杨文会仁山述【法界】无始终无内外强立名为法界法界性即法身因不觉号无明空色现情器分三世间从此生迷则凡悟则圣真如体须亲证【释迦佛生】证者谁释迦尊大悲愿示诞生处王宫求出离夜逾城人不知入雪山修苦行六年间习寂定从定起出山来坐树下心镜开天龙喜魔胆落睹明星成正觉启大教说华严尘刹海现宝莲悯凡愚不能听隐尊特显劣应说阿含第二时四谛法接小机证四果出生灭演方等破法执第四时谈般若二乘转教菩萨开显圆法华会学无学得授记涅槃经最后说显真常扶戒律五时教如是说亦融通亦分别化道圆归真际双树间吉祥逝荼毗后分舍利阿育王变古制碎宝末造浮图役鬼神遍阎浮优填王始造像令后人修供养【结集三藏】大迦叶命阿难结集经石窟间修多罗是经藏毗奈耶是律藏阿毗昙是论藏正法隆外道丧藏分三部十二遇有缘作佛事【大法东来】汉明帝梦金人求圣教遣蔡愔腾兰来经像至初译经四十二道教徒兴恶念请焚经为试验道经毁佛经全光炽盛耀人天善男女皆生信求出家期现证建十寺安僧尼三宝备始于兹【十宗】溯源流知宗派宗有十分大小〖成实宗〗成实宗,六代盛高僧传可为证〖俱舍宗〗俱舍宗陈至唐五代后渐微茫此二宗是小乘律小大七大乘〖禅宗〗传心印为禅宗佛拈花迦叶通授阿难为二祖次第承皆可数第十二号马鸣造起信大乘兴十四祖名龙树入龙宫华严遇传世间法雨澍造诸论施甘露廿八祖达摩尊来东土示性真离文字要亲证有慧可得心印传僧璨为三祖信心铭超今古第四祖名道信知无缚解脱竟五祖忍居黄梅东山上道场恢第六祖名慧能传衣钵道大行六祖下二禅师南岳让青原思南岳下一马驹踏杀人遍寰区青原下一石头石头路滑似油分五家派各别临济宗行棒喝玄要分宾主别人与境夺不夺沩仰宗示圆相暗机投义海畅曹洞宗传宝镜定君臣行正令云门宗顾鉴咦一字关透者希法眼宗明六相禅与教无两样〖律宗〗既明宗须知律持五戒本乃立为沙弥持十戒比丘僧具足戒戒二百又五十尼增百戒始足梵网戒制菩萨重有十轻四八律门祖优波离承佛印肃清规先束身次摄心得圆通证道深唐道宣精毗尼大小乘咸总持宋元昭继其后著述多善分别既明律须研教辨权实判大小〖天台宗〗北齐朝有慧文读中论得其精祖龙树立三观空假中归一贯传弟子南岳思止观法万世师第三世有智者演教观判高下藏与通别与圆此四教至今传谈性具善恶兼百界如有三千此一派号天台宗法华佛慧开〖贤首宗〗华严经最尊胜初传来在东晋杜顺师是文殊阐华严盘走珠第一传得智俨作搜玄记十卷第二传是贤首探玄记世希有清凉疏释新经并作钞博而精小与始终与顿至于圆五教振四法界十玄门暨六相义最纯因该果果彻因摄万法归一真圭峰密疏圆觉大钞详小钞略此一派贤首宗亦行布亦圆融〖慈恩宗〗（一名法相宗一名唯识宗）唐玄奘游西域学瑜伽祖弥勒依戒贤大论师亲传授历年时归长安传窥基通因明善三支成唯识作述记破邪宗伸正义有现量有比量究竟依圣教量遍计执依他性二者离圆成证此一宗号慈恩先谈相后显真〖三论宗〗（一名性宗一名空宗一名破相宗）三论宗传最古秦罗什来兹土真空义为第一群弟子竞传习曰中论曰百论十二门为三论唐吉藏施大功三论疏传海东法藏释十二门宗致记至今存〖密宗〗（一名真言宗属天竺灌顶部）善无畏至长安唐一行受真传作疏释大日经真言教始得明金刚智及不空接踵来广流通灌顶法不轻授非法器转获咎立禁令自明始秘密宗敕停止〖净土宗〗（一名莲宗）晋慧远住匡庐结莲社德不孤魏昙鸾修妙观生品高瑞相现唐道绰暨善导唱专修为妙道此法门三经说大经该小经切观经语最惊人许五逆得往生三藏教所不摄佛愿力诚难测一称名众罪灭临终时佛来接下中上根不齐一句佛同生西既往生皆不退亲见佛得授记净土宗真简要协时机妙中妙〖忏法〗上十宗已说完忏悔法更须探慈悲忏何人集志公等高僧十梁武帝心至诚度故妻脱蟒形唐悟达有夙业人面疮生于膝遇神僧为洗冤三昧水浇即痊作水忏后世传如法行利无边【诸法】为学者须知法染与净善分别〖五蕴〗色受想并行识此五蕴本空寂〖六根〗眼耳鼻舌身意此六根应须记〖六尘〗色声香味触法此六尘亦须识〖十二处〗前六根与六尘十二处常相亲〖十八界〗根尘接有六识十八界从此立〖转八识成四智〗末那识为第七阿赖耶第八识八种识为心王转成智性发光大圆镜平等性妙观察成所作此四智一心圆八识转体用全〖三身〗曰法身曰报身曰应身是三身自受用他受用一报身说二用胎生身变化身此二种皆应身约为三开为五相无定随机睹〖五眼〗有肉眼有天眼有慧眼有法眼并佛眼名五眼见所见皆无限〖六通〗天眼通天耳通他心通宿命通神境通漏尽通圣与凡各不同〖四谛〗曰苦集曰灭道四谛法须寻讨〖十二因缘〗自无明至老死十二因为缘起顺流转逆还灭当处空无分别〖六度〗布施度持戒度忍辱度精进度禅定度智慧度自他苦从此度〖四无量心〗慈与悲喜与舍四无量称圣者〖涅槃四德〗曰常乐曰我净此四德涅槃证〖十界〗有情界说六凡三途苦须先论曰地狱曰饿鬼曰畜生苦无比曰天道曰人道曰修罗乐事少曰声闻曰缘觉取灭度为独乐曰菩萨曰如来抚众生如婴孩此四圣并六凡为十界一性含〖器世间〗既论身须论土土为依身为主四大洲共铁围七金山绕须弥为大地风力持水火金不相离水轮含十方界性流动如何载业力持得自在风金摩火现彩庵摩果比阎浮果体圆圆如球彼上下与四周人与物如何留楞严经秘密说善会通不可执日与月绕虚空不堕落谁之功有过去有现在有未来三世改南与北西与东并四维上下通观十方人在中人居地地居空数此地至大千凡圣居各有缘同居土方便土实报土寂光土分四土自台教前二粗后二妙法性土净化土染化土分三土贤首教如是说从本源生枝节娑婆界极乐界华藏界及余界界非界非界界重重涉各无碍【劝学】学佛者首在信信而解解而行由解行至于证识次第辨邪正宗说通理事融破我执第一功四句离百非遣妄念消真性显【叙述古德】古之人行履笃言不诳心不曲守清素如慧开竭尽施不积财自洁者如道林入深山远女人尊师者如道安服苦役心自甘孝亲者如道丕为养母自忍饥父捐躯为报国丕苦求骨跃出高尚者如道恒避荣命入山深感应者如道生石点头听讲经求通经如灵辨骨肉穿妙义显冲举者尼净检凌霄去身冉冉神解者李通玄华严论千古传机捷者灵照女老庞公徒延伫举十德励初学依此修成正觉【余韵】三字偈随分说如风过万籁歇非有言非无言会此意是真诠。

第一篇外国古代教育第一章东方文明古国的教育一、选择1．认为教育是一种无意识的活动，是仅凭观察和尝试成功的方法，经过失败和重复模仿进行学习。

这种观点属于一下那种教育起源论（）A．生物起源论 B.心理学起源论 C.劳动起源论 D. 需要起源论2．苏美尔时期出现的与寺庙有关的学校被称为（）A．泥板书社B．古儒学校C．昆它布D．堂区学校3．楔形文字是古代哪个国家发明的（）A．古希腊B．古印度C．古埃及D．古巴比伦4．古代东方文明古国中，在数学上采用10进位计算法的是（）A．古印度B．古巴比伦C．中国D．古埃及5．主张“教育生物起源说”的是（）A．沛西.能B．孟禄C．杨贤江D．利托尔若6．学校教育最早产生于人类的（）A.原始社会末期B.奴隶社会晚期C.封建社会D.资本主义社会7．以下几项，哪一个不是原始社会教育的特点（）A．无阶级性B．无组织C．等级性D．与生产劳动生活紧密联系8．古埃及的学校中，以培养祭司为目的，教授天文、数学、建筑、水利、医学等学科的学校是（）A．宫廷学校B．职官学校C．文士学校D．寺庙或僧侣学校9．古儒学校是印度的教育形式（）A．佛教学校教育B．佛教家庭教育C．婆罗门学校教育D．婆罗门家庭教育10．古印度佛教教育中，推动教育平民化的措施是（）A．把寺院作为学术交流机构B．强调使用地方语言进行教学，取代“梵文”教学C．以佛经为教育内容D．吸纳外国学者11．东方文明古国的教育属于（）A．奴隶社会等级教育B．原始大众教育C．封建社会等级教育D．资本主义教育12．以下哪一个是东方文明古国教育发展的特点（）A．教育内容以生产劳动为核心B．教育具有强烈的阶级性和等级性C．普遍采取班级授课的方式D．教学方法比较丰富灵活二、简答题1．简述古埃及学校教育的类型和基本特征。

2．简述古代印度教育的基本状况。

第二章古希腊的教育一、选择1．古希腊的城邦中，奴隶制民主政体下的教育典范是（）A．雅典B．斯巴达C．麦加拉D．科林斯2．斯巴达的教育目的是要把贵族子弟培养成（）A．身心和谐的公民B．英明的治国者C．保家卫国的战士D．雄辩家3．雅典教育较之斯巴达，具有较强的（）A．等级性B．民主性C．专制性D．义务性4．智者实际是指（）A．聪明的人B．统治者C．教育家D．职业教师5．智者在教育上的一大贡献是提出了教育史上著名的（）A．《荷马史诗》B．产婆术C．七艺中的“前三艺”D．七艺中的“后四艺”6．以下哪一个不是智者在教育史上的贡献（）A．云游讲学，推动文化传播B．传播文法、修辞、辩证法，确定七艺中的“前三艺”C．提出政治家或统治者的教育D．传播天文、几何、算术、音乐，确定“四艺”7．在西方哲学史上开辟了自然哲学向伦理哲学转变新阶段的人是（）A．柏拉图B．昆体良C．亚里士多德D．苏格拉底8．苏格拉底认为教育的培养目标是（）A．哲学家B．治国人才C．公民D．军人9．助产术的最大特点在于（）A．引导对方自己得到答案B．通过具体事物的比较寻找事物的“一般”C．使人陷入自相矛盾D．寻找事物的普遍概念10．下面哪个不是苏格拉底方法的局限（）A．受教育者必须有追求真理的愿望和热情B．受教育者对所讨论的问题积累了一定的知识C．受教育者必须对教育者感到信任和尊敬D．谈话对象必须是有一定知识基础和推理能力的成人11．与《爱弥儿》、《民主主义与教育》合称西方教育史的三大里程碑的是（）A．《林哈德与葛笃德》B．《荷马史诗》C．《理想国》D．《大教学论》12．柏拉图《理想国》中的四种美德是（）A．智慧、勇敢、博学、公正B．勇敢、节制、正义、公平C．智慧、勇敢、节制、正义D．博学、多才、仁爱、礼让13．柏拉图认为教育应当培养的最高目标是（）A．哲学家B．政治家C．公民D．哲学王14．算术、几何、天文、音乐是七艺中的后四艺，将这四艺列入课程确定下来的是（）A．柏拉图B．苏格拉底C．亚里士多德D．昆体良15．《法律篇》对《理想国》做出了许多改变，以下哪一项不属于这种改变（）A．设了一名专管教育的长官B．新课程中哲学被取消了C．反对强迫教育D．提倡兴建学校16．认为人出生以前已经获得了知识，只是在灵魂依附肉体时所有知识都被遗忘了，这是（）A．洛克的“白板说”B．柏拉图的“回忆说”C．苏格拉底的“产婆术”D．昆体良的“雄辩术”17．古希腊“百科全书式的”学者指的是（）A．苏格拉底B．柏拉图C．亚里士多德D．毕达哥拉斯18．下面哪一点不是灵魂论的教育意义（）A．人的身上有动物性，教育不能违背人的本性B．人是有理性的，教育应当使人遵从理性的引导C．发展人的理性，引导人的欲望，关键靠的是智育D．灵魂论为教育应包括智育、德育、体育三个部分提供了人性论的依据19．在教育作用方面，强调天性、习惯和理性的共同作用，引出后世关于遗传、环境和教育的三者关系论争的人物是（）A．亚里士多德B．卢梭C．裴斯泰洛齐D．柏拉图20．“美德即知识”是哪位古希腊著名思想家提出来的（）A．亚里士多德B．苏格拉底C．柏拉图D．毕达哥拉斯21．首次倡导文雅教育的人是（）A．亚里士多德B．卢梭C．苏格拉底D．昆体良22．教育史上第一个对教育进行年龄分期的是，他的这种年龄分期的依据是。

学会11年第二届预科班加行组第一次考试复习范围（共108题）《佛教基础教程》第一册第1节课1什么叫做三殊胜？行持善法为何要以三殊胜摄持？你今后能否做得到?第2节课2、请以教证概述密宗有何特点？请具体阐明密宗哪方面与显宗相同，哪方面比显宗超胜？对此你有什么认识?第3节课3、为什么说上师的恩德胜过诸佛？有人认为这只是密宗的片面之词，你对此是如何看待的？为什么?4、在闻法时，什么叫做法器之三过？此三过如何依次障碍闻、思、修？你平时具有哪些?今后打算怎么做?第4节课5、修持佛法的过程中，需要经历哪五个阶段？其各自有什么特点？请以比喻一一说明。

6、请以比喻描述闻法的三种过患。

分别如何对治?第5节课7、什么叫做六垢？请------ 解释。

六垢对闻法有何影响?第6节课&眼耳鼻舌身意六根识若贪执外境，分别会有哪些过患？请用比喻一一说明。

你对其中的哪个比较有体会？为什么?第7节课9、什么叫做内收？闻法和修行时若内收，会有什么样的过患？你平时是这样的吗?10、闻法时在什么情况下，会产生疲厌的心态？产生这种心态时，应当如何对治？假如实在无法对治，那应该怎么办?第8节课11、请分别解释五不持的含义。

后三者的区别在哪里？怎样才能杜绝这些过患?第9节课12、什么叫做依止四想？请结合自己的情况具体解释。

每一条你都能真正做到吗?第10节课13、为什么说人身造善业、造恶业的能力均超过其余五道？明白这个道理，对你有什么样的帮助?第11节课14、我们在闻法的过程中，如何于一堂课中具足六度？这样有什么功德?15、按照《毗奈耶经》的观点，对哪几种人不能讲法？如果闻法时行为不如法，这会导致什么过患？正确的闻法方式是什么样的?为什么学佛？16、了解佛陀的这些历史，对你有什么帮助？除此之外，你还知道佛陀的哪些事迹?怎么样学佛？17、有些人认为：“佛法自学就可以，没必要去依止善知识。

”这种观点正确吗？为什么?你是如何依止善知识的?什么是密宗?18、现在社会上，人们对密宗有哪些误解？请举例说明。

朝时课诵南ná无mó本běn 师shī释shì迦jiā牟móu 尼ní佛fó（三称）千qiān 手shǒu 千qiān 眼yǎn 无wú碍ài 大dà悲bēi 心xīn 陀tuó罗luó尼ní南n á无m ó喝h ē啰l à怛d á那n ā哆du ō啰l à夜y è耶y ē。

南n á无m ó阿ā唎l ī耶y ē。

婆p ó卢l ú羯ji é帝d ì烁shu ò钵b ō啰l à耶y ē。

菩p ú提t í萨s à埵du ǒ婆p ó耶y ē。

摩m ó诃h ē萨s à埵du ǒ婆p ó耶y ē。

摩m ó诃h ē迦ji ā卢l ú尼n í迦ji ā耶y ē。

唵ōng 。

萨s à皤p ó啰l à罚f á曳y è。

数sh ù怛d á那n ā怛d á写xi à。

南n á无m ó悉x ī吉j í栗l ì埵du ǒ伊y ī蒙m éng 阿ā唎l ī耶y ē。

婆p ó卢l ú吉j í帝d ì室sh ì佛f ó啰l à楞l èng 驮tu ó婆p ó。

南n á无m ó那n ā啰l à谨j ǐn 墀ch í。

醯x ī唎l ì摩m ó诃h ē皤p ó哆du ō沙sh ā咩mi ē。

南传相应部---第12经因缘篇.因缘相应（1-16）本公众号提供南传上座部属佛教的巴利三藏---律藏、经藏（长部、中部、相应部、增支部、小部）、论藏的翻译解释，供师兄们精进修学佛陀正法。

因缘篇第一因缘相应第一佛陀品[一] 第一法说一如是我闻。

尔时，世尊住舍卫城只树给孤独园。

二尔时，世尊言诸比丘：‘诸比丘!’彼等诸比丘应答世尊曰：‘大德!’世尊乃如是曰：‘诸比丘![我]为汝等说缘起。

汝等谛听，当善思念。

我当宣说。

’彼等诸比丘奉答世尊曰：‘大德!唯然。

’三世尊如是宣说：‘诸比丘!缘起者何耶?诸比丘!缘无明有行，缘行有识，缘识有名色，缘名色有六处，缘六处有触，缘触有受，缘受有爱，缘爱有取，缘取有有，缘有有生，缘生有老死、愁、悲、苦、忧、恼。

如是，此乃全苦蕴之集。

诸比丘!此谓生起。

四由无明之无余、离贪灭，有行灭。

由行灭，有识灭。

由识灭，有名色灭。

由名色灭，有六处灭。

由六处灭，有触灭。

由触灭，有受灭。

由受灭，有爱灭。

由爱灭，有取灭。

由取灭，有有灭。

由有灭，有生灭。

由生灭，有老死、愁、悲、苦、忧、恼等灭。

如是全苦蕴之灭。

’五世尊说此已，彼诸比丘而欢喜、随喜，世尊之所说。

------------------------------------翻译汉译经文礼敬那世尊、阿罗汉、遍正觉者相应部因缘篇12.因缘相应1.佛陀品相应部12相应1经/缘起经(因缘相应/因缘篇/修多罗)(庄春江译) 我听到这样：有一次，世尊住在舍卫城祇树林给孤独园。

在那里，世尊召唤比丘们：「比丘们！」「尊师！」那些比丘回答世尊。

世尊这么说：「比丘们！我将教导你们缘起，你们要听！你们要好好作意！我要说了。

」「是的，大德！」那些比丘回答世尊。

世尊这么说：「比丘们！什么是缘起呢？比丘们！以无明为缘而有行；以行为缘而有识；以识为缘而有名色；以名色为缘而有六处；以六处为缘而有触；以触为缘而有受；以受为缘而有渴爱；以渴爱为缘而有取；以取为缘而有有；以有为缘而有生；以生为缘而有老、死、愁、悲、苦、忧、绝望生起，这样是这整个苦蕴的集，比丘们！这被称为缘起。

Lesson-8 Part 1 Mohan, usha and GrandfatherAy|S¢nvasr: .uxa maE h n-c ¢ptamh|p#¢t gÏva vdt: .It is Saturday. Usha and Mohan approach their grandfather and ask him.uxa, maE h n--tat á: r¢vvasr: .cl¢ÅcæO|d#¾gÅCam: va ?Grandfather, tomorrow is Sunday.Shall we go and watch a movie?¢ptamh: - n,n . prÓt¤kamaX£dE v aly|gÅCam: .No, no. Instead let us go to the Kamakshitemple.u, maE-k]p ya cl¢ÅcæO|d#¾ev gÅCam: .Aava|BvÓt|cl¢ÅcæO|d#¾nEÝyav: ev .Please let us go only to see the movie.We will take you to see the movie only.¢ptamh: - ArE! y¤v a|n ÞmrT: ¢km-?p¥v¢Þmn-paZE do r dSI n p#¢t ¢k|Avdtm-i¢t ?Hey, don’t you remember what you said inthe last lesson, about the television program?tt-ntI n d#¾ev|gan|½aE t,n Aag¢mÝya¢mi¢t Kl¤.That I will not go to see that singing anddancing.u,maE-Bvt: An¤m¢t|¢vna ev,Aava|¢tÞa#: upvE¢Ska: AarXav .Even without your permission, we havereserved three seats.¢k|Þyat-cl¢ÅcæOÞy nam ? ......... mhaBartm-.What would be the name of the movie? .....Mahabharatam !-----------------------------------------------------------------------Lesson-8 Part 2 Scene at Home¢ptamh: p¬æO¬ c mhaBart|nam cl¢ÅcæO|è¾q v a g¦h p#ÏyagÅCn-.Scene after the three have watched the film and returned home.maE h n--AhaE! k¢t nayka: na¢yka: ek¢Þmn-cl¢ÅcæOE!Oh! how many heros ans heroines in one movie!tE x a|prÞprs|bÓDan-åOat¤mE bh¤k¾|A¢Þt .It is difficult for me to understand (know)their relationships.tTa¢p n£lÜyaml|k]ÝN|,tTa tÞy @£fa|d#¾At£v uÏs¤k aE{¢Þm .But of course I am eager to see the dark blueKrishna and his (divine) actions.uxa- AÞt¤ev|, tTa¢p tE x a|prÞpr s|bÓDan-idan£m¢p navgÅCa¢m .May be so, but I cannot understand theirrelationships even now.tat ! vdt¤tavt-, kaE{y|g¬rvNI:paÎf¤: nam ?Grandfather! Please tell who that fair skinned(almost white skinned) person called Pandu.kT|tÞy AÓDp¤âxE N s|bÓD: ?What is his relationship with the blind person?maE h n--mm A¢p ev|ev .Same here. (means: I too have the same question)tæO ¢ptamh: i¢t y|tE Aah¤:, s: vÞt¤t:tE jÞv£ mhan-c p#¢tBa¢t .The one whom they called grandfather, appearedreally radiant and great.uxa -AhaE! AaàyI, ArE d^y a©D nÞy ¢k|ekaE n St|B#a tr: Aasn-?Oh! Amazing ! Did Duryodhana really haveninetynine brothers?¢ptamh: - S¦N, ev|p¦ÅCt: cE t p#Ïy¤äOr|dat¤n S;«¢m .Listen, if you pester me like this I cannotanswer.Ah|tavt-mhaBartkTa|ev vNI y a¢m .Aï k¬rvpaÎfvana|jÓmpyIÓt|kTya¢m .I will now tell you the story of theMahabharata.Today I will tell you upto the birth of theKauravas and Pandavas.---------------------------------------------------------------------Lesson 8 Part 3:Pandavas and Kauravasr¢vvasrE- Sunday¢ptamh: - SÓtn¤: Kl¤saE m v|S raja .tÞy æOy: p¤æOa: Aasn-.Shantanu (was) the king of the Soma(Lunar) dynasty. He had three sons.ÇyE¿m¢hÝya|gÄña ya|B£Ým: nam p¤æO: ABvt-,sÏyvÏya|¢¹t£yaya|BayaI y a|¹¬ p¤æO¬ .¢v¢cæOv£yI: c ¢cæOaÄñdà .Through his first Consort Ganga, he had a soncalled Bhishma. From the second wifeSatyavati he had two sons, Vichitraveeryaand Chitrangada.B£ÝmÞy nam p¥v dE v v#t: i¢t Aas£t-.Bhishma was earlier known as Devavrata.yda tE n Aaj£vn|b#’cyI v t D¦t, tda tÞy namB£Ým i¢t p#¢s¼|ABvt-.When he took a vow of celebacy for his entirelife, he became famous and his name Bhishma.baÚy ev ¢cæOaÄñd ekaE gÓDvI: Ahn-.¢v¢cæOv£ya©A¢p y¬vnavÞTaya|ev raE g g#ÞtaE B¥Ïva ¢dv|g t: .During his childhood itself, Chitrangada waskilled by a Gandharva (Semidivine being).Vichitraveerya too died in his youthdue to disease.tÞy BayI y aE: ev|daÞya| æOy: p¤æOa: ABvn-.tE x a|nama¢n @mE N D¦t ra¾®: paÎf¤: ev|¢vd^r: .He had three sons from his two wives and a maid.Their names were Dhritrashtra, Pandu and Vidurarespectively.¢ptamh: - maE h n-vd ¢v¢cæOv£yIÞyB£ÝmE N k: s|bÓD: ?Mohan, tell the relationship betweenVichitraveerya and Bhishma.maE h n-- smat¦j aE B#a ta .Step brother.¢cæOaÄñd: ¢v¢cæOv£yIÞy B#a ta .Chtrangada was the brother of Vichitraveerya.¢ptamh: - uxE, Ïv|b#¢h paÎfaE:¢v¢cæOv£y©N k: s|bÓD: i¢t .Usha, you tell, what is the relationship betweenPandu and Vichitraveerya.uxa -¢pta c p¤æO: .Father and Son.¢ptamh: - tt: B£Ým: ......... ?Then Bhishma .......?uxa-B£xm: paÎfaE: ÇyE¿¢pt¦Ûy: .Bhishma was Pandu’s Father’s elder brother(Uncle. Note the specific reference tofather’s elder brother)¢ptamh: - paÎfaE: ¹E Bay©AaÞtam-.k[Ót£ mad#£ c .Pandu had two wives. Kunthi and Madri.k[Ót£ Bgvt: ½£k]ÝNÞy ¢pt¦Ûya(¢pt¦Þvsa) Aas£t-.Kunthi was Lord SriKrishna’s father’s sister(Aunt).mad#£ md#d S£ya rajkÓya Aas£t-.Madri was the princess of the kingdom of Madra.tÞya A¢p SÚy: nam B#a ta Aas£t-.She also had a brother by name Salya.md#d S: tdan£|BartdE SÞy vayÛy ¢dÂBagEek: p#d S: Aas£t-.In those days, Madradesa was a kingdom in thenorthwest of Bharat (part of present dayAfghanistaan).--------------------------------------------------------------------Lesson 8 Part 4¢ptamh: - yÞmat-D¦t ra¾®: jÓmp#¢t AÓD:Aas£t-, tÞmat-s:¢s|h asn|AaraE d n AS;«t-.Since Dhritarashtra was congenitally blind, hecould not ascend the throne.tt: paÎf¤: h¢Þtnap¤rÞy raja ABvt-.So Pandu became the king of Hastinapura.h¢Þtnap¤r£ k[âpa·aldE SÞy rajDan£ Aas£t-.Hastinapuri was the capital of theKuruPanchala Desa.paÎfaE: p· p¤æOa: Aasn-.Pandu had five sons.æOy: k[ÓÏya|,ev|¹¬ mad#Y a|c .Three from Kunthi and two from Madri.p¤æOjnnanÓtr|paÎf¤: S£G#m v m¦t: ABvt-.Soon after the birth of his sons, Pandu died.tdan£|mad#£ A¢p pÏya sh ¢dv|g ta .Then Madri entered the funeral pyre along withher husband.D¦t ra¾®Þy gaÓDayaI St|p¤æOa: Aasn-,eka s¤t a c .Dhritarashtra had a hundred sons and a daughterthrough Gandhari.¢ptamh: - uxE vd , idan£|k[ÓÏya: k¢t p¤æOa:Aasn-? kE etE?Usha, now tell, how many sons did Kunthi have?Who are they?uxa - æOy: , y¤¢D¢¿r: , B£msE n: , Aj¤nà .Three, Yudhishtira , Bhimasena and Arjuna.¢ptamh: - maE h n-, jana¢s va mad#Y a: ¹yaE:p¤æOyaE: nam ¢k¢m¢t ?Mohan, do you know what the names of thetwo sons of Madri are?maE h n-- ek: nk[l: , AÓy: shdE v: .One was Nakula and the other Sahadeva.¢ptamh: - tyaE: k: jE¿: ?Who was elder among them?maE h n-- kT|? t¬ yml¬ Kl¤?How ? They were twins (were’nt they?)¢ptamh: - sØykq, tTa{¢p nk[l aEÇyE¿:Good, Even then Nakula was the elder.(It appears that there was a system of rankingtwins too as elder and younger. What would be ofinterest here is to know that the one born firstwill be the younger! The concept is that the oneborn second has spent more time in his mother’swomb.)D¦t ra¾®Þy p¤æOE x k: jE¾: ?Well, who was the elder among the sonsof Dhritarashtra?maE, u - s¤y aE D n: .Suyodhana.¢ptamh: - Aa|, prÓt¤tÞy d^m¢t|è¾q v a d^y a©D n:i¢t t|Avdn-.Yes, on account of the wickedness seen in him,he was called Duryodhana.d^y a©D nad£na|ka shaE d r£ Aas£t-?Who was the sister of the Duryodhana brothers?maE h n-- d^ÜSla .Dussala.¢ptamh: - A¢BmÓy¤: kÞy p¬æO: Aas£t-?Whose grandson was Abhimanyu?maE h n-- A¢BmÓyaE: ¢ptamh: paÎf¤: .Abhimanyu’s grandfather was Pandu.uxa -tat tat ! p¤æOÞy p¤æO: p¬æO: cE t p¤æya:p¤æO: k: ?Grandfather! if one’s son’s son is called poutra,then who is one’s daughter’s son ?¢ptamh: - uäOm: p#½: . t|d¬¢hæO: i¢t vd¢Ót .Good question. He is called douhitra.y¢d p¤æya: p¤æO£ t¢hI d¬¢hæO£ Bv¢t .If it is daughter’s daughter, then she is calleddouhitree.----------------------------------------------------------------------Lesson 8 Part-5¢ptamh: - k: jana¢t pr£¢Xt: mharajÞymatamh£ ka i¢t ?Who remembers (knows) who was the maternalgrandmother of Parikshit Maharaja ?uxa, maE h n-- Aava|n jan£v: .prÓt¤, pr£¢Xt-mharaja kÞy p¤æO: ?We do not know butWhose son wasParikshit Maharaja?¢ptamh: - s: A¢BmÓyaE: p¤æO: .He was Abhimanyu’s son.uxa, maE h n-- A¢BmÓyaE: BayaI ka ?Who was Abhimanyu’s wife?¢ptamh: - A¢BmÓyaE: BayaI d#p drajp¤æO£ uäOraAas£t-. AÞt¤, AÓy|p#½p¦ÅCa¢m .Abhimanyu’s wife was Uttara, the princess of(kingdom of) Drupada. OK, let me askanother question.d^y a©D nE n sh Sk[n: k: s|bÓD: ?What is the relationship between Sakuni andDuryodhana?maE h n-- mat¤l: .Uncle (Mother’s brother)¢ptamh: - paÎfvana|D¦t ra¾®Þy k: s|bÓD: ?What is the relationship between Dhritarashtraand the Pandavas?uxa - s: paÎfvana|¢pt¦Ûy: Kl¤.Paternal Uncle of the Pandavas.¢ptamh: - baF|. t¢hI vdt|k[Ót£mad#Y«:¢mT: k: s|bÓD: ?Correct. Then tell what is the relationshipbetween Kunthi and Madri?uxa - spÏÓy¬ .Wives of the same person.¢ptamh: - sm£c£n|uäOrm-.paÎf¤D t ra¾®y aE: ¢ptamh: SÓtn¤:,¢ptamh£ sÏyvt£ .Correct answer. Shantanu was the grandfatherof Pandu and Dhritarashtra, and theirgrandmother Satyavati.d#¬pd£ k[ÓÏya: Þn¤x a Aas£t-ev|paÎf¤:d#¬pïa: áS¤r: k[Ót£ ½¥: c .Draupadi was the daughter in law of Kunthiand Pandu was Draupadi’s father in law. Kunthiwas the mother in law.Sk[¢n: D¦t ra¾®Þy Þyal: .Sakuni was Dhritarashtra’s brother in law.D¦t ra¾®: Sk[n: B¢gn£p¢t: .Dhritarashtra was Sakuni’s sister’s husband.(Brother in law)d^y a©D n: Sk[n: Ba¢gnE y: .Duryodhana was Sakuni’s nephew (sister’s son).kTa raE c tE Kl¤. it:pr|AÓy¢Þmn-¢dnE pZam: .S¤B ra¢æO: .Story was interesting wasn’t it? Will follow it upanother day. Good night.----------------------------------------------------------------------Grammar for Lesson-8__________ Part-1__________p#¢tgÏva − p#¢t is used here like the English preposition "towards". However here it is a prefix and not anindependent word.p#¢t may also be used like a preposition inSanskrit. In such cases it will have differentmeanings like"about" or "in connection with"Unlike the perposition in English which is writtenbefore the noun, p#¢t is written following thenoun. When written like this, the noun whichoccurs before p#¢t should be expressed in theAccusative case (¢¹t£ya ¢vB¢³:). Clearly thisdifference in use must be remembered. In lightervein, should we call this a "postposition" ratherthan a "preposition"?Here are some examples of the use of p#¢ts: g¦h p#¢t gÅC¢tHe is going towards his house or justHe goes home.p#¢t is used after g¦hHere is another example.dE v an-p#¢t maÀs-m¤Úlrq¢k|Avdt-?What did Max Muller say about the Vedas?There is something else about p#¢t which shouldbe kept in mind.p#¢t may also be used as prefix to a verb, typicallya transitive verb such as gÅC (a verb of motion).Thus p#¢tgÅC¢t will mean "goes towards"p#¢t may also be used as a prefix to a noun as inp#¢t¢dnm-which means "everyday".Thus, when you see p#¢t its meaning will depend onthe context.Is it used after a noun?Is it a prefix to a verb?Is it a prefix to a noun?later in the lesson, you will read aboutp#¢tBa¢t and p#Ïy¤äOrm-While on the use of p#¢t, we might bring the reader’sattention to a famous and important verseAakaSat-p¢tt|taE y yTa gÅC¢t sagrm-svI d v nmÞkar: kE S v|p#¢t gÅC¢t ¡We will discuss the meaning of this beautiful versein one of the later lessons.---------------------------------------------------------------------Lesson-8 Grammar Part-2d#¾m, ½aE t m- These are t¤m n words. The concept oft¤m n was introduced in Lesson-6n Aag¢mÝya¢m − literally ’ I will not come’In the context of this lesson, it should betaken to mean ’I will not go to see themovie’ or simply ’I shall not come’.¢vna ev − even without¢vna − without.Please remember that the noun against which¢vna is used should be in the second case.i.e., Accusative case (¢¹t£ya ¢vB¢³:)p¬æO¬ − Normally means two grandsons (¢¹vcnm-).There are some special conventions used indescribing grandchildren. When both are ofthe same gender, the form depends on thegender.Ex., p¬æO¬ − two male grandchildrenp¬æy¬ − two grand daughtersHowever in dual or plural, even if one of thegrandchildren is male, the male form is used torefer to the two grandchildren. This applies togroups of people as well. Krishna and his Gopis(Gopika ladies) will be referred to as tE(m) andnot as ta: (f).ek¢Þmn- − This is the seventh case of the pronoun ek: meaning "in a" or "in one"tE x am- − Their (m) Sixth case pluraln£lÜyamlm- − Adjective used to describe Lord krishna (his colour). It means dark blue. n£l|−BlueÜyamlm-− dark. Note however the order of thecolours in the expression.tTa¢p − even thenkaE{ym-− k: + Ay|A example of a Sandhiev|ev − Both are indeclinables. These may be usedindependently too. When used together theymean ’it is so’mm A¢p ev|ev − Here it means ’I too feel the same’.tE jÞv£ − A person with divine radiance.vÞt¤t: − actually, really, infactthis word is an indeclinable.vNI y a¢m − means describe, used in first person here.k¬rvpaÎfvana| − Example of a Samasam. This is acompound of two nouns. It means ’ of Kauravas andPandavas ’ . The samasam is used in the dual formas the compound noun is formed to describe twogroups of people and not a group consisting ofKauravas and Pandavas. Hence the plural formk¬rvpaÎfvana|is used. When we examine it,the dual form does seem appropriate. Now if thegrandfather were intending to refer to thePandavas and Kauravas independently, the sentencewould go like,Aï k¬rvaNa|paÎfvana|c jÓmpyIÓt|kTya¢m .---------------------------------------------------------------------Lesson8: Grammar Part-3jÓmpyIÓtm-− Upto the birthThe word is also an indeclinable.pyIÓt|which denotes "upto" or "till"is added to nouns to indicate an event in time.It may also be used in this fashion to describe"upto a physcial boundary"Examples;kalpyIÓt|− Upto the durationA¢ÓtmpyIÓt|− Till the last (of one’s life)AÓtpyIÓt|− Till the ends£mapyIÓt| − Upto the borderyavt-( pyIÓt|) − Upto any amount of Time, or asmuch time. yavt-itself means tillthe end.m¢hx£ − Consort , used in the sense of King’s wifeAaj£vnm-− As long as one livesb#’cyI v t− vow of celebacyB£Ým − means a person whom people approachwith caution or fear.(In the sense of not being able to find a person ofmatch in respect of the great qualities of the person).In this case, he has taken a vow, a fearful one that canbe fulfilled only on account of extraordinarycourage.@mE N − respectively or in the orderpaÎfaE: − of Pandu¢v¢cæOv£y©N − from or by Vichtraveerya½£k]ÝNÞy − SriKrishna’smd#d S£ya − of Madra DesaAll the above four words, reflect the use of nounsin different ¢vB¢³:yÞmat-− tÞmat- − two words used as a pair. Usage is similar to yavt-− tavt-yÞmat-means "since" or "because" and tÞmat-means "as a consequence". Here is an exampleof a sentence using this pair.yÞmat-¢vás|p kI j al|A¢Þt , tÞmat-Bvan-ett-s|Þk]t paZ|p¢Zt¤S;«¢tSince the internet is there, you are able to read thisSanskrit lesson.¢vás|p kI j alm-A compound noun built up of¢vá: world, s|p kI communication, jalm-netBased on the ending word, the compound nounbecomes neuter.jÓmp#B¢t − Congenitally, i.e., from birthThe word p#B¢t can be added to any processfrom any point. It means from then on. Someexamples,d^G z nap#B¢t - from the time of the accidentpr£Xap#B¢t − from the time of the examination¢vvahaÏp#B¢t − from the time of marriagep¤æOjnnaÓtr|− After the birth of the children. This is a compund word from p¤æO , jnn and AnÓtr|AnÓtr|is an indeclinable.AnÓtr|may be added as a suffix just as p#B¢t¢vvahanÓtrm-meaning after the marriageyml¬ − twins¢vrazrajm¢hx£ − the consort of the King of ¢vraz (dE S:.A compound word formed from ¢vraz , rajaand m¢hx£。

梵文初学者入门教程梵文初学者入门教程字母的元音-天城体前面6个元音文法：动词如何形成单数动词的结尾字汇：动词的词根√gam和√prach「～和～」的梵文表示方法如何写简单的句子字母：元音1.在梵文里，每一个字母只有代表一个声音(varna)。

在英文里，字母「a」可能代表不只一个声音，梵文不是如此。

梵文字母根据嘴巴(发音器官)的构造十分系统化安排。

2.字母分成两大部分：元音(svara)和子音(vyabjana)。

3.元音可分成短元音(hrasva)和长元音(dirgha)。

若以短元音发音的时间长度为一个单位(matra)，则长元音为两个单位。

有些元音称为单元音(wuddha)，有些则称为复元音(sajyukta，即超过一个元音所构成)4.在吠陀梵文里面，有些元音发音长度是三个单位，称为「pluta」不过这在古典梵文当中少见。

这种元音在天城体都会标示，在罗马字母标示上也有，就是在字母后面标示一个数字「3」，例如a3或是a3次。

你也可能看到注记的是长元音，如a3。

《波利尼经》在(1.2.27)当中称这三声叫做「公鸡啼叫的三声」：uuu3。

5.以下是元音的发音：a就像America的.「A」a就像father的「a」i就像heat的「ea」i就像beet的「ee」u就像suit的「u」u就像pool的「oo」r就像river(但通常都不卷舌)的「ri」‘f就像reed的「ri」l就像jewelry的「lry」e就像gate的「a」ai就像aisle的「ai」o就像pole的「o」au就像loud的「ou」6.字母上的直线与点称为「区别符号」，因为梵文字母比英文的数量还多，罗马字母与区别符号的组合代表梵文特有的发音7.元音单独，或是一个元音跟着一个与多个子音则形成「音节」(aksara)。

8.梵文以天城体字母来表示。

(译注：作者似乎不知道悉昙体存在，所以这么说。

)天城体的梵文：devanagri这个字是由nagri，中文翻译「城市」，与另一个字deva，中文翻成「天神的」组合而成，故名「天城体」。