二语习得导论习题集

《第二语言习得》练习题一、术语解释1、语内语言错误2、语言能力3、情感策略二、简答题1、中介语产生的主要来源？2、语言错误分析的主要作用？3、语言错误产生的主要原因？··················密···················封·····················线··················三、论述题：试析学习者个体差异对语言习得的影响。

《第二语言习得》练习题答案一、术语解释1、语内语言错误语内语言错误，指的是由于学习者对目的语规则理解不对或学习不全面而引起的错误，不同母语背景的学生在学习同一外语时会犯相似的错误。

2、语言能力Chomsky认为语言能力是指人们所具有的语言知识，是一种内化了的包括语音、词汇、语法等的语言规则体系。

3、情感策略指学习者在英语学习过程中控制和调整自己心情、态度、动机等的方法与能力。

二、简答题1、中介语产生的主要来源？Selinker 认为中介语产生的来源有五种：语言迁移、对第二语言的过度概括化、语言训练的迁移、学习第二语言的策略和交际的策略。

1.第二语言习得研究发展的路径（P19）（1）。

上世纪六十年代的第二语言习得研究的理论初创阶段。

在这一时期，第二语言习得研究与第二语言教学研究尚未分离。

当时站主导地位的是以行为主义为心理学基础的“对比分析”方法。

（2）上世纪70年代，第二语言习得研究已经发展成为一个独立的研究领域，是第二语言习得研究大发展的阶段。

偏误分析应运而生，产生了“中介语”理论假设。

还有两个重要的理论研究和创建，一是以Dulay和Burt为代表的第二语言习得顺序研究二是克拉伸的“监控模式”等（3）上世纪80 年代，第二语言习得研究作为一个独立的学科开始逐渐走向成熟。

受其他学科的影响构成了第二语言习得研究的跨学科特点形成了不同的理论视角，如语言学视角、社会语言学视角、认知视角等。

2.语言输入观P181：（1）行为主义学习理论认为，语言输入在语言习得过程中具有重要作用，强调外在因素的中心地位。

行为主义学习理论认为外在因素是语言习得的决定因素，否定学习者内在因素的作用。

（2）与行为主义学习理论相反，心灵学派认为，学习者的内在因素，即语言习得机制，在语言习得过程中具有重要作用，他们把语言习得机制看做语言习得的决定因素。

（3）“互动论”的观点。

Elis认为，在互动论的旗帜下包括两个不同理论：一是以认知心理学为基础的“认知互动理论”二是“社会互动理论”。

认知互动理论不单单强调语言输入环境的重要性，也不仅仅强调语言习得内在因素的重要性，而是将两者结合起来。

3.学习策略的含义P304：学习策略是指学习者在整个语言习得或语言使用过程中，与某个特定阶段相关联的心理行为或行动。

学习策略的分类P306：（一）Skehan(1989)的分类：1.根据学习者处理学习情景的能力来分（1）主动参与策略（active task approach）学习者主动寻找学习机会，并参与练习活动，反映积极。

（2）解释与确认策略（clarification and verification）学习者利用查字典和意译的方式，获得词语等的应用实例，并从句子里确认词语等的意义。

二语习得练习SLA选择题练习选择题练习1：1) Target language refers to __________ .A. the language that one is learningB. one's mother tongueC. one's foreign language2) Second language acquisition takes place normally __________, so the process becomes more complicated.A. after one has already acquired L1B. before one has already acquired L1C. after one has already acquired target language3) Cognitive school theory believes that __________ . Language learning is a process of attaining cognitive skills.A. adults learn L2 by problem-solving cognitive patterns.B. children learn L2 by problem-solving cognitive patterns.C. both adults and children learn L2 by problem-solving cognitive patterns.4) Affective factors are considered ________ .A. unnecessary in L1 acquisition, but necessary in L2 acquisition.B. necessary in L1 acquisition, but unnecessary in L2 acquisition.C. necessary in both L1 and L2 acquisition.5) Critical Period Hypothesis believes that ______ is a important factor that affect L2 acquisition.A. ageB. social classC. sex6) In term of second language acquisition, it is often believed that ________ .A. educational settings will lead to higher levels of L2 proficiency than natural settings.B. natural settings will lead to higher levels of L2 proficiency than educational settings.C. natural settings and educational settings can lead to same level of L2 proficiency7 In terms of second language acquisition, it is often believed that ________ .A. Adults and children are initially and finally the sameB. Children initially faster and adults finally betterC. Adults initially faster and children finally better8) Explicit knowledge is acquired from _______ while implicit knowledge is acquired from _____ .A. acquisition … learningB learni ng … acquisitionC. learning … practice9) A schema, in psychology and cognitive science, is _______ structure that represents some aspects of the world in a person's mind.A. a mentalB. a physicalC. a grammatical10) Listening and reading aloud can strengthen one's ________ .A. auditory memoryB. visual memoryC. sensory memory11) Under submersion settings, a language learner isexpected to confronted with instruction situation in which ______ . while under immersion settings the teacher is supposed to be bilingual.A. the teacher and all other classmates do not understand the learner's L1B. the teacher does not understand the learner's L1C. all other classmates not understand the learner's L112) Learning that takes place in natural and educational settings is supposed ________ .A. to be the sameB to be very differentC. to be very easy13) The speculation of Universal Grammar derives from ________ .A. the language acquisition deviceB. the overall success of language acquisitionC. the phenomenon of "poverty-of-the- stimulus"选择题练习2：Acquisition is different from learning: Acquisition occurs ____ 1 ( A. consciously B. unconsciously ) in ______2 ( A. natural B. educational ) setting and learners normally pay attention to _____ 3 ( A. meaning; B. form ).Universal Grammar refers to a set of _____ 4 (A. principle and parameters;B. grammar rules) which human are born with and which ensure the natural occurance of _____ 5 ( A. L1 acquisition; B. L2 acquisition ). But the accessibility of UG is still a controversial issue in ____ 6 ( A. L1 acquisition; B. L2 acquisition )Cognitive school theory believes that ________ 7. (A. adults learn L2 by problem-solving cognitive patterns; B. children learnL2 byproblem-solving cognitive patterns ) and. language learning is a process of attaining cognitive skills.Affective factors are considered ______ 8. (A. unnecessary in L1 acquisition, but necessary in L2 acquisition; B. necessary in L1 acquisition, but unnecessary in L2 acquisition; ) and four most important factors in affective filter are _____ 9 ( A. motivation; B. creation ), attitude, self-confidence and anxiety. A _____ 10 ( A. high B. low ) affective filter is favorable to L2 learning.Learners of instrumental motivation normally concern with _____ 11 ( A. the process; B. the practical rewards ) of learning. So most of them tend to ____ 12 ( A. give up B. work on ) when the process is too long.Language competence refers to ______ 13 ( A. inside language intuition;B. outside language abi lity ). As for L1, people’s language competenceis believed to be equal but their ____ 14 ( A. language styles;B. language performance ) are different.Critical Period Hypothesis believes that _____ 15 ( A. age B. sex ) is a important factor that affect L2 acquisition. And it is generally believed that ____ 16 ( A. children start slower but end better and adults normally start faster but end failure; B. adults start slower but end better and children start faster but end failure. )Memory is normally divided into short-term memory and long-term memory. Long-term memory is stored as our _____ 17 ( A. knowledge; B. task).SLA 名词解释练习1) Acquisition and Learning Acquisition refers to the learningof a language unconsciously under natural settings where learners pay attention only to the meanings or contents rather than forms or grammars; learning refers to the learning of a language consciously under educational settings where learners mainly pay attention to forms or grammars;2) InterlanguageInterlanguage refers to L2 leaner's language. It is so called, because it is a language leaner’s L1 and the learner’s target language.The term "interlangauge" has two levels of meaning, first, it refers to the whole system of language, and second, it also refers to the language level at a certain point along the continuum of interlangauge system. Interlanguage has at least five characte ristics: …3) Behaviorism: 行为主义学派Behaviorism is a school of theory in the study of second language acquisition which insists that mere imitation can ensure the happening of language acquisition. Output is determined by input. Learners can achieve language by mere imitation of the input. Language acquisition is a process of stimulate-response process. "Stimulate" refers to input stimulation and "response" means "learning". So learning comes from merestimulation. This school ignores the inherited linguistic property of human beings and the cognitive process of human mind.4) Mentalism ( Nativism )：天生主义或先天主义学派Mentalism is a school of theory in the study of second language acquisition which argues that language acquisition relies on universal grammar, which is a set of principles and parameters that human are born with. Input just triggers the wake of UG and the choice of parameters. And UG will eventuallydevelop into a specific language. This school ignores the function of input and believe that the inside factors determine the language acquisition. Input does not help a lot.5) Cognitivism ( Or cognitive interactionism ):认知主义学派Believe that L2 acquisition relies on interaction between the inside and outside factors. And this school differentiate the differences between children's and adults' L2 acquisition, believing that adults usually learn and do not acquire L2 as a child does, so UG does not exist in adults' L2 learning. Adult people learn L2 by problem-solving cognitive patterns. Language learning is a process of attaining cognitive skills, similar to learning swimming and driving.6) Affective Filter Affective filters refer to motivation, confidence, attitude and anxiety, which form a groups of psychological factors that influence the process of second language acquisition. It is universally believed that low level of affective filters is more favorable to second language acquisition than higher ones. We call them affective filter because these psychological factors can filter the passage of input in accordance with different levels of affective.7) Implicit knowledge and explicit knowledgeImplicit knowledge refers to the knowledge that one attains as the result of L2 acquisition, while explicit knowledge refers to the knowledge that one attains as the result of L2 learning. So implicit knowledge is procedural knowledge, a kind of language skills. Explicit knowledge refers to rules and principles of L2.8) Schema Schema refers to one's mental structure of the world in his (her) mind. The deposit of knowledge in one's mind creates a picture or a stereotype of the structure of the outside world, which in turn provides a framework for futureunderstanding.9) Fundamental Difference HypothesisA cognitive theory in second language acquisition put forward byBley-Vroman and representing the opinions of cognitivist school. The theory believes that in second language acquisition adults and children are different from each other. Children acquire a second language in the process of which universal grammar may, to certain degree, still exist while adults use cognitive problem-solving process in which UG is unaccessible and so cause general failure.10) FossilizationFossilizable linguistic phenomena are linguistic items, rules and subsystems which speakers of a particular native language will tend to keep in their inerlanguage relative to a particular target language, no matter what the age of the learner or amount of explanation and instruction he receives in the target language. Or fossilization refers to a state in which L2 learners' language development stops or get stuck no matter how much effort they give or how much instruction they reveive. It is a kind of universal phenomenon in interlanguage.11）Social settings in SLASocial settings refer to natural settings and educational settings in L2 acquisition. Educational settings are further divided into submersion and immersion settings.Immersion setting refers to a setting in which …. While submersi on setting is a setting in which …12）Universal GrammarUniversal Grammar refers to a set of highly abstract principles and parameters that human are born with. It is alsocalled language acquisition device, which ensure the happening of language acquisition. The theory was first put forward by Noam Chomsky to explain the occuranceof L1 acquisition. Some linguists applied it to L2 acquisition, believing that UG is still accessible in L2 acquisition.13) Integrative motivationIntegrative motivation refers to sincere personal interest in learning L2 because of the language itself and the culture represented by the language. Integrative motivation has been shown strongly related to L2 achievement.14) Instrumental MotivationInstrumental Motivation concern with the practical rewards of learning such as certificates, making money. Learners with an instrumental reason for learning L2 can be successful. In some 'second' as opposed to 'foreign' settings, an instrumental orientation may be the most important one. Learners with instrumental motivation may stop learning when they failed to receive expected rewards.15) language transferTransfer is the influence resulting from the similarities and differences between the target language and any other language that has been previously ( and perhaps imperfectly) acquired. Transfer is divided into positive transfer and negative transfer. Positive transfer can facilitate L2 learning while errors occurred as a result of negative transfer.。

Discussion Questions of SLAChapter 1: Learning a first language1. Think of three or four ‘telegraphic’sentences that a young child might produce. These may be in English or another language you know well. How are these ‘little sentences’ similar to those in the adult language? How are they different?Both of sentences contain the necessary key words, especially nouns, verbs and adjectives. But, telegraphic sentences are shorter, and lack function words, in which grammatical elements are often omitted or inserted incorrectly, and single-clause.2. Researchers have used both longitudinal and cross-sectional approaches to investigate the order of acquisition of grammatical morphemes in English by young children. Describe these approaches in your own words. What are the challenges and the potential benefits of each?Cross-sectional approach studies subjects at different ages and stages of development. Longitudinal approach study the same learner’s over a period of time.Longitudinal study approach takes a lot of time and are very expensive and inconvenient. Meanwhile longitudinal studies track the same people, avoid differences of cultural differences across generations, and make observing changes more accurate.When it comes to cross-sectional approach, routine data not designed to answer the specific question, and other variables will affect the relationship between the cause and effect. The use of routinely collected data allows large cross-sectional studies in large scale, and cost less to the researcher.3. What is the ‘wug test’? What do the findings from the wug test tell us about Children’s developing language? What advantages does the wug test have over studies that observe children’s language in natural settings? Can you think of some disadvantages?“Wug test” is designed as showing students make-up words, and blank filling exercise, to explore children’s knowledge of language.By age four, children have mastered the basic structure of the language.It can be demonstrated that children not only know a list of memorized word pairs, but can apply these rules to words which they have ever heard before.The acquisition of the more complex grammatical structures of the language requires a different sort of explanation.4. What is metalinguistic awareness? Why is it a prerequisite for being able to understand most jokes and riddles? Think of a joke or riddle you know. How is metalinguistic awareness related to your understanding of what makes this joke funny?The ability to treat language as a object, separate from the meaning it conveys.Metalingusitc awareness also includes the discovery of such things as ambiguity---words and sentences that have multiple meaning.A joke always relates to funny pun, which is closely related to metalinguistic awareness.5. What have researchers observed about the frequency with which young children engage in imitation and repetitive practice? In what way are young children’s linguistic imitation and practice patterns different from those of some foreign language classes?From less than 10 percent to 40 percent.Young children choose what they will imitate and practice, and the choice is based on something they have already begun to understand, which is different from foreign language classes.6. Give examples of both grammatical and lexical overgeneralization errors found in early child language. What is the general learning principle that underlies such errors?Randall(2,9): Are dogs wiggle their tails?Randall(3,0) asks: Why? So he can doc my little bump?Children appear to pick out patterns and then generalize them to new contexts.7. How do the stories of Victor and Genie (pages 19–21) support the critical period hypothesis? Do you find this evidence convincing? Why do most researchers consider that the evidence from users of American Sign Language that was collected by Newport and her colleagues (page 21) is stronger support for the CPH?Victor and Genie who have been deprived of contact with language in their early years, CANNOT learn language like normal people, reason of which may be that their language acquisition device was stimulated too late.No, because the sample is too unusual and other factors are not excluded.Because the children are usual learners and the circumstances of their early lives are known to the researchers.8. How are Piaget’s and Vygotsky’s views of first language acquisition similar? How do they differ?Both of them stand in the interactionist position, believe that children are active learners and development declines with age.Piaget believes that children's cognitive development would partly determine how they use language; while Vygotsky believes that Language develops entirely from social interaction.9. What was unusual about Jim’s exposure to language? How does this case support an interactionist perspective on language acquisition?Jim had little contract with hearing/speaking adults up to the age of 3,9, only contract with oral language was through TV. His parents did not use sign language with Jim.It was Jim’s conversations with sessions with an adult improve his language development, which is highlighted in interactionist perspective.Chapter 2: Theoretical approaches to explaining second language learningThe behaviourist perspective10. State the Contrastive Analysis Hypothesis (CAH) and explain why it is often linked to the behaviourist theory. What are its limitations?①The CAH predicts that where there are similarities between the first and second languages, the learner will acquire second language structures with ease; where there are differences, the learner will have difficulty.②Because the CAH is based on behavi orists’ explanation on the learning of L1, that language development is the formation of habits; it is assumed that a person learning a second language starts off with the habits formed in the first language and that these habits interfere with the new ones needed for the second language.③limitations: a) The theory itself has its imperfections: the differences of the first and second languages do not necessarily lead to difficulties; students’ difficulties in using second language does not lead to errors. b) According to empirical evidences: only a few errors made during the second language learning attributes to the interferences of the mother tongue; not all errors predicted by the CAH are actually made; many of the errors which learners do make are not predictable on the basis of the CAH.11. What contribution has behaviourism made to our understanding of how languages are learned? What is the theory not able to explain?①Behaviorism accounts for the learning of L1 in terms of imitation, practice, reinforcement and habit formation, and helps to explain that the process of L2 learning would be interfered by L1.②Behaviorism fails to explain children’s acquisition of the m ore complex grammatical structures of the language in L1 learning.The innatist perspective12. Sum up, in your own words, the main points surrounding the debate about the nature and availability of UG in SLA. Where do you stand?①Main points: a) the nature and availability of UG in L2 acquisition is no different from that which is hypothesized to guide L1 learners. b) UG operates in L2 acquisition, but via the L1. c) UG is not available to L2 learners.②I agree on that UG operates in L2 acquisition the same as L1, because UG is considered to consist of a set of principles which are common to all languages and it has explained L2 acquisition to some extent, for example, error correction.13. Name the five hypotheses that make up Krashen’s Monitor Model. According to this model, what conditions must be present for ‘acquisition’ to take place? What are the conditions for language ‘learning’?①The acquisition-learning hypothesis; The monitor hypothesis; The natural order hypothesis; The input hypothesis; The affective filter hypothesis.②Meaningful interaction in the target language; exposure to adequate and comprehensible input:" i+1".14. W hat are the limitations of Krashen’s theory? Why do you think that Krashen’s ideas have been so influential in second- and foreign-language education?①The main limitations are: a) there are difficulties to define; b) it is mostly based on observation, but lacks empirical researches.②It appears to have immediate implications for classroom practice; it appeals intuitively to those who have tried unsuccessfully to learn a language in conditions where they felt stressed or uncomfortable.The cognitive perspective15. How does information-processing model explain SLA?From the view of information processing, SLA is the building up of knowledge systems that can eventually be called on automatically for speaking and understanding.Interactionist position16. In what way are proponents of the interactionist position in SLA in agreement with Krashen’s monitor model? In what way do they go beyond it?①Interactionists agree that comprehensible input is necessary for languageacquisition.②They are more concerned with the question of how input is madecomprehensible;③they assume that all cognitive development arises as a result of socialinteractions between individuals.17. What kinds of conversational modifications do native speakers make when they talk to non-native speakers? What similarities and differences would you expect tofind between these modifications and those that are observed in child-directed speech? Why?①Modified interaction involve linguistic simplification, elaboration, slower speech rate, gesture, or the provision of additional contextual cues.②similarities: they are both conversational interaction; they both involve a slow rate of delivery, repetition, some clues, etc.③differences: a) child-directed speech: children still learn language by their siblings even without such modification from parents; comprehensible input is the focus; b) these modification in interaction: how the input is made comprehensible is more important; it is not the simplification but an opportunity to interact with others.④Different objects—one is for the first language learning and one is for the second language learning; the difficulties—it’s harder to learn the second langu age.18. Several theories for L2 learning have been proposed in this chapter. Is one of them more consistent with your own understanding of how languages are learned? If so, how have your experiences as a learner brought you to this view?I agree on Krashen`s monitor model. He cites evidences of some fluent speakers without having learned rules, while others may 'know' rules but fail to apply them in real language use( like some incompetent 'high-score' learners). According to my experience, adequate practice can make learned knowledge habitual so that it is available for spontaneous use in real communication. In this case, the learned language becomes the acquired knowledge.Chapter 3: Factors affecting second language learning19. Why is it difficult to assess the influence that personal characteristics have on the development of L2 proficiency?①it is not possible to directly observe and measure qualities such as motivation and intelligence.②personal characteristics are not independent.③it is not widely acknowledged that how the language proficiency is defined and measured.Intelligence20. Lan guage learners’ performance on IQ tests is related to certain aspects of L2 ability but not to others. Give examples to explain this statement.In our experience, many students whose academic performance has been weak have experienced considerable success in second language learning.Aptitude21. What lessons can language teachers learn from the research on language aptitude and L2 instruction by Wesche (1981)?It is that a high level of student and teacher satisfaction when students were matched with compatible teaching environments.Learning styles22. Based on what you read in this chapter, do you think that there is an ideal way to teach/learn a language? For example, as a foreign language learner or teacher, what are your views about teaching grammar? Do you have any specific preferences for how it should be taught or when? Do you know what your students’ preferences might be for grammar teaching and do you think it would be useful to find out?①I don't think there is an ideal way to teach or learn a language.②Teaching grammar is of great importance. It is not only about what the rules are but also how to use the rules.③I have a preference for teaching grammar in context, and I think that it should be taught in early childhood.(Before age 15)④Funny and challenge activities might be students’preference for grammar teaching. It would be useful to find out students’preference for it.Personality23. What can we learn from research about the relationship between L2 learning and• extroversion• inhibition①It is often argued that an extroverted person is well suited to language learning. However, research does not always support this conclusion.②Inhibition is a negative for L2 learning as it discourages risk-taking. It may also has more influence in language performance than in language learning.Motivation and attitudes24. Define instrumental and integrative motivation in your own words and give an example to illustrate each. Comment on how these types of motivation might be manifested differently in different learning environments.①Instrumental motivation refers to languange learning for immediate or practical goals. Example: Many college language learners have a clear instrumental motivation for language learning: They want to fulfill a college language requirement!Integrative motivation refers to language learning for personal growth and cultural enrichment. Example: Someone becomes a resident in a new community that uses the target language in its social interactions.②In learning environment such as school, these types of motivation might bemanifest as integrative or instrumental. In learning environment such as society they might be manifest as mono-cultural or bicultural.Learner beliefs25. How did Carlos Yorio (1986) reveal that it is important for teachers to consider the beliefs their students hold about language instruction? How might this change their approach to teaching a particular group of students?①In a survey for international students learning ESL in a highly communicative program, students express their dissatisfaction and concern about the type of communicative instruction they received, which implied with their beliefs about language instruction.②Guide them to choose the suitable learning strategies or adjust his own teaching method.Age of acquisition26. Which language features were studied in Patkowski’s (1980) study to examine L2 development of immigrants? Does his study support the Critical Period Hypothesis (CPH)? How?①Accent, syntax, phonological development, Morphology.②He sets limits on the development of native-like mastery of a second language and that this limitation does not apply only to accent.27. Snow and Hoefnagel-Höhle carried out a comprehensive study in which they assessed language development of L2 speakers on a variety of measures. Describe the development of the child, adolescent, and adult L2 learners in relation to each other. In your own words, explain why the results may not be relevant for assessing the Critical Period Hypothesis (CPH).①In the first period, the adolescents made the most progress. In the first period, the adults did better than the children and adolescents on pronunciation. By the end of the year, children were catching up and even surpassed the adults on several tests.②Some of the tasks were too difficult for young learners. For adults and adolescents, L2 may be similar to L1, they may learn faster. Young children eventually catch up if they have enough exposure to L2. Adults and adolescents can make rapid progress because they can make use of L2 in daily interaction. Chapter 4: Learner LanguageLearner Language28. A language learner begins making errors with a feature of the language that was previously used correctly. What does this suggest about the way in which thefeature was previously learned? Why might one be justified in concluding that the learner has actually made progress? Illustrate with examples.①It suggests that movement from one point in a sequence of development to another can actually lead from apparently correct performance(Sometimes based on rote learning or very limited knowledge.) to incorrect performance(Based on an emerging understanding of the underlying rules or grammatical relationships in the language being learned.).②I buyed a bus ticket.Second language learners usually learn the irregular past tense forms of certain verbs before they learn to apply the regular simple past -ed marker. It means that a learner who says 'I buyed a bus ticket' may know more about English grammar than one who says 'I bought a bus ticket.'29. What was an important difference between the error analysis approach to understanding L2 learner language and the contrastive analysis approach?The main difference between these two is that contrastive analysis was the basis for identifying differences between the first and second languages and for predicting areas of potential error, but error analysis tries to discover and describe differnt kinds of erros in an effort to understaning how learners process L2 data, and it focus on identifying the errors from L2 production.(Error analysis differed from contrastive analysis in that it did not set out to predict errors. Rather, it sought to discover and describe different kinds of errors in an effort to understand how learners process second language data. )30. What phenomenon did Larry Selinker describe when he coined the term interlanguage? What does it mean to say that interlanguages are both systematic and dynamic?Characteristics influenced by:①learner's previously learned language(s)②some characteristics of the second language③some characteristics which seem to be very general and tend to occur in all or most interlanguage systemSystematic: Interlanguage is relatively independent of the language system, it has a unique set of pronunciation, grammar and vocabulary rule system.Dynamic: Interlanguage is continually evolving as learners receive more input and revise their hypothese about the second languge.31. There are various kinds of errors made by learners, such as developmental errors, overgeneralization, simplification, transfer (or interference errors), and avoidance. Give an example of each to explain.Developmental errors are errors which reflect learners’ understanding of the second language system itself rather than an attempt to transfer characteristics of their first language.(eg. a cowboy go, they plays )Overgeneralization: errors caused by trying to use a rule in a context where it does not belong.(eg. I play the game. We play the game. She play the game.He play the game.)Simplification: errors where some elements of a sentence are left out or where all verbs have the same form regardless of person, number, or tense.(eg. I play games today. I play games yesterday. / I play games today. He play games, too.)Transfer (interference errors) are errors which caused by the habits formed in the first language interfere with the new ones needed for the second language.(eg. In French, direct objects which are nouns follow the verb, but pronoun direct objects precede the verb, so a French learner of English may say ‘The dog it eats’.)Avoidance: Learners sometimes avoid using certain features of language which they perceive to be difficult for them.(eg. “A+倍数+the size/height/length/width+of+B”This street is four times the length of that one./This street is four times as long as that one.)Developmental Sequences32. An L2 learner, in speaking about his brother, tells you ‘he don’t eat meat’. What stage of negation would he be at: Stage 2 or Stage 3? What evidence would you need to have confidence in your assessment?don’t →negation →The speaker is in stage 2.(or stage 3?)Stage 1：The negative element (no/not) is typically placed before the verb or the element being negated.（E.g. I not like it.）Stage 2：‘no’and ‘not’may alternate with ‘don’t’. However, ‘don’t’is not marked for person, number, or tense and it may even be used before models.(E.g. He don’t like it. /I don’t can sing.)Stage 3: Learners begin to place the negative element after auxiliary verbs like ‘are’ ‘is’ and ‘can’. But at this stage the ‘don’t’ form is still not fully analyzed.(E.g. You can not go. /He was not happy./She don’t like rice.)Stage 4: ‘do’ is marked for some tense, person, and number.(E.g. He doesn’t like it. We didn’t see it.)For some time, however, learners may continue to mark tense, person, and number on both the auxiliary and t he verb.(E.g. I didn’t went there. )33. The description of developmental stages suggests that a learner’s L1 interacts with developmental sequences in the L2 acquisition of negation, questions, relative clauses, and past tense. Give an example of each, using either the information in the text or from your knowledge of how learners from other L1 backgrounds developthese language features.Second language learners from different first language backgrounds behave somewhat differently with the stage of using negation.(eg. 4 stages)Second language learners learn to form questions in a sequence of development which is similar in most respects to first language question development. (eg. ‘Können sie tanzen?', 'Can they dance?' German learners of English wil l pass through a pharse of asking quesitons without inversion, However, once they reach stage4 and ask English questions with subject-auxiliary inversion, they may assume that suject-verb inversion is also possible. They may form questions such as ' Play you baseball?')Second language learners first acquire relative clauses which refer to nouns in the subject and direct object positions, and only later(and in some cases, never) learn to use them to modify nouns in other sentence roles(for example, indirect object and object of preposition) (eg. In Chinese, we don't have sentence structure like this. We usually use many adjs to modify a noun instead of using subordinate clauses.) Reference to psat is one example of developmental sequence which reflects learners’ changing ability to express the same meaning. (eg. In Chinese, we don't have the grammatical morpheme -ed being attach to the verb when we talk about something happen in the past. We may notice that by the influence of our mother tounge many students forget to add -ed especial in spoken English.)34. The car that mine is similar to is over there. According to the accessibility hierarchy for relative clauses in English, which clause type is this? If we find evidence that an L2 learner is capable of producing this sentence, what other relative clause types can this learner probably also produce?This is a object clause in which the object is introduced by the preposition “to”. This learner can also produce subject clause, direct object clause, indirect object clause. Languages which included the structures at the bottom of list would also have those at the top. Research on this aspect of second language development: A learner can use one of the structures at the bottom of the list, he/she can use any the precede it.35. Which of the following verbs would beginner level learners most likely mark with past tense? Which would they be least likely to use past with? Explain your response by discussing how the verbs are different from each other.need a haircutmake lasagnawin a prizelike action moviesfeel nervousbreak a glassmost likely to marked past tense: break a glass/make lasagna/win a prizeleast likely to marked past tense: need a haircut/like action movies/feel nervousIn the beginning, learners with very limited language may simply refer to events in the order which they occurred or mention a time or place to show that the event occurred in the ter, learners start to attach a grammatical morpheme which shows that the verb is marked for the past.Even after they begin marking past tense on verbs, however, learners may still make errors such as the overgeneralization of the regular -ed ending.Kathleen Bardovi-Harlig and her collegues found that learners are more likely to mark past tense on some verbs(completed events) than on others(states and activities which may last for extended periods without a clear end-point).First language influence36. In addition to influencing how learners pass through developmental sequences, what other ways has a learner’s knowledge of L1 been observed to influence L2 acquisition? You should be able to identify at least four ways.①AvoidanceIf a feature in the target language is so distant and different from their firstlanguage, they prefer not to try it (Schachter 1974).②Learner’s sensitivity to degrees of distance or difference between L1 and L2Swedish and English belong to the same language family, while Finnish belongsto a different one. Because Swedish and English are closely related languages,bilinguals(who can speak Swedish and Finnish) tend to avoid using Finnish as asource of possible transfer, whether their own first language is Swedish orFinnish (Hakan Ringbom 1985).③Similar but not identical language patternsSometimes, L1 makes it difficult for learners to notice that something they aresaying is absent from the target language, as the learner’s interlanguage form doesnot cause any difficulty in conveying meanings (Lydia White 1989).④Interaction when learners encounter in the inputThe interaction during the input sessions includes L1, some universal knowledgeor processes, and the samples of the target language. We may see how instructionand metalinguistic information contribute to this interaction in Chapter 6.Chapter 5: Observing second language teaching37. Make use of the table on P93 and try to explain the characteristics of natural acquisition, traditional instruction and communicative instruction.①In natural acquisition settings, learners’ errors are rarely corrected. Learners will be exposed to a wide variety of vocabulary and structures, is surrounded by the language for many hours each day, usually encounters a great number of proficient or native speakers of the target language, observe or participate in many different types of language events, have less pressure to speak. Modified input is available in many one-to-one conversations.②In traditional instruction settings,learners’ errors are freq uently corrected. Linguistic items are presented and practiced one at a time. Learning is often limited to only a few hours a week. The teacher is often the only proficient speaker the students interact with. Learners experience a limited range of language discourse types and often feel great pressure to speak or write the second language. Modified input is given only when they use the target language, ensuring comprehension and compliance.③In communicative instruction settings, error correction is limited. Input is simplified and made comprehensible by the use of contextual cues, props, and gestures, rather than through structural grading. Learners usually have only limited time for learning, limited contact with proficient or native speakers of the language, have access to a variety of discourse types, have little pressure to perform at high levels of accuracy. Modified input is a defining feature of it.38. When conducting classroom-based SLA studies, what might be some advantages of using observation schemes such as the COLT? What disadvantages might there be?Advantages: ①Observation schemes,like COLT and others can be used to examine relationships between differences in teaching practices and differences in second language learning.②It can also be used in the training of new teachers and in the professional development of experienced ones.③It can lead to a greater understanding of the complexities of the teaching process as well as to more critical reflection on our pedagogical practices.Disadvantages:①Sometimes observation schemes are perceived as judgemental rather than developmental.②Some observation schemes need people spend a long period to observe before making a conclusion.③Observation schemes usually cost money and some forms of them are expensive.。

第二语言习得研究期末考试复习题1、简述第二语言习得研究发展的途径分为三个阶段：1）20世纪50-60年代，这一阶段为理论初创阶段，占主导地位的是以行为主义心理学为基础的“对比分析”方法。

2）20世纪70年代，理论研究大发展阶段，开始关注学习者的语言偏误，产生了“中介语”理论假设。

三个理论研究，即以Dulay和Burt 为代表的第二语言习得顺序研究、克拉申的“监控模式”、Schumann的“文化适应模式”。

3）20世纪80年代，作为一个独立的学科，并开始走向成熟。

不同的发展途径构成了第二语言习得研究的跨学科特点。

不同的发展途径体现在：1）语言学理论对第二语言习得研究的影响，构成了第二语言习得研究的语言学视角。

2）社会语言学及其研究范式对第二语言习得研究的影响，构成了第二语言习得研究的社会语言学视角。

3）认知科学对第二语言习得研究的影响，构成了第二语言习得研究的认知视角。

2、针对语言输入有哪几种不同的语言输入观？1）行为主义学习理论认为，语言输入在语言习得过程中具有重要作用，强调外在因素的中心地位，基于以下假设：a，语言输入是由外在的语言刺激和反馈构成的 b，语言输入通过正面的反馈和纠正得到强化 c，通过语言形式的操练可以达到语言学习的目的。

2）心灵学派认为，学习者的内在因素，即语言习得机制，在语言习得过程中具有重要作用，他们把语言习得机制看做语言习得的决定性因素。

语言输入不过是语言习得发生的“触发”因素而已，语言输入是贫乏的，学习者不可能通过外在的语言输入获得完整的语言能力。

3）“互动论”：认知心理学为基础的“认知互动理论”强调将语言输入环境与语言习得内在因素两者结合起来；社会互动理论主要是从社会语言学的角度来研究语言输入环境与第二语言习得的关系。

3、学习策略的含义是什么？学习策略如何分类？学习策略是指学习者在整个语言习得或语言使用过程中，与某个特定阶段相关联的心理行为或行动。

1）Skehan（1989）根据学习者处理学习情境的能力来分：主动参与策略、解释与确认策略根据学习者的方法素质来分：跨语言比较策略、归纳策略根据学习者的评价能力来分：监控策略、自我评价策略2）O’Malley（1987）根据信息加工模型分类：认知策略（重复策略、记笔记策略、关联策略）；元认知策略（直接注意策略、自我管理策略）；社会/情感策略（合作策略、要求解释策略）3）Oxford的分类（1990）直接策略：直接影响语言学习，需要对语言学习进行心理操作间接策略：通过集中注意、计划、评价自我、控制焦虑感和增加与他人合作机会等间接影响语言学习4、如何区分下列概念：母语、目的语、第一语言、第二语言？母语通常是指学习者所属种类、社团使用的语言，也叫本族语，母语通常是指儿童出生以后最先接触、习得的语言；目的语也称目标语，一般是指学习者正在学习的语言，它强调的是学习者正在学习的任何一种语言；第一语言是指儿童幼年最先接触和习得的语言；第二语言是相对于学习者习得的第一语言之外的任何一种其他语言而言，包含第三、第四或更多的其他语言5、简述社会文化理论的主要内容及意义主要内容：调节论：主要用于解释儿童的认知发展，在语言的调节下，儿童的认知从“客体调控”阶段发展到“他人调控”阶段，最后到“自我调控”阶段。

第二语言习得考试试题一、选择题（每题 2 分，共 40 分）1、第二语言习得中的“中介语”是指（）A 学习者母语和目的语之间的过渡语言B 学习者在学习过程中创造的一种独立语言C 教师为帮助学习者而使用的简化语言D 一种国际通用的辅助语言2、以下哪项不是影响第二语言习得的个体差异因素（）A 学习动机B 性格特点C 社会环境D 认知风格3、在第二语言习得中，“输入假说”的提出者是（）A 克拉申B 乔姆斯基C 皮亚杰D 布鲁纳4、学习者在第二语言习得过程中出现的“石化”现象，指的是（）A 语言能力停止发展B 语言错误固定化C 学习兴趣丧失D 学习方法不当5、以下哪种教学方法更注重语言的交际功能（）A 语法翻译法B 直接法C 听说法D 交际法6、第二语言习得中的“情感过滤假说”认为，以下哪种因素会影响语言输入的吸收（）A 自信心B 焦虑程度C 学习态度D 以上都是7、对于儿童和成人在第二语言习得方面的比较，以下说法正确的是（）A 儿童学习速度更快B 成人学习效果更好C 儿童在语音方面更有优势D 成人在语法方面更有优势8、以下哪项不是第二语言习得中的语言输出的作用（）A 检验语言知识B 提高语言流利度C 促进语言输入的理解D 减少语言错误9、学习者在第二语言习得中，对目的语规则的过度概括所产生的错误属于（）A 语际错误B 语内错误C 诱导错误D 随机错误10、以下哪种语言环境更有利于第二语言习得（）A 课堂教学环境B 自然语言环境C 双语环境D 单一语言环境11、在第二语言习得中，“监控假说”认为，学习者的语言输出主要受到（）的监控。

A 潜意识B 有意识C 情感因素D 语言规则12、以下哪项不是第二语言习得中的学习策略（）A 认知策略B 元认知策略C 情感策略D 语法策略13、对于第二语言习得中的“文化适应”，以下说法错误的是（）A 有助于语言学习B 只是了解文化知识C 包括价值观的适应D 能提高交际能力14、以下哪种测试方法更能准确测量学习者的第二语言实际运用能力（）A 标准化测试B 口语测试C 书面测试D 听力测试15、第二语言习得中的“关键期假说”认为，语言学习的最佳年龄是（）A 儿童时期B 青少年时期C 成年时期D 没有固定年龄16、以下哪项不是影响第二语言习得的外部因素（）A 教学方法B 教材质量C 学习者年龄D 语言环境17、在第二语言习得中，“可理解输入”的特点不包括（）A 略高于学习者现有水平B 有趣且相关C 语法复杂D 大量重复18、以下哪种反馈方式对第二语言习得最有效（）A 积极反馈B 消极反馈C 直接纠错D 引导自纠19、学习者在第二语言习得中出现的回避现象，主要是为了（）A 避免错误B 节省时间C 简化表达D 显示个性20、以下关于第二语言习得和第一语言习得的比较，错误的是（）A 学习动机不同B 学习环境相似C 认知能力有差异D 语言输入质量不同二、简答题（每题 10 分，共 30 分）1、请简述第二语言习得中的“输入假说”的主要内容。

对外汉语《二语习得》题库及答案第一章单元测试1、判断题：习得与学习二者之间的关系是割裂的。

（）选项：A:对B:错答案: 【错】2、单选题：最早发现习得与学习存在区别的是语言学家（）选项：A:乔姆斯基B:斯蒂芬?克拉申C:洪堡特D:斯韦恩答案: 【斯蒂芬?克拉申】3、多选题：关于习得与学习的关系，下列说法正确的是（）选项：A:可以用两个三角形表示；B:这两个三角形是倒置的；C:这两个三角形是部分交叠的；D:这两个三角形是完全重叠的。

答案: 【可以用两个三角形表示；;这两个三角形是倒置的；;这两个三角形是部分交叠的；】成人完全可以做到和儿童一样习得外语。

（）选项：A:对B:错答案: 【错】5、判断题：儿童习得外语的能力总体上高于成人。

（）选项：A:对B:错答案: 【对】6、判断题：传统语言课堂收到的质疑越来越多，我们应该遵循习得规律，改革创新教学模式和方法。

（）选项：A:对B:错答案: 【对】7、判断题：最早获得的语言一定是最熟悉的。

（）选项：A:对B:错答案: 【错】一个在外国出生的华裔儿童，他最早接触的是汉语，成长过程中主要说英语，那么，下列说法正确的是（）选项：A:他的母语是汉语；B:他的第一语言是汉语；C:他的第二语言是英语；D:他的母语是英语。

答案: 【他的母语是汉语；;他的第一语言是汉语；;他的第二语言是英语；】9、多选题：一个在外国出生的华裔儿童，他成长过程中只接触和说英语，那么，下列说法正确的是（）选项：A:他的母语是英语；B:他的第一语言是英语；C:他没有外语；D:他的外语是英语。

答案: 【他的母语是英语；;他的第一语言是英语；;他没有外语；】10、判断题：第一语言是语言学的概念，母语更多的牵涉到民族学问题。

（）选项：A:对B:错答案: 【对】11、判断题：语言学多是理论研究，心理学、心理语言学等多是实验研究。

（）选项：A:对B:错答案: 【对】第二章单元测试1、多选题：关于大脑和语言习得，行为主义心理学派有两个非常著名的观点，分别是（）。

第二语言习得试题及答案一、选择题（每题2分，共10分）1. 第二语言习得理论中，克拉申的“输入假说”主张学习者需要接收到什么样的语言输入？A. 完全理解的输入B. 可理解的输入C. 无理解的输入D. 超过理解的输入答案：B2. 根据斯金纳的操作条件反射理论，语言习得主要依赖于什么？A. 模仿B. 强化C. 内化D. 社会互动答案：B3. 在语言习得中，“临界期”假说主张语言学习的最佳时期是？A. 任何年龄B. 儿童时期C. 青少年时期D. 成年时期答案：B4. 语言习得的“自然顺序假说”认为语言技能的发展遵循一定的顺序，以下哪项不是该假说的内容？A. 语法结构的习得顺序是固定的B. 词汇的习得顺序是固定的C. 发音的习得顺序是固定的D. 语言习得的速度是个体差异决定的答案：D5. 语言习得的“社会文化理论”强调以下哪个因素在语言学习中的作用？A. 认知发展B. 社会互动C. 语言输入D. 语言输出答案：B二、填空题（每空1分，共10分）1. 语言习得的“监控假说”是由________提出的。

答案：克拉申2. 语言习得中的“输入假说”认为，学习者需要接收到________的输入。

答案：可理解的3. 语言习得的“自然顺序假说”认为，语言技能的发展遵循一定的________。

答案：顺序4. 根据斯金纳的操作条件反射理论，语言习得主要依赖于________。

答案：强化5. 语言习得的“社会文化理论”强调________在语言学习中的作用。

答案：社会互动三、简答题（每题5分，共20分）1. 简述克拉申的“输入假说”。

答案：克拉申的“输入假说”认为，为了习得第二语言，学习者需要接收到略高于其当前语言水平的可理解输入，这样的输入被称为“i+1”输入。

2. 描述斯金纳的操作条件反射理论在语言习得中的应用。

答案：斯金纳的操作条件反射理论认为，语言习得是通过强化机制实现的。

当学习者正确使用语言时，他们会受到奖励（强化），这会增强他们使用正确语言形式的倾向。

第二语言习得复习题第二語言習得複習題一、名詞解釋1.第二語言：指相對於第一語言來說，除兒童幼年最先接觸和習得の語言，在此後習得の語言就是第二語言。

2. 第一語言：指兒童幼年最先接觸和習得の語言。

3. 母語：指學習者所屬種族、社團使用の語言，也稱作“本族語”。

4，目の語：也叫目標語，一般指學習者正在學習の語言。

5，第二語言習得：簡稱SLA，是指人們在獲得母語(第一語言)の基礎上習得另一種或幾種語言の過程。

也叫“二語習得”6，語言習得機制：喬姆斯基提出人腦中存在一個“語言習得機制”（LAD），它有以下一些特點：1.具有遺傳性，為人類獨有。

2.能使兒童加工語言材料，判斷語言體系の發展，建立抽象規則。

3.可能已經具備一些普遍の語言特征，這些特征可以在所有人類語言中找到，因此，許多語法屬性可能是先天存在於人類の大腦中，無需學習。

7，工具型動機：學習者對目の語群體沒有興趣，學習目の語只是為了掌握一個工具，用來提高自己の知識水平、改善社會地位。

8，習得與學習：克拉申認為“習得”通常指在自然狀態下“下意識”の語言獲得，而“學習”一般是指“有意識”の語言獲得。

前者稱為“內隱學習”，後者稱為“外顯學習”9，中介語：語言學習者在學習第二語言時所擁有の一種獨立の語言系統,這種語言系統在結構上既不是學習者の母語也不是目の語,而是介於兩者之間。

中介語系統在語音、詞匯、語法、文化等方面都有表現。

但它又不是固定不變の，而是隨著學習の發展，逐漸向目の語の正確形式靠攏。

10，普遍語法：喬姆斯基認為普遍語法是由一些原則條件和規則構成の系統，這些所有人類語言共有の因素是或特性是必然の而不是偶然の，原則系統和規則系統。

11，僵化：僵化（fossilization），也叫化石化或石化，是由Selinker於1972年在其中介語理論中提出の。

僵化是存在於“潛在の心理結構”中の一種機制，表現為某種母語背景の第二語言學習者會在目の語習得の某個階段上停滯不前，無論學習者年齡大小，也無論其是否繼續學習12，外國人話語：所謂“外國人話語”並不是指外國人の話語，而是指對外國人說の話語。

★1. SLA (Second language acquisition) is the process by which a language other than the mother tongue is learnt in a natural setting or in a classroom.★2. Acquisition vs. Learning (Krashen1982)Acquisition refers to the learning of a language unconsciously under natural settings where learners pay attention only to the meanings or contents rather than forms or grammars. Learning refers to the learning of a language consciously under educational settings where learners mainly pay attention to forms or grammars.3. Factors affecting SLASocial factors (external factors)Learner factors (internal factors)Social factors (external factors)Social contextLanguage policy and the attitude of the public sector;Social demandWith the trend of globalization of the world economy , it is widely accepted among educators and national leaders that proficiency in another language is an indispensable quality of educated peopleLearner factors (internal factors)Motivation ，Age ，Learning strategy4.Behaviorist learning theoryBehaviorist learning theory is a general theory of learning (i.e. it applies to all kinds of learning, not just language learning).It views learning as the formation of habits. The association of a particular response with a particular stimulus constituted a habit. It is formed when a particular stimulus became regularly linked with a particular response.When applied to SLA, the process of second language acquisition is regarded as a process of habit formation.5. The causes of errors according to behaviorismDifferences between the first and second language create learning difficulty which results in errors.Behaviorist learning theory predicts that transfer will take place from the first to the second language. Transfer will be negative when there is proactive inhibition. In this case errors will result. Errors, according to behaviorist theory, were the result of non-learning,rather than wrong learning.The means used to predict potential errors by behaviorists is Contrastive Analysis.6. StructuralismLanguage was viewed as a coded system consisting of structurally related elements (phonemes, morphemes, words, structures and sentence patterns)7. What is contrastive analysis (CA)?Contrastive analysis is an inductive investigative approach based on the distinctive elements in a language. It involves the comparison of two or more languages or subsystems of languages inorder to determine both the differences and similarities between them. It could also be done within one language. Contrastive analysis can be both theoretical and applied according to varied purposes.8. Contrastive Analysis Hypothesis (CAH)Contrastive analysis is a way of comparing languages in order to determine potential errors for the ultimate purpose of isolating what needs to be learned and what does not need to be learned in an L2 situation.According to CAH, L2 errors are result of differences between the learner’s first language and the target language. The strong form of the hypothesis claims that these differences can be used to predict all errors that will occur. The weak form of the hypothesis claims that these differences can be used to identify some out of the total errors that actually arise.9.difference vs difficulty“Difference” is a linguistic concept, whereas “difficulty” is a psychological concept. Therefore, the level of learning difficulty cannot be inferred directly from the degree of difference between two language systems.10. Definition of Error analysis (EA)the study and analysis of the errors made by second and foreign language learners (Longman Dictionary of Applied Linguistics, p.96).It involves collecting samples of learner language, identifying the errors in these samples, describing these errors, classifying them according to their hypothesized causes, and evaluating theirs seriousness.11.Interlingual error: deviated forms resulting from the interference of one’s L1, or thenegative transfer of one’s mother tongue.Intralingual error: ①deviated forms in learner langu age that reflect learners’ transitional competence and which are the results of such learning process as overgeneralization.②confusion of L2 rules12. Factors causing errors1. Language transfer2. Overgeneralization3. Learner differences3. Strategies in L2 learning5. Strategies of L2 communicatione.g. The two students changed eyes and eyebrows in class.13. Types of learner strategyLearning strategy, Production strategy 表达策略Communication strategy:Communication strategies are employed when learners are faced with the task of communicating meanings for which they lack the requisite linguistic knowledge. Typical communication strategies are paraphrase and mime.14. Classifications of learning strategy(Cohen 2006)(2) By function: Metacognitive; Cognitive; Socio-affective(3) By skill: listening, speaking, reading, writing, vocabulary, or translation strategies.15. Meta-cognitive strategiesMeta-cognitive strategy is the planning for learning, thinking about the learning process, monitoring of one’s production or comprehension, and evaluating learning after an activity is completed.16. Cognitive strategiesCognitive strategies refer to the steps or operations used in learning or problem-solving that require direct analysis, transformation, or synthesis of learning material.Repetition, Resourcing, Directed physical response, Translation, Grouping, Note-taking , Deduction Recombination, Imagery, Auditory representation, Key word, Contextualization, Elaboration, Transfer, Inferencing17. Individual learner variablesPersonal factors:group dynamics; attitudes to the teacher and course materials; learning techniques General factors:age; aptitude; cognitive style; motivation; personality18. MotivationIntegrative motivation 融合型动机is present in learners who identify with the target culture, would like to resemble members of the target culture and who would like to participate in the target culture. It is assumed to be based in the personality of the learner.Instrumental orientation工具型动机refers to those cases where the learners are interested in learning the language for the possible benefits, that is, the learner’s goal is functional. Resultative motivation:因果性动机Learners’motivation is strongly affected by their achievement.Intrinsic motivation:内在兴趣动机Motivation as intrinsic interest.Motivation as a multi-componential construct:Motivation = effort + desire to achieve goal + attitudesTask motivation: the interest felt by the learner in performing different learning tasks.★19. Definition –interlanguageInterlanguage is the approximate language system that the learner constructs for use in communication through the target language. (Larry Selinker)It is independent of both the learner’s first language and the target language.It suggests that learners’ language is between L1 AND L2 and that it is a continuum along which all learners traverse.★20.Definition of fossilizationFossilization refers to the state in which the second language learners stop to learning when their internalized rule system contains rules different from the target language. That is to say, the interlanguage stops evolving towards the TL.21. Classification of fossilizationTemporary fossilization: the phenomenon is alterable under certain conditions.Permanent fossilizationThis means the learne r’s language stops evolving for ever. Because stable stage is not real fossilization, so there is no real permanent fossilization.22. Causes of fossilizationInternal: Motivation; Communicative needs; Acquisition deviceExternal: Communicative pressureLack of learning opportunitiesFeedback:positive cognitive feedbacks cause fossilization ;(e.g. “Oh,I see”)negative feedbacks help to prevent fossilization.。

二语习得笔记一、二语习得1、什么是二语习得？（p3）人们学习母语外的一种语言的途径。

这种学习可以是课堂上的，也可以是课堂外的。

2、第二语言习得的目的是什么？（p4）二语习得的目标之一是对二语习得进行描述，另一个目标是对二语习得进行解释，鉴别内部因素和外部因素，这些因素可以用来解释二语习得者在二语习得过程中所使用的方法。

外部因素之一是学习发生的社会环境，社会环境影响二语习得者必须使用目的语进行交流(听和说)的机会，并且影响学习者对于二语习得的态度；另一个外部因素是学习者接收到的语言输入。

内部因素是指学习者的认知机制，而认知机制受学习者的母语、百科知识、交际策略以及它的语言普遍性知识的影响。

最后一个内部因素是学习者的个体差异，这包括学习者的一些常规因素的差异，比如，学习者的语言学能以及学习动机的不同，另外学习策略的不同也属于学习者的个体差异。

总的来说，二语习得的目标是描述二语习得的进程，并且对之进行解释，解释为什么有的学习者看起来要好于其他的学习者。

二、偏误和偏误分析1、偏误分析的作用是什么？（p14）①它们是学习者语言的一个显著特色，这就提出了“学习者为什么会产生偏误？”的重要问题。

②有助于教师了解学习者产生的偏误，便于教学。

③学习者在自我改错时有助于学习者习得。

2、偏误分析的步骤①偏误的辨别②偏误的描写③偏误的解释④偏误的评估3、偏误归类的方法（p18）①按语法范畴归类：我们可以把所有关于动词的偏误聚集起来，然后在我们的案例中识别出不同种类的动词偏误（比如过去时态的动词偏误）。

②按识别学习者的话语与重建的目的语的差异的一般方法归类，包括遗漏（漏掉了句中应有的语法成分而导致的偏误）、误用（用一种语法形式代替另一种语法形式）、错序（在话语中，把词语按错误的顺序排列）三、行为主义和心理主义在看待语言习得方面有何不同？(p31)行为主义：根据行为主义理论，语言习得就和任何其他种类的习得一样，包括习惯的形成。

Language TransferDuring the process of foreign language learning, the influence of mother tongue in foreign language study can not be ignored. Generally speaking, there are positive transfer and negative transfer of mother tongue in foreign language learning. Positive transfer plays a positive role in English learning, while negative transfer just the opposite and cause a lot of troubles. Language transfer mainly shows in the following aspects: Phonemics, vocabulary，grammar，writing etc. We should make best use of the advantages and overcome the disadvantages.Teachers:Teachers should help students find out the commonalities of two languages in the processing of teaching, and make Ss eliminate anxiety to learn English.(Awareness of the Differences and Similarities between Native Language and the Target Language the differences of the two languages are the important point in teaching) Teachers also should view and handle students' mistakes correctly, and don't correct and criticize too much when they make mistakes in order to avoid students not to use target language to express themselves.Pay attention to teaching methods. Having English-Chinese Bilingual Extensive Reading Exercises;Effectively Utilizing Bilingual DictionariesStudents:Have a correct view on language transfer. in stead of regarding negative transfer as barriers in the process of learning English, learners should fully recognize it and realize that it is an essential stage and a learning strategy in the process of English learning. Through contrastive analysis and error analysis one find out the causes of mistakes and make every effort to avoid or minimize negative transfer.Increasing the amount of language input. learners should be given a large amount of foreign language input, read more ,listen more, practice more and recite more，especially the original English material, and learners should be encouraged to communicate with each other in English, only in this way can learners avoid or minimize the influence of negative transfer.Enhance the import of cultural background. In the process of teaching, teachers should use the method of contrastive analysis, and find out the differences and similarities of two languages through the comparison of them, especially the customs and historical background. Enhance the learning of culture background of Britain and America, only in this way can help learners acquire a second language faster and better.The influence and interference of MT is inevitable.What we should do is to understand the root cause, the ways and classifications of MT Transfer and to have a better view of English learning.FossilizationAccording to Krashen there are five reasons for fossilization. Insufficient quantity of the target language input ;Inappropriate quality of the target language input ;The affective filter ;The target language output filter ;The acquisition of deviant forms of the target language. A ccording to many researchers, fossilization can’t be eliminate, but it can be reduced to some degree.Teachers:Formulating Appropriate Teaching Strategies At the initial stage:teachers should let students focus on the language. features of the target language and emphasize its accuracy and fluency. At the advanced stage, learners begin to leam the advanced grammar and complex sentence structure, so teachers should warn students not to use some communicative skills or their learned knowledge to avoid or paraphrase their unfamiliar language.Helping Students formulate appropriate learning strategies Teachers should pay special attention to lead students to adopt the learning strategies which are suitable to the present stage and help students find out learning strategies which are right for them. Teachers should teach students how to leam and use different learning strategies with the change of learning content. Moreover, teachers should examine whether the learning strategies adopted by students are effective and make timely adjustments. Directing Students' Communicative Strategies Teachers should cultivate students' communicative competence and make students adopt active and effective strategies to solve the difficulties in the communication to reduce the IL fossilization. In addition, teachers should increase more effective and correct input and guide students to adopt the correct communicative strategy and grasp the higher language competence, thus the fossilization can't appear early.Arousing Students' Intrinsic Learning MotivationCultivating Students' Cross-culture AwarenessCoping with Students' Errors Correctly(giving effective feedback)Improving Teachers' QualityStudents:Self-consciousness of language fossilizationReducing the negative transfer of mother tongue (Accumulation of declarative and procedural knowledge;Increase of language output ;Exposure to Target language and Target language culture)Increasing the quality and quantity of optimal input.Adoption proper learning strategiesInterlanguageAll in all, teachers should keep in mind that interlanguage is a process which is approaching the target language step by step. During this process students slowly revise the interim systems to accommodate new hypotheses about the target language system. Teachers should pay much attention to the studies of interlanguage so as to treat students’interlanguage fairly and properly, value the training of learning strategies and provide students with more opportunities for comprehensible input and output so that learners’interlanguage could develop rapidly towards the target language.Learning strategies should be taught or trained;Positive attitude towards errors;Input and output should be balanced in class;Make full use of positive transfer.Critical Period HypothesisPutting Emphasis on Pronunciation and Listening; Paying AttentiontoTeaehing Strategies1.在我国,外语学习并非越早越好，英语学习的最佳时期是10岁。

第二语言习得复习考试题第二语言习得复习题一、名词解释1.第二语言：指相对于第一语言来说，除儿童幼年最先接触和习得的语言，在此后习得的语言就是第二语言。

2. 第一语言：指儿童幼年最先接触和习得的语言。

3. 母语：指学习者所属种族、社团使用的语言，也称作“本族语”。

4，目的语：也叫目标语，一般指学习者正在学习的语言。

5，第二语言习得：简称SLA，是指人们在获得母语(第一语言)的基础上习得另一种或几种语言的过程。

也叫“二语习得”6，语言习得机制：乔姆斯基提出人脑中存在一个“语言习得机制”（LAD），它有以下一些特点：1.具有遗传性，为人类独有。

2.能使儿童加工语言材料，判断语言体系的发展，建立抽象规则。

3.可能已经具备一些普遍的语言特征，这些特征可以在所有人类语言中找到，因此，许多语法属性可能是先天存在于人类的大脑中，无需学习。

7，工具型动机：学习者对目的语群体没有兴趣，学习目的语只是为了掌握一个工具，用来提高自己的知识水平、改善社会地位。

8，习得与学习：克拉申认为“习得”通常指在自然状态下“下意识”的语言获得，而“学习”一般是指“有意识”的语言获得。

前者称为“内隐学习”，后者称为“外显学习”9，中介语：语言学习者在学习第二语言时所拥有的一种独立的语言系统,这种语言系统在结构上既不是学习者的母语也不是目的语,而是介于两者之间。

中介语系统在语音、词汇、语法、文化等方面都有表现。

但它又不是固定不变的，而是随着学习的发展，逐渐向目的语的正确形式靠拢。

10，普遍语法：乔姆斯基认为普遍语法是由一些原则条件和规则构成的系统，这些所有人类语言共有的因素是或特性是必然的而不是偶然的，原则系统和规则系统。

11，僵化：僵化（fossilization），也叫化石化或石化，是由Selinker于1972年在其中介语理论中提出的。

僵化是存在于“潜在的心理结构”中的一种机制，表现为某种母语背景的第二语言学习者会在目的语习得的某个阶段上停滞不前，无论学习者年龄大小，也无论其是否继续学习12，外国人话语：所谓“外国人话语”并不是指外国人的话语，而是指对外国人说的话语。

《第二语习得理论》复习纲要第一章引言1、二语习得研究者的研究对象一般是群体，而不是个体，你如何看待这个问题？10二语习得研究中，研究者的研究对象一般是群体，研究结论也是对某个群体而言。

但作为二语教学的老师，他更加关注一个个的个体，他关心的是如何让每一个学生很好的掌握第二语言。

这种情况下，二语习得研究者得到的结论，很可能对进行教学的老师的指导意义不是很大。

因此，二语习得研究者有必要加强对个体的研究，而不是局限于群体。

2、你认为什么是学外语的最好方式？9第二章人1、什么是一语习得的行为主义模型？提出者是？16-17一语习得的天生论模型的理论基础是乔姆斯基的转换生成语法，天生论认为人的大脑中有一个语言习得的机制，小孩出生后在任何一个语言环境中，都能利用这个语言习得机制学会所在环境的语言。

这种观点与观察到的现象是一致的，所以有较强的解释力。

2、什么是一语习得的天生论模型？18-193、什么是一语习得的社会互动模型，提出者是？20-214、什么是文化适应模型？如何评价？24-255^ 什么是perceived social distance?（另一个是social distance,在文化适应模式节）26 perceived social distance 是与social distance 相关的一个概念o Social distance 通常指人们在社会经济地位方面的差别，而perceived social distance则指学习者内部因素的差别（比如对讲所学语言的人的态度，对讲这种语言的社会的态度，对讲这种语言的人的文化价值观念的态度等）。

Acton 研究了perceived social distance与学习成绩之间的关系,研究结果表明，态度介于两种语言文化价值观的学生，学习成绩最理想。

6、文化适应分哪几个阶段？29-307、什么是言语适应模型？是谁提出来的？30-31二语学习者对所学语言文化的态度影响学习过程，言语适应模型认为人们之间的交谈包含三个不同的过程，即交谈双方保持他们各自的说话方式，让各自的说话方式与对方显得越发不同，双方采用对方的说话特点以相互靠拢。

IV. Explain the following terms（整理成简答或填空）1. Ferdinand de Saussure2. Textual function3. The London School of Linguistics4. Surface structure5. Transformational-Generative grammar6. Language Acquisition Device(LAD)7. Innateness hypothesisIII. Explain the following terms.1. Applied linguistics2. Interlanguage3. Contrastive analysis4. face validity5. Error Analysis1. Define the following terms briefly.first language acquisition: behaviorist approach innateness approachsecond language acquisition: contrastive analysis: error analysislanguage aptitude: field dependence field independencelearning strategiesIV. Explain the following terms.1. Interlanguage2. Universal Grammar3. contrastive analysis4. Error Analysis1. Define the following terms briefly..applied linguistics grammar-translation method audiolingual method communicative language teaching testing achievement test vali di ty reliability proficiency test subjective test objective test language aptitude test diagnostic test backwash effectII. Explain the following terms.1. applied linguistics2. the audiolingual method of language teaching3. the direct method of language teachingIV. Explain the following te rms.1. Ferdinand de Saussure is a Swiss linguist who is often described as “father of modernlinguistics”. The great work, Course in General Linguistics, which was based on his lecture notes, marked the beginning of modern linguistics. Saussure’s idea on the arbitrary nature of sign, one the relational nature of linguistic units, on the distinction of langue and parole and of synchronic and diachronic linguistics, etc. pushed linguistics i nto a brand new stage.2. Textual function: The textual function is one of the three meta-functions language is composed of. It refers to the fact that language has mechanisms to make any stretch of spoken or written discourse into a coherent and unified text and make a living message different from a random list of sentences.3. The London School generally refers to the kind of linguistic scholarship in England. The man who turned linguistics proper into a recognized distinct academic subject in Britain was J.R. Firth.4. Surface structure: It is a term used in generative grammar to refer to the final stage in the syntactic representation of a sentence, which provides the input to the phonological component of the grammar, and which thus most closely corresponds to the structure we articulate and hear. For instance, “John is easy to please.” and “John is eager to please.” are two sentences with the same surface structure.5. Transformational-generative grammar is proposed by Noam Chomsky. He postulated asyntactic base of language (called deep structure), which consists of a series of phrase-structure rewrite rules, i.e., a series of (possibly universal) rules that generates the underlying phrase-structure of a sentence. The end result of a transformational-generative grammar is a surface structure that is identical to an actual sentence of a language, after the mediating of a series of rules (called transformations) that act upon the deep structures.6. Language Acquisition Device: LAD refers to an innate faculty of language in general with which children are born. It is posited by Chomsky, who argues that LAD probably consists of three elements: a hypothesis-maker, linguistic universal, and an eval uati on procedure.7. The “Innateness Hypothesis” of child language acquisition was proposed by Noam Chomsky, who states that language are somewhat innate and that children are born with what he calls a language acquisition device, which is a unique kind of knowledge that fits them for language learning.III. Explain the following terms.1. Applied linguistics: It is a branch of linguistics which studies the application of linguistics in reality. For example, there are studies on multilingualism, language acquisition, first and second language teaching and learning.2. It refers to the type of language constructed by second or foreign language learners who are still in the process of learning a language. It’s a language system between the target language and the learner’s native language, and imperfect compared with the target language, but not mere translation from the learner’s native language. For example, when the Chinese student is learning English, he may make errors like “to touch the society”.3. Contrastive analysis is an approach to analysis of second language acquisition, based on a belief that a more effective teaching pedagogy would come out when the similarities and differences between native language and target language are taken into consideration. By such an analysis,it is supposed that some leaning difficulties could be predicted in terms of language transfer.4. Face validity: Unlike the other three forms of validity, face validity is based on the subjective judgment of an observer. If the test appears to be measuring what it intends to measure, the test is considered to have face validity.5 Errors are significant in telling the teacher what needs to be taught，in telling the researcher howlearning proceeds and those errors are a means whereby learners test their hypotheses about the language to be learnt. They are worth further probing Error Analysis involves，first independently or objectively，describing the learners’ interlanguage (that is，their version of the target language and the target language itself)，then a comparison of the two is followed to locate mismatches. Different from contrastive analysis, Error Analysis, EA for short, gives 1ess consideration to learners’ native language. The procedure of Error Analysis consists of the following steps:(1) Recognition(2) Description.(3) Explanation.For example, explanation: the absence of an item that must appear in a well-formed utterance:e.g. She sleeping. Type of error: Omissions.1.First language acquisition: First language acquisition (L1 acquisition) is the term mostcommonly used to describe the process whereby children become speakers of their native language or languages, although some linguists prefer to use the term l anguage l earni ng.Behaviorist approach:Behaviorist approach holds that language is learned by a process of habit-formation. It is a standard “stimulus- response-imitation-reinforcement” approach.Innateness approach: Innateness approach treats human being’s ability in learning a language as a part of the biologically innate equipment and the infant is born with a language acquisition device (LAD). It regards language acquisition as a process of “hypothesi s-deducti on”.Second language acquisition:Second language acquisition (L2 acquisition) refers to the learning of a foreign language in addition to the mother tongue, inside or outside a classroom.Contrastive analysis: It is a method of analyzing languages for instructional purposes whereby a native language and target language are compared with a view to establishing points of difference likely to cause difficulties for learners.Error analysis: Error analysis (EA) refers to the study and analysis of the errors made by second and foreign language learners in order to identify causes of errors of common difficulties in language learning. It is an alternative to contrastive analysis.Language aptitude: The natural ability for learning an L2 is termed as language aptitude, not including intelligence, motivation, interest, etc.Field dependence: Field dependence is a learning style in which a learner tends to look at the whole of a learning task which contains many items. The learner has difficulty in studying a particular item when it occurs within a field of other items.Field independence: Field independence is a learning style in which a learner is able to identifyor focus on particular items and is not distracted by other items in the background and context.Learning strategies: Learning strategies are the particular approaches or techniques that learners use to try to learn an L2. They can be behavioral or mental and they are typically problem-oriented.IV. Explain the following terms.1. Interlanguage. refers to the type of language constructed by second or foreign language learners who are still in the process of learning a language. It’s a language system between the target language and the learner’s native language, and imperfect compared with the target language, but not mere translation from the learner’s native language. For example, when the Chinese student is learning English, he may make errors like “to touch the society”.2. Universal grammar is a theory of linguistics postulating principles of grammar shared by all languages, thought to be innate to humans (linguistic nativism). It attempts to explain language acquisition in general, not describe specific languages. Universal grammar proposes a set of rules intended to explain language acquisition in child development.3. Contrastive analysis is an approach to analysis of second language acquisition, based on a belief that a more effective teaching pedagogy would come out when the similarities and differences between native language and target language are taken into consideration. By such an analysis, it is supposed that some leaning difficulties could be predicted in terms of language transfer.4. Errors are significant in telling the teacher what needs to be taught，in telling the researcher how learning proceeds and those errors are a means whereby learners test their hypotheses about the language to be learnt. They are worth further probing Error Analysis involves，first independently or objectively，describing the learners’ interlanguage (that is，their version of the target language and the target language itself)，then a comparison of the two is followed to locate mismatches. Different from contrastive analysis, Error Analysis, EA for short, gives 1ess consideration to learners’native language. The procedure of Error Analysis consists of the following steps:(1) Recognition(2) Description.(3) Explanation.For example, explanation: the absence of an item that must appear in a well-formed utterance:e.g. She sleeping. Type of error: Omissions.1. Applied linguistics: Applied linguistics is the study of language and linguistics in relation topractical issue, e.g. speech therapy, language teaching, testi ng, and transl ati on.Grammar-translation method: Grammar-translation method refers to a method of foreign or second language teaching which makes use of translation and grammar study as the main teaching and learning activities.Audiolingual method: Audiolingual method refers to the teaching of a second language through imitation, repetition, and reinforcement. It emphasizes the teaching of speaking and listening before reading and writing and the use of mother tongue in the classroom is not allowed.Communicative language teaching: Communicative language teaching refers to theapproach to foreign or second language teaching which emphasizes that the goal of language learning is communicative competence.T esting: It refers to the use of test, or the study of the theory and the practice of their use, development, evaluation, etc.Achievement test: Achievement test is a test which measures how much of a language someone has learned with reference to a particular course of study or program of instruction.Validity: V alidity (in testing) refers to the degree to which a test measures what it is supposed to measure, or can be used successfully for the purposes for which it is intended. A number of different statistical procedures can be applied to a test to estimate its validity. Such procedures generally seek to determine what the test measures, and how wel l i t does so.Reliability:Reliability(in testing) refers to a measure of the degree to which a test gives consistent results; a test is said to be reliable if it gives the same results when it is given on different occasions or when it is used by different people.Proficiency test: Proficiency test is a test which measures how much of a language someone has learned without bothering the syllabus, duration and manner of learning.Subjective test:Subject test refers to a test which is scored according to the personal judgment of the marker, such as an essay examination or translation.Objective test: Objective test is a test that can be marked without the use of the examiner’s personal judgment.Language aptitude test: Language aptitude test is a test which measures a person’s aptitude for second or foreign language learning and which can be used to identify those learners who are most likely to succeed.Diagnostic test: Diagnostic test refers to a test which is designed to show what skills or knowledge a learner knows or doesn’t know. For example, a diagnostic pronunciation test may be used to measure the learner’s pronunciation of English sounds. It would show which soundsa student is and is not able to pronounce. Diagnostic test may be used to find out how much alearner knows before beginning a language course.Backwash effect: Backwash effect refers to the effect of tests on classroom L2 teaching and learning.II. Explain the following terms.1. Applied linguistics. It is a branch of linguistics which studies the application of linguistics in reality. For example, there are studies on multilingualism, language acquisition, first and second language teaching and learning.2. It is the teaching of a second language through imitation, repetition, and reinforcement. It emphasizes the teaching of speaking and listening before reading and writing and the use of mother tongue in the classroom is not allowed.3. The learning of a second language by using the target language directly and associating speech form with action, gesture, objects and situations. Mother tongue is never or rarely used in the classroom, and the students supposedly acquire the second language in a way similar to the way they acquired their first language.。