英语语言学 lecture six
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Lecture Six
Bound morphemes in detail
Bound morphemes cannot stand alone. In a word, they must be attached to the root. All bound morphemes are affixes and all affixes in English are bound morphemes.
Lexical morphemes can stand alone and are a set of ordinary nouns, adjectives and verbs which carry the „content‟ of messages.
– E.g. boy, man, house, tiger, sad, long, yellow, sincere, open, look, follow, break
Circumfixes: affixes attached to the root or stem both initially and finally (do not appear in English either)
They appear in Chicksaw (a language spoken in Oklahoma)
Morpheme
A sentence is not the smallest linguistic form as it consists of other smaller linguistic forms called words. However, when we examine the English word „unfriendly‟, it is not difficult to find that the word consists of three even smaller word-like linguistic elements: un+friend+ly 3 separate morphemes
英语语言学课件Chapter 6 The Sound Patterns of Language
• [i] in seed and seen [i] in seen nasalised
Minimal Pairs and Sets
• Phonemic distinctions in a L can be tested via pairs and set of words
• Pat and bat are identical in form except for a contrast in one phoneme, occurring in the same position, minimal pair. More accurately described as minimal pair in the phonology of English
Phonemes
• Substitute one sound for another in a word and there is change of meaning, two sounds represent different phonemes
• Chart in Chpt 5 a mapping of English phonemes • /p/ -voice, +bilabial, +stop • /k/ -voice, +velar, +stop • Sounds have features in common would behave
• Feat, fit, fat, fate, fought, foot • Big, pig, rig, fig, dig, wig
Phonotactics
• Constraints on the sequence or position of English phonemes
Minimal Pairs and Sets
• Phonemic distinctions in a L can be tested via pairs and set of words
• Pat and bat are identical in form except for a contrast in one phoneme, occurring in the same position, minimal pair. More accurately described as minimal pair in the phonology of English
Phonemes
• Substitute one sound for another in a word and there is change of meaning, two sounds represent different phonemes
• Chart in Chpt 5 a mapping of English phonemes • /p/ -voice, +bilabial, +stop • /k/ -voice, +velar, +stop • Sounds have features in common would behave
• Feat, fit, fat, fate, fought, foot • Big, pig, rig, fig, dig, wig
Phonotactics
• Constraints on the sequence or position of English phonemes
语言学6PPT课件
• Such rules concern the pronunciation of specific morphemes.
• Thus the plural morphophonemic rules apply to the plural morpheme specifically, not to all morphemes in English.
Chapter 6 The Sound Patterns of Language
Hale Waihona Puke honology vs. Phonetics
• The study of how speech sounds form patterns is phonology
• The study of speech sounds is called phonetics
Additional example
• The patterns of Plural morph II: house /haus/ thief / i:f/ belief/bili:f/ foot /fu:t/ passer-by/pas bai/
• Morpheme of past tense • The phonological presentation
The Pronunciation of Morphemes
• Plural form of English
how to pronounce the plural morpheme?
• Allomorphs of plural morpheme
• To define the distribution of allomorphs by minimal pair
• The science of phonetics attempts to describe all of the sounds used in all languages of the world.
• Thus the plural morphophonemic rules apply to the plural morpheme specifically, not to all morphemes in English.
Chapter 6 The Sound Patterns of Language
Hale Waihona Puke honology vs. Phonetics
• The study of how speech sounds form patterns is phonology
• The study of speech sounds is called phonetics
Additional example
• The patterns of Plural morph II: house /haus/ thief / i:f/ belief/bili:f/ foot /fu:t/ passer-by/pas bai/
• Morpheme of past tense • The phonological presentation
The Pronunciation of Morphemes
• Plural form of English
how to pronounce the plural morpheme?
• Allomorphs of plural morpheme
• To define the distribution of allomorphs by minimal pair
• The science of phonetics attempts to describe all of the sounds used in all languages of the world.
英语语言学实用教程课件Unit4-6
➢ closed-class words -- open-class words
New members of word class: ➢ particles: pass by; make up; to do; not ➢ auxiliaries: I don't do it; is he coming? he has
Discuss
PP. 53-54 No. 3
4.2 English words
➢Presentation session
Word formation in English
➢ Practice: Point out the devices of word formation for
each of the following:
(1) a traditional festival (2) freezing cold (3) in the next century
4.3 English clauses and sentences
➢ A clause in English is one unit of organization that contains a subject-predication structure. A simple sentence is a clause. Alternatively:
➢ / :/: mid, central, tense, long, unrounded
Major contents
4.1 English morphemes 4.2 English words 4.3 English clauses and sentences 4.4 Collocations, idioms, and constructions in English
英语语言学完整版
Displacement
----Language can be used to refer to things, which are not present: real or imagined matters in the past, present or future, or in far-away places. A gibbon never utters a call about something he ate last year There is something special about the bee dance though. Bees communicate with other bees about the food sources they have found when they are no longer in the presence of the food. In this sense, the bee dance has a component of displacement. But this component is very insignificant. For the bees must communicate about the food immediately on returning to the hive. They do not dance about the food they discovered last month nor do they speculate about future discoveries.
Language is arbitrary
Arbitrary---- no intrinsic connection between the word and the thing it denotes, e.g. “pen” by any other name is the thing we use to write with.
语言学第六章chapter6课件
语言学第六章chapter6
Five types of deixis
1. Person deixis: me, you, him, them. 2. Time deixis: now, then, tonight, last week. 3. Space/spatial/place deixis: here, there, and
6.2.2 Deixis
Deixis (指示), which means “pointing” via language, the interpretation of many words and expressions by reference to the situational context of tc form used to do this “pointing” is called a deictic expression, or indexical.
语言学第六章chapter6
(3) A: Can I borrow your dictionary? B: Yeah, it’s on the table.
antecedent, anaphor or anaphoric expression.
indirect anaphor or bridging reference : (4) I walked into the room. The windows
语言学第六章chapter6
A melamed [小学教师, Hebrew teacher] discovering that he had left his comfortable slippers back in the house, sent a student after them with a note for his wife.
Five types of deixis
1. Person deixis: me, you, him, them. 2. Time deixis: now, then, tonight, last week. 3. Space/spatial/place deixis: here, there, and
6.2.2 Deixis
Deixis (指示), which means “pointing” via language, the interpretation of many words and expressions by reference to the situational context of tc form used to do this “pointing” is called a deictic expression, or indexical.
语言学第六章chapter6
(3) A: Can I borrow your dictionary? B: Yeah, it’s on the table.
antecedent, anaphor or anaphoric expression.
indirect anaphor or bridging reference : (4) I walked into the room. The windows
语言学第六章chapter6
A melamed [小学教师, Hebrew teacher] discovering that he had left his comfortable slippers back in the house, sent a student after them with a note for his wife.
语言学(Lecture Three)解析
II. Morpheme: the minimal units of meaning
A single word may consist of one or more morphemes. Example: a word over 5 morphemes
Anti+dis+establish+ment+ari+an+ism (国教废除论)
the final word: head-strong, pickpocket 3. compounds have different stress patterns from the
noncompounded word sequence, `redcoat, `greenhouse; red `coat, green `house 4. The meaning of a compound is not always the sum of the meanings of its parts. For example, redcoat (在美国独 立战争中服役的英国士兵), bigwig (有重大影响的人), highbrow, jack-in-a-box (a tropical tree), turncoat (a tractor) Compounding is then a very common and frequent process for enlarging the vocabulary of the English language.
Hu, Z. L., Liu, R. Q. & Li, Y. F. (1988). Linguistics: a course book. Beijing: Beijing University Press.
英语语言学six
Semantic component
The task of the semantic component is to analyse the deep structure of a sentence into basic semantic features and then to derive its semantic interpretation from the deep structure.
2.How do modern linguists differ from traditional scholars in defining “sentence”?
Traditionaly scholars often depended on the use of punctuation or a semantic criterion--the expression of a complete thought---to define a sentence. They look at the sentence as the result of linking words together.
They were badly treated.
They were treated badly.
在现在完成体和过去完成体中，我们可以在 第一个助动词之后插入一个延续性时间状语， 但是方式状语一般紧跟在live之后，如：
He had for twenty years lived in poverty. *She had in poverty lived for twenty years. They live frugally. *They frugally live.
*They can’t probably finish the task in time.
语言学讲座6
2把isit作为附加疑问部分置于陈述句之后且不受主句助动词或实义动词的影响
Language and society
The scope of sociolinguistics Sociolinguistics is one branch of linguistics that studies the relation between language and society, between the uses of language and the social structures in which the users of language live.
English, of course, is quite able to make the same distinctions: fine snow, dry snow, soft snow, and so on, but in Eskimos this sort of distinction is lexicalized---made by means of individual words.
As society is reflected in language in this way, social change can produce a corresponding linguistic change.
This has happened in the case of Russian. During the period from 1860 to the present day the structure of the Russian kinship system has undergone a very radical change as a result of several important events:
Language and society
The scope of sociolinguistics Sociolinguistics is one branch of linguistics that studies the relation between language and society, between the uses of language and the social structures in which the users of language live.
English, of course, is quite able to make the same distinctions: fine snow, dry snow, soft snow, and so on, but in Eskimos this sort of distinction is lexicalized---made by means of individual words.
As society is reflected in language in this way, social change can produce a corresponding linguistic change.
This has happened in the case of Russian. During the period from 1860 to the present day the structure of the Russian kinship system has undergone a very radical change as a result of several important events:
英语语言学题库
How many syllables are there in the word “rhythmical”?A.ThreeB.FourC.FiveD.Ten答案:A标准答案：A您的答案：题目分数：0.5此题得分：0.02．第2题Which of the following underlined parts is a bound morpheme?A.relationshipB.bedroomkmanD.childlike答案:A标准答案：A您的答案：题目分数：0.5此题得分：0.03．第3题Which of the following is an aspirated consonant?A.[f]B.[s]C.[k]D.[r]答案:C标准答案：C您的答案：题目分数：0.5此题得分：0.04．第4题Which of the following underlined parts is a derivational morpheme?rgerB.dataC.traineeD.Kat e’s答案:C标准答案：C您的答案：题目分数：0.5此题得分：0.0Which of the following sentences is an example of overgeneralization?A.Jane told me to give up smoking.B.Jane asked me to give up smoking.C.Jane advised me to give up smoking.D.Jane suggested me to give up smoking.答案:D标准答案：D您的答案：题目分数：0.5此题得分：0.06．第6题Which side(s) of muscles of ours does our left brain control?A.both left and rightB.leftC.rightD.sometimes left, sometimes right答案:C标准答案：C您的答案：题目分数：0.5此题得分：0.07．第108题Which of the following pairs of words are homophones?A.flour---flowerB.lead (to guide)---lead (a kind of metal)C.mouth (a speech organ)---mouth(an entrance to a cave)D.animal---cow答案:A标准答案：A您的答案：题目分数：0.5此题得分：0.08．第109题The relation between ‘furniture’ and ‘wardrobe’ is ___.A.homophonyB.homographyC.hyponymyD.polysemy答案:C标准答案：C您的答案：题目分数：0.5此题得分：0.0Which of the following is a representative?A.You’d better go to see a doctor.B.I promise to buy you something when I come back.C.I now declare the meeting close.D.I have never seen the man before.答案:D标准答案：D您的答案：题目分数：0.5此题得分：0.010．第111题Which of the following is a directive?A.Your money or your life!B.You are fired!C.The earth is round.D.Thank you very much.答案:A标准答案：A您的答案：题目分数：0.5此题得分：0.011．第119题Which of the following is a declaration?A.Open the door, please.B.I appoint you chairman of the committee.C.Would you like to go to the movie with us?D.I’ve never seen her before.答案:B标准答案：B您的答案：题目分数：0.5此题得分：0.012．第120题The word "realization" consists of _____ syllables as against _____ morphemes.A.five/fiveB.five/fourC.four/threeD.four/four答案:C标准答案：C您的答案：题目分数：0.5此题得分：0.0The words “subway” and “underground” are ______ synonyms.A.nearB.dialectalC.collocationally-restrictedD.stylistic答案:B标准答案：B您的答案：题目分数：0.5此题得分：0.014．第122题Which of the following best describes the relations between “Alice is a vegetarian” and “Alice prefers eating steak”?A.The former is synonymous with the latter.B.The former is inconsistent with the latter.C.The former entails the latter.D.The former presupposes the latter.答案:B标准答案：B您的答案：题目分数：0.5此题得分：0.015．第123题‘It is 8 o’clock’ is a ___-place predication.A.noB.oneC.twoD.three答案:A标准答案：A您的答案：题目分数：0.5此题得分：0.016．第124题‘She sings very well’ is a ___-place predication.A.noB.oneC.twoD.three答案:B标准答案：B您的答案：题目分数：0.517．第125题‘Slim’ and ‘skinny’ are ___.A.dialectal synonymsB.collocational synonymsC.stylistic synonymsD.synonyms that differ in their emotive meaning答案:D标准答案：D您的答案：题目分数：0.5此题得分：0.018．第126题‘Handsome’ and ‘pretty’ are ___.A.dialectal synonymsB.collocational synonymsC.stylistic synonymsD.synonyms that differ in their emotive meaning答案:B标准答案：B您的答案：题目分数：0.5此题得分：0.019．第127题Which of the following pairs of words are homographs?A.sew---sowB.tear(a drop of liquid that flows from the eye)---tear (to pull apart)C.tec---techD.mouth (a speech organ)---mouth(an entrance to a cave)答案:B标准答案：B您的答案：题目分数：0.5此题得分：0.020．第128题Which of the following words is NOT a coined word?A.dacronB.kodakC.xeroxD.gym答案:D标准答案：D您的答案：题目分数：0.521．第129题“Up you go, chaps!” belongs to ____ language.A.intimateB.frozenC.consultativeD.casual答案:A标准答案：A您的答案：题目分数：0.5此题得分：0.022．第130题Language acquisition refers to the child’s acquisition of his ____.A.first languageB.second languageC.foreign languageD.target language答案:A标准答案：A您的答案：题目分数：0.5此题得分：0.023．第131题The first consonants the child can make are made with the lips and they are ____.A.[p,b,n]B.[p,b,m]C.[t,d,n]D.[t,d,m]答案:B标准答案：B您的答案：题目分数：0.5此题得分：0.024．第132题If the child calls all men “Daddy”, then we may say the child has ____ the meaning of the word “Daddy”.A.overgeneralizedB.overextendedC.overusedD.overstressed答案:B标准答案：B您的答案：此题得分：0.025．第7题Arbitrariness of language means language can be used freely. 答案:错误标准答案：0您的答案：题目分数：0.5此题得分：0.026．第8题[i] is a semi-close vowel.答案:错误标准答案：0您的答案：题目分数：0.5此题得分：0.027．第9题[h] is the glottal sound.答案:正确标准答案：1您的答案：题目分数：0.5此题得分：0.028．第10题Phonetics deals with speech sounds in all human languages. 答案:正确标准答案：1您的答案：题目分数：0.5此题得分：0.029．第11题Tsled’ is a possibl e word in English.答案:错误标准答案：0您的答案：题目分数：0.5此题得分：0.030．第12题English is a tone language.答案:错误标准答案：0您的答案：题目分数：0.5此题得分：0.031．第13题‘Teach-in’ is a compound word.答案:正确标准答案：1您的答案：题目分数：0.5此题得分：0.032．第14题The morpheme ‘–or’ in ‘actor’ is an inflectional morpheme.答案:错误标准答案：0您的答案：题目分数：0.5此题得分：0.033．第15题The –s in ‘works’ of ‘He works hard.’ is a bound morpheme.答案:正确标准答案：1您的答案：题目分数：0.5此题得分：0.034．第16题In XP, X refers to any such head as N, V, A or P.答案:正确标准答案：1您的答案：题目分数：0.5此题得分：0.035．第17题The words ‘alive’ and ‘dead’ are relational opposites.答案:错误标准答案：0您的答案：题目分数：0.5此题得分：0.036．第18题The words ‘lead’(领导) and ‘lead’(铅球) are homographs. 答案:正确标准答案：1您的答案：题目分数：0.5此题得分：0.037．第19题The words ‘flat’ and ‘apartment’ are stylistic synonyms.答案:错误标准答案：0您的答案：题目分数：0.5此题得分：0.038．第20题The words ‘politician’ and ‘statesman’ are collocational synonyms.答案:错误标准答案：0您的答案：题目分数：0.5此题得分：0.039．第21题The words ‘buy’ and ‘purchase’ are dialectal sy nonyms.答案:错误标准答案：0您的答案：题目分数：0.5此题得分：0.040．第22题‘His friend is coming.’ presupposes ‘He has a friend.’答案:正确标准答案：1您的答案：题目分数：0.5此题得分：0.041．第23题' I fire you!' is a commissive.答案:错误标准答案：0您的答案：题目分数：0.5此题得分：0.042．第24题' Do not say what you believe to be false' is a maxim of relation.答案:错误标准答案：0您的答案：题目分数：0.5此题得分：0.043．第25题B' s reply violates the maxim of quality in the dialogue below: A: Where do you live? B: In South China Normal University.答案:错误标准答案：0您的答案：题目分数：0.5此题得分：0.044．第26题B probably means that he doesn' t want to make any comment on the lecture, in the dialogue below: A: What do you think of the lecture? (The speech maker is coming) B: Do we have classes this evening?答案:正确标准答案：1您的答案：题目分数：0.5此题得分：0.045．第27题B probably means that it is impolite to ask about her age, in the dialogue below: A: How old are you? B: I am 80.答案:正确标准答案：1您的答案：题目分数：0.5此题得分：0.046．第28题B probably means that A should not laugh at him since they know each other, in the dialogue below: A: Are you a good student? B: Are you?答案:正确标准答案：1您的答案：题目分数：0.5此题得分：0.047．第29题The word ' mice' , which is pronounced as [mais], was pronounced as [mi:s] in Middle English.答案:正确标准答案：1您的答案：题目分数：0.5此题得分：0.048．第30题In Chaucer' s the Canterbury Tales, we can find ' his' to replace ' it' in Modern English, as in ' Whan that Aprille with his shoures sooth' . This reflects the change in the ' agreement' rule.答案:正确标准答案：1您的答案：题目分数：0.5此题得分：0.049．第31题' I love thee not.' before the 16th century, has now become ' I do not love you.' This means the change in negation rule.答案:正确标准答案：1您的答案：题目分数：0.5此题得分：0.050．第32题The word ' walkman' is a blend.答案:错误标准答案：0您的答案：题目分数：0.5此题得分：0.051．第33题Linguistics is scientific because it is helpful to language use.答案:错误标准答案：0您的答案：题目分数：0.5此题得分：0.052．第34题General linguistics deals with the general aspects of language application.答案:错误标准答案：0您的答案：题目分数：0.5此题得分：0.053．第35题Phonology studies how a sound is produced.答案:错误标准答案：0您的答案：题目分数：0.5此题得分：0.054．第36题Modern linguistics aims at prescribing models for language users to follow.答案:错误标准答案：0您的答案：题目分数：0.5此题得分：0.055．第37题Parole is a French word; it means the concrete language events.答案:正确标准答案：1您的答案：题目分数：0.5此题得分：0.056．第38题F. de Saussure was a Swiss linguist.答案:正确标准答案：1您的答案：题目分数：0.5此题得分：0.057．第39题Chomsky regards competence as an act of doing things with a sentence. 答案:错误标准答案：0您的答案：题目分数：0.5此题得分：0.058．第40题Performance is the focus of Chomsky’s linguistic study.答案:错误标准答案：0您的答案：题目分数：0.5此题得分：0.059．第41题Duality of language means language is a two-level system.答案:正确标准答案：1您的答案：题目分数：0.5此题得分：0.060．第42题Linguists are interested in all sounds.答案:错误标准答案：0您的答案：题目分数：0.5此题得分：0.061．第43题Applied linguistics means the language application to specific areas.答案:错误标准答案：0您的答案：题目分数：0.5此题得分：0.062．第44题Modern linguistics aims at prescribing models for language users to follow.答案:错误标准答案：0您的答案：题目分数：0.5此题得分：0.063．第45题Synchronic linguistics deals with a series of language phenomena at the same time. 答案:错误标准答案：0您的答案：题目分数：0.5此题得分：0.064．第46题Diachronic linguistics is also called historical linguistics.答案:正确标准答案：1您的答案：题目分数：0.5此题得分：0.065．第47题The word ' videophone' is an acronym.答案:错误标准答案：0您的答案：题目分数：0.5此题得分：0.066．第48题UNESCO is a blend.答案:错误标准答案：0您的答案：题目分数：0.5此题得分：0.067．第49题The word ' tea' is a loan word from Chinese.答案:正确标准答案：1您的答案：此题得分：0.068．第50题The word ' dinner' comes from French.答案:正确标准答案：1您的答案：题目分数：0.5此题得分：0.069．第51题Computer language is one of the sources that have influenced the English language.答案:正确标准答案：1您的答案：题目分数：0.5此题得分：0.070．第52题Pidgins came from a blending of a few languages.答案:正确标准答案：1您的答案：题目分数：0.5此题得分：0.071．第53题One of the most important features of bilingualism is the specialization of function of the two varieties.答案:错误标准答案：0您的答案：题目分数：0.5此题得分：0.072．第54题Of ' reply' and ' answer' , the latter is more formal.答案:错误标准答案：0您的答案：题目分数：0.5此题得分：0.073．第55题A prominent phonological feature of Black English is the deletion of the consonant at the end of a word, as in ' desk' [des].答案:正确标准答案：1您的答案：此题得分：0.074．第56题The use of such sentences as ' I ain' t afraid of no ghosts' to mean ' I' m not afraid of ghosts' is one of the syntactic features of Black English.答案:正确标准答案：1您的答案：题目分数：0.5此题得分：0.075．第57题Received Pronunciation in British English is a dialect of London that is representative of standard English.答案:错误标准答案：0您的答案：题目分数：0.5此题得分：0.076．第58题The word ' dog' often conjures up different images in the US and Hong Kong.答案:正确标准答案：1您的答案：题目分数：0.5此题得分：0.077．第59题Language plays a major role in socializing the people and perpetuating culture, especially in print form.答案:正确标准答案：1您的答案：题目分数：0.5此题得分：0.078．第60题It is acceptable to translate ' Every dog has his day.' into ' 每条狗都有自己的日子。
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Review the chapter of syntaxthese are a few questions on some of points in the chapter of lexicon.Do you think whether the relationship between morpheme and phoneme is one-to-one?How about the relation between morpheme and sememe?What are included in bound morpheme?Syntactic structure句法syntax 研究句子结构，揭示构成某一语言句子的内在规则。
这些规则告诉我们词与词如何组合成句，句子由什么构成。
线性顺序与层次结构linear order and hierarchical structure英语句子是按一定顺序排列的。
句子的这种顺序是线性顺序。
改变顺序意思会发生变化。
这种关系也就是syntagmatic relation or positional relation\ chain relationIn the way of classification according to the word order, there are totally six possible types of language. They are SVO, VSO, SOV, OVS, OSV, VOS.各种语言的句子顺序是不同的。
英语是S-V-O语言，日语、土耳其语等是S-O-V语言，威尔士语和希伯莱等语言是V-S-O语言，也有些语言的主语、动词、宾语的顺序是自由的。
Why is it important to know the relations a sign has with others, such as syntagmatic and paradigmatic relations?As the relation between a signifier and its signified is arbitrary, the value of a sign cannot be determined by itself. To know the identity of a sign, the linguist will have to know the signs it is used together with and those it is substitutable for. The former relation is known as syntagmatic and the latter paradigmatic.The structural linguists regard linguistic units as interrelated with each other in a structure, not as isolated bits.What is the relation of substitutability? And relation of co-ocurrence?语言是交际的工具，人们在交际中说出的最短的话语至少是一个句子，这样才能表达比较完整的思想。
句子按说话的不同目的可以分为陈述句declarative、疑问句interrogative、祈使句imperative 和感叹句exclamatory等不同类型。
句子里还可以包含句子。
包含在一个句子里的句子称为小句。
只包含一个小句的句子称为简单句simple；包含两个或两个以上小句的句子称为复合句。
复合句按句中小句之间的不同关系分为并列复合句compound和主从复合句complex。
几种基本的组合关系（离心结构exocentric construction，向心结构endocentric construction）在句子和短语中词与词之间的基本组合关系有以下几种：主谓关系，修饰关系，动宾关系，动补关系，并列关系在传统语法中区分了由词的语法形式表现出来的两种主从关系：一致关系concord\ agreement 和支配关系。
一致关系中，从属词的语法形式要随主导词的语法形式发生变化。
一致关系主要表现在主语和谓语之间、修饰语和被修饰语之间。
句子分析的方法句法分析是对句子和短语的结构进行的分析。
语法学中句法分析的方法主要有两种，一种是句子成分分析发，另一种是直接成分分析法。
句子成分分析法句子成分分析法是传统语法中通用的分析句子的方法。
这种方法以词为分析的基本单位，根据句子和短语中词与词之间的关系，逐个确定句中的各种成分，然后在根据句中包含的成分确定句子的结构类型（即句型）。
句子成分分析法从词开始“自下而上，从小到大”地对句子进行分析，因此英语里又称为“bottom-up‖分析法。
英语的句子成分通常分为主语、谓语、宾语、定语、补语和状语。
其中宾语又可分为直接宾语和间接宾语；补语又可以分为主语补语和宾语补语。
传统语法从句子成分中分出主要成分和次要成分。
主要成分是任何一个句子都不可缺少的。
分析句子首先要找出主要成分，然后再找出从属于它们的次要成分，这样一个句子的结构就一目了然了。
英语的简单肯定助动陈述句分为七种主要句型SV Prices rose。
SVO Mary enjoyed classical music.SVC Y our face seems familiar.SV Adv My sister lives next door.SVOO We wish you happy birthday.SVOC The president declared the meeting open.SVOAd The doorman showed the guests into the drawing room.除基准句型外，还有与之对应的各种变换句型，包括：疑问句、祈使句、感叹句、否定句、被动句、省略句、并列复合句、主从复合句、分裂句、外位句、there存在句、have存在句等。
直接成分分析法IC analysis另一种分析句子的方法是结构主义语言学（实际是其中的美国描写语言学派Bloomfield）制定的直接成分分析法。
这种分析方法从句子出发，自上而下，从大到小，分析到语素为止，故英语里称为“top-down‖分析法。
成分和直接成分语言中的任何表示一定意义的单位，如果它不只包含一个语素，就是可以分解的，这样的单位叫做结构体。
一个结构体内包含的较小的结构体和语素都是这个结构体的成分，而一个结构体一次可以直接分出的成分则是这个结构体的直接成分。
The old man has come to his son‘s house.直接成分分析法的一个优点是它可以区别某些歧义现象。
例如Chinese fur coat 的层次结构可能是Chinese fur/ coat , or Chinese / fur coat. 不同的层次结构与意义直接有关。
汉语的“咬死了猎人的狗”也可以有两种不同的分析，咬死了/猎人的狗，或咬死猎人的/狗。
What is the criterion used in IC analysis?The criterion used in IC analysis is substitutability: whether a sequence of words can be substituted for a single word and the structure remains the same. For example, in Poor John ran away, poor John can be replaced by John and ran away by ran without changing the structure, but poor John ran cannot be replaced by John or any other single word without changing the structure.In what ways is IC analysis better than traditional parsing?In traditional parsing, a sentence is mainly seen as a sequence of individual words, as if it has only a linear structure. IC analysis, however, emphasizes the hierarchical structure of a sentence, seeing it as consisting of word groups first. In this way the internal structure of a sentence is shown more clearly, hence the reasons of some ambiguities may be revealed.Conjoining & embeddingHypotactic & paratactic relationsLecture five Meaning (Semantics & pragmatics)Outlines:What is semantics?What is meaning?Kinds of meaningThe traditional approachThe functional approachThe pragmatic approachSense relationshipsSynonymyAntonymyHyponymyPolysemy and homonymySense relations between sentencesSemantic analysisComponential analysisPredication analysisRelational componentsLogical elements1. What is semantics?The subject concerning the study of meaning is called semantics. More specifically, semantics is the study of the meaning of linguistic units, words and sentences in particular. P105语义可以分为词的意义word meaning 和句子意义sentence meaning. 本世纪60年代以前，语言学家只注重研究词的意义，忽略了句子意义。