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生命意义感量表中文版在大学生群体中的信效度刘思斯;甘怡群【期刊名称】《中国心理卫生杂志》【年(卷),期】2010(024)006【摘要】目的:引入Steger等编制的生命意义感量表(the Meaning in Life Questionnaire,MLQ),检验其在中国大学生群体中应用的信度和效度.方法:方便选取北京大学学生307名,随机分为两部分,一部分(n=150)进行探索性因素分析,另一部分(n=157)进行验证性因素分析.用社会期望量表(Marlowe-Crowne Social Desirability Scale,MCSD)、未来取向应对量表(Future-oriented Coping Inventory,FCI)、正性负性情绪量表(Positive and Negative AffectScale,PANAS)、自评抑郁量表(Self-Rating Depression Scale,SDS)、自尊量表(Self-Esteem Scale,SES)、总体幸福感量表(General Well-Being Schedule,GWB)检验MLQ中文版的效标效度.结果:(1)探索性因子分析提取了2个因子,分别是生命意义感(MLQ-P)和寻求意义感(MLQ-S),累计贡献率为57.22%,项目负荷在0.579～0.829之间.验证性因素分析检验了结构的有效性(χ2=43.81,GFI=0.94,AGFI=0.90,NFI=0.93,CFI=0.97,IFI=0.97,RMSEA=0.066).( 2)总量表的Cronbach α系数为0.71,2个分量表的α系数分别为0.81和0.72.(3)MLQ-P与SES、GWB、正性情绪、预先应对、预防应对、MCSD呈正相关(r=0.19～0.59,均P＜0.01),而与SDS、负性情绪呈负相关(r=-0.50,-0.18,均P＜0.01);MLQ-S与预先应对、预防应对和正性情绪正相关(r=0.20,0.31,0.15,均P＜0.01).结论:生命意义感量表中文版在大学生中的信、效度较好,但仍需扩大样本进一步深入检验.【总页数】5页(P478-482)【作者】刘思斯;甘怡群【作者单位】北京大学心理系,北京,100871;北京大学心理系,北京,100871【正文语种】中文【中图分类】B844.2【相关文献】1.大学生生命意义感量表编制及信效度分析 [J], 梁进龙;崔新玲;吴和堂;彭兰香2.大学生心理一致感量表中文版的信效度检验 [J], 何玉梅3.一般归属感量表中文版在大学生群体中的效度和信度 [J], 邓昳莟;刘爱书;申瑞琴4.网络数字化侵害量表中文版在大学生群体中的信效度 [J], 吴颖;王若霖;张玉平5.中文版父母用疾病不确定感量表在恶性肿瘤患儿父母群体中的信效度检验 [J], 叶增杰;刘美玲;张璋;廖昆仑;彭彩芬;黄惠;余远亮;邱鸿钟因版权原因，仅展示原文概要，查看原文内容请购买。
万方数据万方数据万方数据万方数据万方数据老年心理健康量表(城市版)的编制作者：李娟， 吴振云， 韩布新， LI Juan， WU Zhen-Yun， HAN Bu-Xin作者单位：中国科学院心理研究所老年心理研究中心,北京,100101刊名：中国心理卫生杂志英文刊名：CHINESE MENTAL HEALTH JOURNAL年，卷(期)：2009，23(9)被引用次数：0次1.陈正英西部民族地区留守老年人心理健康状况与心理干预 2008(12)2.赵春元.丁素荣.张宝华3099位老年人心理健康水平及相关因素的研究 1998(01)3.蒋宗凤.陈立新北京市高校离休干部心理健康状况分析 2008(04)4.姜宝法.徐涛.廖玟珍SF-36量表在深圳市农村老年人中的应用 2003(05)5.吴振云.孙长华.吴志平成年期心理健康状况的比较研究 1998(05)6.吴振云.许淑莲.李娟老年心理健康问卷的编制 2002(01)7.邓丽芳.郑日昌城市中老年人心理健康量表的编制 2005(01)8.Donnelly JW.Eburne N.Kittleson MJ Mental Health:Dimensions of Self-Esteem and Emotional Well-being 20019.Mateus MAB.Silva CSS.Neves OSN Mental health evaluation of elderly people in primary health care 2008(z 2)10.Portero CF.Oliva A Social support,psychological well-being,and health among the elderly 2007(12)11.廖全明.苏丹.黄希庭目前国内常用心理健康量表的回顾与反思 2007(04)12.刘华山心理健康概念与标准的再认识 2001(04)13.杨彦春纽芬兰纪念大学幸福度量表 1999(zk)14.刘平流调中心用抑郁量表 1999(zk)15.戴海崎.张锋.陈雪枫心理与教育测量 200116.Li LW.Liang J Social exchanges and subjective well-being among older Chinese:does age make a difference? 2007(02)1.期刊论文张雅明.王永丽.曾盼盼.俞国良《小学生心理健康量表》的验证性因素分析-中国心理卫生杂志2004,18(4)目的:对自编<小学生心理健康量表>的结构进行验证性因素分析.方法:2030名2～6年级小学生接受测验,使用LISREL 8.0软件对所得数据进行分析.结果:小学生心理健康量表各分量表具有良好的结构,数据与假设模型拟合程度较高,除人际分量表外,学习分量表、自我分量表、适应分量表的GFI、AGFI、NFI、NNFI、CFI、IFI等指标均在0.9以上;总量表测量的四个潜在变量因素负荷系数均达到统计显著标准,测量数据与假设模型之间拟合良好.结论:<小学生心理健康量表>适应小学生成长的心理环境,结构清晰,操作简便,是适用于小学生的有效的心理健康测评工具.2.期刊论文江新会.王桢.王筱璐.时勘.JIANG Xin-Hui.WANG Zhen.WANG Xiao-Lu.SHI Kan心理健康自评问卷在地震灾区学生中使用的信效度-中国心理卫生杂志2010,24(4)目的:检验心理健康自评问卷(self-reporting questionaire 20,SRQ-20)中文版的信效度.方法:在地震发生3周后,向675名都江堰市高三学生施测了SRQ-20 和贝克抑郁量表第二版(Beck Depression Inventory -2nd Edition,BDI-Ⅱ).用Kuder-Richardson 公式计算SRQ-20内部一致性系数.计算各个项目与总分的点二列相关.用探索性因素分析检测SRQ-20的因子结构.用SRQ-20 和BDI-Ⅱ的相关进行聚合效度的检验.结果:KR-20系数为0.79.项目和总分的相关在0.34到0.60之间,平均达到了0.48.SRQ-20 和BDI-Ⅱ之间的相关为0.70.探索性因素分析得到4个因子,解释总方差的43.96%.除了项目1和5,其他项目的因子载荷均高于或接近0.40.结论:心理健康自评问卷的一致性信度和效标关联效度良好,但其因子结构尚不稳定,暂不适宜将其因子当作子量表应用,而应视为单维处理.3.期刊论文湛希宁.甘怡群.Heining Cham.GAN Yi-Qun问题取向应对风格量表的信效度检验及与心理健康的关系-中国心理卫生杂志2008,22(3)目的:检验问题取向应对风格量表(PF-SOC)对我国大学生的适用性,并考察其与心理健康的关系.方法:翻译PF-SOC并完成返回翻译,分别对2个样本共517名学生发放结构性问卷进行施测,使用PSI作同时效度分析,BDI、SES、MBI-SS和UWES-S为效标关联效度的测量指标.结果:(1)探索性和验证性因素分析表明修订后量表符合原版量表结构(x2/df=2.09,NFI、NNFI、CFI接近0.90),3个分量表(思考型、压抑型和反应型)的内部一致性系数分别为0.73、0.70和0.72;(2)除在思考型维度上有性别差异外(男23.8±4.2/23.1±4.7,F=143.07,P＜0.05),其余结果表明不存在性别、年级和文理科差异;(3)PF-SOC能有效预测抑郁、特质焦虑、学业倦怠与投入(△R2=10%-24%).结论:中文版PF-SOC具有较好的信效度,并能预测大学生心理健康状况.4.期刊论文刘思斯.甘怡群.LIU Si-Si.GAN Yi-Qun生命意义感量表中文版在大学生群体中的信效度-中国心理卫生杂志2010,24(6)目的:引入Steger等编制的生命意义感量表(the Meaning in Life Questionnaire,MLQ),检验其在中国大学生群体中应用的信度和效度.方法:方便选取北京大学学生307名,随机分为两部分,一部分(n=150)进行探索性因素分析,另一部分(n=157)进行验证性因素分析.用社会期望量表(Marlowe-Crowne Social Desirability Scale,MCSD)、未来取向应对量表(Future-oriented Coping Inventory,FCI)、正性负性情绪量表(Positive and NegativeAffect Scale,PANAS)、自评抑郁量表(Self-Rating Depression Scale,SDS)、自尊量表(Self-Esteem Scale,SES)、总体幸福感量表(General Well-Being Schedule,GWB)检验MLQ中文版的效标效度.结果:(1)探索性因子分析提取了2个因子,分别是生命意义感(MLQ-P)和寻求意义感(MLQ-S),累计贡献率为57.22%,项目负荷在0.579～0.829之间.验证性因素分析检验了结构的有效性(χ2=43.81,GFI=0.94,AGFI=0.90,NFI=0.93,CFI=0.97,IFI=0.97,RMSEA=0.066).(2)总量表的Cronbach α系数为0.71,2个分量表的α系数分别为0.81和0.72.(3)MLQ-P与SES、GWB、正性情绪、预先应对、预防应对、MCSD呈正相关(r=0.19～0.59,均P＜0.01),而与SDS、负性情绪呈负相关(r=-0.50,-0.18,均P＜0.01);MLQ-S与预先应对、预防应对和正性情绪正相关(r=0.20,0.31,0.15,均P＜0.01).结论:生命意义感量表中文版在大学生中的信、效度较好,但仍需扩大样本进一步深入检验.5.期刊论文Gerhard Zarbock.王希林.Marko Drews.Bernhard Dahme.Wolfgang Lutz.Gerhard Zarbock.Xilin Wang.Marko Drews.Bernhard Dahme.Wolfgang Lutz心理治疗效果评定量(简式)在中、德应用的心理测量学研究-心理学报2007,39(5)419名中国和德国被试参加了本研究,并回答了若干简式心理健康量表.所选的这套量表能对心理治疗不同阶段的效果(Howard's阶段模型:重新认识期-转变期-康复期)进行测查.本研究目的在于考察这些简式量表能否用于认知-行为治疗跨文化培训项目中的质量管理.结果显示,这些量表在中德两种文化背景下都有很高的信度和效度(聚合效度和敏感性).尽管项目间的高相关似乎提示心理健康模型只有一个维度,但探索性因素和理论分析则更支持心理健康是一个分为8个亚维度的模型,其中每个亚维度或者与基础情绪、或者与社会性情感相连关联.本文最后就研究结果及其对心理治疗质量控制的意义进行了详细讨论.6.期刊论文周波.张智.ZHOU Bo.ZHANG Zhi初中生亲子沟通特点及其与SCL-90的关系-中国心理卫生杂志2007,21(1)目的:探讨城市初中生亲子沟通的特点以及亲子沟通状况对初中生心理健康的影响.方法:采用自编的亲子沟通问卷(得分越高表示沟通情况越差)和症状自评量表(SCL-90),对346名初中生施测.结果:初中生与父亲沟通的主动性、有效性、满意度、沟通频率以及沟通时父母的态度得分高于母亲(2.8±0.7/2.7±0.7,2.9±0.8/2.7±0.7,2.4±1.1/2.2±1.1,2.6±1.0/2.3±0.9,2.6±1.0/2.3±0.9,t=3.67～6.84,P＜0.01);男生与父亲沟通的主动性、满意度与母亲沟通的满意度得分均低于女性(2.7±0.8/2.9±0.7,2.2±1.2/2.5±1.2,2.0±1.1/2.3±1.0,P＜0.05)亲子沟通问卷得分与SCL-90症状因子评分呈正相关(r=0.11～0.36,P＜0.05).结论:初中生的亲子沟通具对象性,与母亲的沟通好于与父亲的沟通;亲子沟通状况尤其是沟通时父母的态度性、控制性和亲子沟通频率与初中生心理健康密切关联;母亲的情感关注和积极交流对子女心理健康具保护作用.7.期刊论文方富熹.盖笑松.张丽锦.刘国雄.龚少英认知发展水平诊断工具IPDT北京市常模的制订-中国心理卫生杂志2004,18(4)目的:制定儿童认知发展水平诊断工具(IPDT)的北京市常模,并对其心理测量学指标进行进一步的检验.方法:以北京市1600名7-14岁儿童为被试,进行了IPDT测验.结果:(1)IPDT测验总分随儿童年龄增长而提高,表现出良好的构念效度;(2)其中的18个子测验难度从易到难呈梯级分布,整个测验的平均难度系数为0.5,难度指标比较理想;(3)测验具有良好的区分度;(4)测验分数的负偏态分布特征表明该测验适合于诊断;(5)根据测试结果建立了北京市7-14岁儿童的百分等级常模以及诊断标准,并对测验的性质、用途和特点进行了讨论.结论:IPDT适合于7-14岁儿童的认知发展诊断.8.期刊论文庄明科.甘怡群.刘海骅社会技能量表的修订与初步应用-中国心理卫生杂志2004,18(11)目的:对社会技能量表进行修订,并初步考察大学新生的社会技能与心理健康的关系.方法:对394名大学新生进行社会技能量表、症状自评量表(SCL-90)和自我和谐量表评定,对社会技能量表进行探索性因素分析,建立分量表.并分析分量表的内部一致性,各项目和对应的分量表之间的相关系数以及项目的鉴别力指数.最后分析了社会技能各个分量表与症状自评量表(SCL-90)及自我和谐量表的关系.结果:社会技能量表通过探索性因素分析可以得到5个分量表,分别是社会适应、社会知觉、社会自信、社会表达和印象管理.修订后的分量表的内部一致性在0.52～0.77之间;各项目与对应的分量表相关在0.46～0.76之间,项目的鉴别力指数在0.32～0.52之间.除社会表达与心理健康的指标相关不显著以外,社会适应、社会知觉、印象管理与心理健康水平呈正相关,社会自信(高分表示不自信)与心理健康水平呈负相关.结论:社会技能量表具有较好的信效度,并与心理健康之间有一定的相关.9.期刊论文蒋奖.杨六琴.许燕.车宏生工作控制点量表(WLCS)的信效度研究-中国心理卫生杂志2004,18(9)目的:检测工作控制点量表(WLCS)的信度和效度.方法:根据439名被试的WLCS结果作了同质信度、构想效度的检验,以Rotter控制点量表为效标考察了WLCS的同时效度,以职业压力指标问卷(OSI-2)中身体健康、心理健康、工作满意度和离职意向分量表为效标考察了WLCS的预测效度.结果:WLCS的内部一致性α系数为0.7166,分半信度为0.7159;同时效度为0.605(P<0.001);对身体健康、心理健康、工作满意度和离职意向的预测效度都达到显著水平.结论:WLCS的同质信度、构想效度、效标效度均较理想,符合心理测量学的要求.10.期刊论文肖琳.吴尊友.李建华.罗巍.陈康林.王勇胜.陈均.谢联智阿片类药物依赖者生活质量量表的初步编制-中国心理卫生杂志2007,21(6)目的:编制阿片类药物依赖者生活质量测量工具.方法:采用个人访谈、文献回顾、认知预试验方法,结合专家组意见,形成初始量表.将内容效度分析、反应度分析、相关分析、因子分析、结构方程模型等方法,用于条目筛选及量表的信效度评价.结果:形成了阿片类药物依赖者生活质量量表测试版.该量表包含61条目,总体克朗巴赫α系数为0.958,重测信度为0.917;维度的设置与预期的量表内容框架一致,六个维度分别为身体健康、家庭关系与社会支持、心理健康、毒品依赖、日常生活活动与经济状况、满意度,可以解释方差的53.68%,CFI为0.95,SRMR为0.07,社区吸毒组、强制戒毒组、美沙酮治疗组的量表总分分别为(57.1±11.7,64.6±10.9,70.9±12.5,F=57.13,P＜0.0001),组间差异有统计学意义.量表总分与MOS SF-36总分的相关系数为0.722(P=0.000).结论:阿片类药物依赖者生活质量量表具有较好的信度和效度.本文链接：/Periodical_zgxlwszz200909012.aspx授权使用：中南大学(zndx)，授权号：79d77771-c163-43ec-8fe1-9e4300dae844下载时间：2010年12月5日。
考研英语作文一直得分率不高，但作文其实是英语中最容易提分的部分了。
对于作文的复习，除了背诵一定的范文模板之外，还学要掌握一些常用的分类、词汇和句型，这样才能够保证再考场上，更灵活应用模板，而避免生搬硬套的现象。
下面为大家总结8类写作中经常会涉及到的常用高频词汇以及一些短语，希望能够帮助大家能在英语写作项目中有更好的发挥。
1、经济：economic globalization(经济全球化)， sustainable development(可持续发展)，unfair competition(不正当竞争)，crack down on fake commodities (打假)，boom(繁荣)， fierce competition(激烈竞争)， credit crisis(信用危机)， stabilize prices (稳定物价)2、文化：great and profound (博大精深的)，integration and interaction(融合交汇)，crash(碰撞)，charming(极具魅力的)，splendid(壮丽辉煌的)，English fever(英语热)3、环保：environment- friendly(生态型的，环保的)，threat of global warming(全球变暖的威胁)， promote fundamental shifts in the economic system and mode of economic growth(促进经济体制和经济增长方式的转变)，curb environmental pollution/ bring the pollution under control(治理环境污染)，develop renewable resources (开发可再生资源)，a low-carbon economy (低碳经济)4、科技：science and technology(科学技术)，web-addiction(沉迷网络)， computer crime(电脑犯罪)， e-commerce(电子商务)， virtual life (虚拟生活)，information era(信息时代)，cyber romance(网恋)，surf the Internet(网上冲浪)5、就业：applicant(申请人)， position available/ vacant position(空缺职位)，competent(能胜任的)， be qualified for(合格的)， proficiency(熟练程度)，job arrangement and benefit(工作待遇和福利)， promotion (晋升)， gender-biased(性别歧视的)， appearance-biased(相貌歧视的)6、大学生活/教育：cultivate(培养)， fu rther one’s study (深造)，quality education(素质教育)，foster abilities(培养能力)，relieve the burden on students(减轻学生负担)，be occupied with so much schoolwork(忙于功课)place emphasis on(以…为重心)，comprehensive(全面的，广泛的)，practical capability(实际能力)，duck-stuffing(填鸭式)7、社会现象：enlightening(富有启发的)，cause alarm and attention(引起了警惕和重视)，set good example for(为…树立榜样)，dedicate(做贡献)， take action (采取行动)，ensure implementing activities(确保执行)， vulnerable(易诱惑的，易受影响的)，be supposed to(应该)8、人物特征、情感描写：strong-minded(坚强的)，industrious(勤奋的)， promising(有前途的)，dynamic(有生气的)，responsible(有责任心的)， influential(有影响力的)，profound(渊博精深的)，devoted(忠实的，投入的)，warm-hearted(热心的)。
绝密★启用前辽宁省名校联盟2022年高三9月份联合考试英语本试卷满分150分，考试时间120分钟。
注意事项：1. 答卷前，考生务必将自己的姓名、准考证号填写在答题卡上。
2. 答选择题时，选出每小题答案后，用铅笔把答题卡对应题目的答案标号涂黑。
如需改动，用橡皮擦干净后，再选涂其他答案标号。
答非选择题时，将答案写在答题卡上。
写在本试卷上无效。
3. 考试结束后，将本试卷和答题卡一并交回。
第一部分听力（共两节，满分30分）做题时，先将答案标在试卷上。
录音内容结束后，你将有两分钟的时间将试卷上的答案转涂到答题卡上。
第一节（共5小题；每小题1. 5分，满分7. 5分）听下面5段对话。
每段对话后有一个小题，从题中所给的A、B、C三个选项中选出最佳选项，并标在试卷的相应位置。
听完每段对话后，你都有10秒钟的时间来回答有关小题和阅读下一小题。
每段对话仅读一遍。
1. Which city does the woman like better?A. Orlando.B. Miami.C. New York.2. What might the man do?A. Have a dinner.B. Go for a trip.C. Take a class.3. What's wrong with Tim?A. He missed dancing classes.B. He hit himself on the head.C. He fell off a bike.4. How much should the man pay?A. $ 10.B. $ 8.C. $ 5.5. What is the new technology for?A. Video games.B. Pictures.C. E-mails.第二节（共15小题；每小题1. 5分，满分22. 5分）听下面5段对话或独白。
每段对话或独白后有几个小题，从题中所给的A、B、C三个选项中选出最佳选项。
COPING WITH CHILDREN'S NEGATIVE EMOTIONS SCALE (CCNES)1Purpose: To measure the degree to which parents perceive themselves as reactive to young children's (preschool through early elementary school) negative affect in distressful situations. Six subscales are derived that reflect the specific types of coping response parents tend to use in these situations.SUBSCALES1. Distress Reactions (DR). These items reflect the degree to which parents experience distress when children express negative affect.Scoring: Mean of: 1B, 2A*, 3A, 4D, 5E, 6C, 7C *, 8C *, 9B, 10A *, 11B, 12D.*= REVERSED SCORING 2. Punitive Reactions (PR). These items reflect the degree to which parents respond with punitivereactions that decrease their exposure or need to deal with the negative emotions of their children.Scoring: Mean of: 1A, 2F, 3F, 4A, 5D, 6D, 7E, 8E, 9E, 10B, 11C, 12E.3. Expressive Encouragement (EE). These items reflect the degree to which parents encourage childrento express negative affect or the degree to which they validate child's negative emotional states (i.e., "it's ok to feel sad.")Scoring: Mean of: 1E, 2E, 3E, 4B, 5F, 6E, 7F, 8A, 9A, 10C, 11F, 12B.4. Emotion-Focused Reactions (EFR). These items reflect the degree to which parents respond with strategies that are designed to help the child feel better (i.e., oriented towards affecting the child's negative feelings).Scoring: Mean of: 1F, 2B, 3D, 4E, 5A, 6A, 7B, 8F, 9F, 10D, 11E, 12C.5. Problem-Focused Reactions (PFR). These items reflect the degree to which parents help the childsolve the problem that caused the child's distress (i.e., oriented towards helping the child solve his/her problem or coping with a stressor).Scoring: Mean of: 1C, 2D, 3C, 4F, 5B, 6F, 7A, 8B, 9D, 10E, 11D, 12A.6. Minimization Reactions (MR). These items reflect the degree to which parents minimize the seriousne of the situation or devalue the child's problem or distressful reaction.Scoring: Mean of: 1D, 2C, 3B, 4C, 5C, 6B, 7D, 8D, 9C, 10F, 11A, 12F.1Please cite as follows: Fabes, R.A., Eisenberg, N., & Bernzweig, J. (1990). The Coping with Children's Negative Emotions Scale: Procedures and scoring. Available from authors. Arizona State University.Address correspondence to Richard Fabes, Department of Family Resources and Human Development Arizona State University, Tempe, AZ, 85287-2502.Copyright © 1990 by the authors目的为了测量父母认为对学前儿童在困境下消极情绪（父母）反应程度。
教育心理学英语词汇心理（mind）亚里士多德（Aristotle，公元前384年—公元前322年）所著的《灵魂论》（De Anima，又译《精神论》）意识阈（conscious threshold）和统觉团（apperception mass）的比纳（）和西蒙（）桑代克（）冯特（,梅耶（）Educational Psychology加涅（）第一章学习的性质与分类艾宾浩斯（,鲍尔（）和希尔加德（）倾向（disposition）或能力（capability）行为表现（performance）“学习”（learning）与“表现”（performance）神经元（neuron）树突（dendrite）和轴突（axon）突触（synapse）星形细胞（astrocyte）音素（phoneme）陈述性记忆（declarative memory）和程序性记忆（procedural memory）运作（operations）经验主义（empiricism）洛克（John Locke）、贝克莱（George Berkeley）、休谟（David Hume）反思（reflection）理性主义（rationalism）苏格拉底（Socrates，公元前469—公元前399年）认为，“真理存在于人的灵魂中”；他的学生柏拉图（Plato笛卡儿（Descartes, 1596—1650）和德国哲学家康德（Kant,1724—先天知觉假设（innate perceptual assumptions）行为与联想论（behavioral associationist theories）和认知与组织论（cognitive organizational theories）条件反应（conditioned response）斯金纳（）条件反射（conditioned reflex）中性刺激（neutral stimulus）操作条件反应（operant conditioned response）有机体（organism）托尔曼（）巴特利特（坚持信息加工理论的代表人物有西蒙（）、安德森（）、．加涅（）布鲁纳（）、奥苏伯尔、维特罗克（）乔纳森（ 1992）激进建构主义（radical constructivism）、社会建构主义（social constructivism）、社会文化认知（social cultural cognition）、信息加工的建构主义（information processing constructivism）、社会学建构主义（social constructionism）、控制论系统（cybernetic system）情境性学习（situated learning）社会团体的习俗（practices of community，一类为陈述性知识（declarative knowledge），另一类为程序性知识（procedural knowledge）。
专题18 阅读理解说明文备考高考英语二轮复习距离高考还有一段时间，不少有经验的老师都会提醒考生，愈是临近高考，能否咬紧牙关、学会自我调节，态度是否主动积极，安排是否科学合理，能不能保持良好的心态、以饱满的情绪迎接挑战，其效果往往大不一样。
以下是本人从事10多年教学经验总结出的以下学习资料，希望可以帮助大家提高答题的正确率，希望对你有所帮助，有志者事竟成！养成良好的答题习惯，是决定高考英语成败的决定性因素之一。
做题前，要认真阅读题目要求、题干和选项，并对答案内容作出合理预测;答题时，切忌跟着感觉走，最好按照题目序号来做，不会的或存在疑问的，要做好标记，要善于发现，找到题目的题眼所在，规范答题，书写工整;答题完毕时，要认真检查，查漏补缺，纠正错误。
总之，在最后的复习阶段，学生们不要加大练习量。
在这个时候，学生要尽快找到适合自己的答题方式，最重要的是以平常心去面对考试。
英语最后的复习要树立信心，考试的时候遇到难题要想“别人也难”，遇到容易的则要想“细心审题”。
越到最后，考生越要回归基础，单词最好再梳理一遍，这样有利于提高阅读理解的效率。
另附高考复习方法和考前30天冲刺复习方法。
名校最新测试卷阅读理解（说明文）（共八篇）1.(湖北省重点高中智学联盟2022-2023学年高三上学期10月联考)If you go down to the woods today, you’re in for a big surprise: for the first time in thousands of years there will be wild bison roaming in the UK.Early today three European bison are to be released into West Blean and Thornden Woods in Kent in an attempt to address the climate crisis and boost biodiversity.Donovan Wright, a bison ranger with the Wilder Blean Project — a joint endeavour between Kent Wildlife Trust and Wildwood Trust — told the Guardian the first animals to be released will be a 14-year-old matriarch (母野牛) and two young females who come from herds in Scotland and Ireland, respectively. A male from Germany is set to arrive in a month.The hope is that the huge beasts will act as natural engineers, with behaviours such as thefelling of certain trees — a result of the bison stripping the bark off to eat or rubbing their fur off against them — giving a range of plant and animal species a chance to prosper.“It opens up the canopy (树冠), allowing the light to go through to the woodland floor,” Wright said, noting that as the bison move through the undergrowth they create paths about half a metre wide, while they also love to dust bathe, often reusing the same sites.“Those become home for sand lizards and your pioneering plants,” said Wright, adding bison themselves are like giant seed banks. “As they move they collect seeds, and then they are also spreading seeds along the route,” he said, noting as wildflowers spring up, they attract insects and other pollinators, with their seeds a source of food for birds.The project will also help with conservation of the European bison. “In 1927 they were classified as extinct in the wild,” said Wright, adding the team have gained inspiration from projects in other countries, including the Netherlands, where the European bison have been reintroduced.Yesterday the three females set to be released in Kent were fitted with tracking collars, an approach that will allow the team to plot the animals’ movements and glean insights into the plants they interact with.Evan Bowen-Jones, the chief executive of Kent Wildlife Trust, said: “The restoration of naturally functioning ecosystems is a vital and inexpensive tool in tackling the climate crisis. The bison will help to create climate-resistant landscapes which can adapt to the challenges presented by the crisis we face.”“We want Wilder Blean to mark the beginning of a new era for conservation in the UK. We need to revolutionise the way we restore natural landscapes, relying less on human intervention and more on natural engineers like bison, boar and beaver.”28．Which of the following is not the advantage of releasing the bison?A．Providing home for some animals and plants.B．Acting as seed banks.C．Attracting insects and other pollinators.D．Preventing the European bison from dying out.29．What is the function of the tracking collars?A．Spreading the seeds.B．Protecting the bison.B．Collecting the data.D．Tackling the climate crisis.30．What is the Evan Bowen-Jones’ attitude towards the project?A．Favorable.B．Tolerant.C．Curious.D．Opposed.31．What is the main idea of the passage?A．The development of the European bison.B．The project of releasing the European bison.C．The way to boost biodiversity.D．The protection of the European bison.2.(北京市中关村中学2022-2023学年高三上学期9月统练一英语试题)There are many things we remember from our childhood—the games we played, the music we listened to, but what about earning pocket money? This was our first ever wage for completing tasks such as tidying our bedroom or sorting the laundry. Our reward was a handful of coins that we safely hid away. But now, it seems parents’ attitude to handing out cash is changing.There was a time when cash was king—it was the main currency for financial deals. These days, though, using credit or debit cards, or making contactless payments, are the most convenient ways of paying. So where does that leave handing over pocket money? Research has found that 84% of British parents currently give notes and coins to their children— typically an allowance of £7 a week.But banks predict that by 2028 only one in ten deals will be with cash, and that is something that today’s children will have to deal with. One particular issue is that children may not understand the value of cash because they never see it. Parents face difficult choices too— finding a new way to transfer pocket money, or maybe not bothering to pay it at all.Giving children lessons about finance at school is important. Children should be provided with financial literacy at an early age. That is vital to ensure proper money management skills later in life, such as setting a realistic budget, responsibly managing credit and debt, saving for unexpected expenses. The UK’s Money and Pensions Service advises parents to get children started with money as young as possible. Sarah Porretta from the service told the BBC that for parents who no longer carry cash, “The trick is to go and get some cash, just so your children have the opportunity to interact with them. Talk about what you are doing with money. If you are paying with a card or with a phone, talk to children about that and link it back to those coins they have handled.”But, of course, many of the goods that young people want to buy—such as add-ons for a computer game—only allow digital deals. This has led to a number of apps being set up that allow children to track and spend their hard-earned pocket money and parents to transfer money electronically and monitor their child’s spending. Banks also suggest setting up accounts for older children which gives them a cash card to use. But whatever method a parent chooses to adopt, they need to teach their kids that money doesn’t grow on trees!42．What can you learn from the passage?A．The custom of giving children pocket money is disappearing.B．Banks predict people will pay most of the deals in cash by 2028.C．It isn’t necessary for children to experience the course of using cash.D．Cash-free payments are convenient ways of purchasing goods these days.43．The underlined word “That” refers to _________.A．digital dealB．cash paymentC．financial literacyD．pocket money44．According to UK’s Money and Pensions Service’s advice, parents should _________. A．offer chances for children to use cashB．no longer carry cash when they go outC．play some tricks with kids using the coinsD．play cards and make phone calls with children45．What is the main purpose of this passage?A．To stress the importance of paying in cash.B．To introduce the development of pocket money.C．To explain why the ways of payment are changing.D．To develop children’s awareness of money management.3. (广东省汕头市2022-2023学年高三上学期期中监测英语试题)Leather-making in Florence dates back hundreds of years to the 13th century. A look at leather craftsmen in Florence will help you know more about Italian leather.The leather factory－PIEROTUCCIJoin a free tour of the factory and you’ll get a deep dive into the process of making a handbag. After seeing what it takes to make a bag by hand, you’ll no longer wonder why PIEROTUCCI prices come with two zeros at the end. And you’ll know that if you do spend the money, the bag will last foreverThe leather shoe store—STEFANO BEMERSTEFANO BEMER was famous for its hand-tailored shoes. The elegant store that sells shoes that cost hundreds，and in some cases thousands，of dollars is also where apprentices (学徒) learn their skills: visible in the front section of the store.The leather school—Scuola del CuoioWalking into the courtyard of the Scuola del Cuoio feels a little like walking onto a mini college campus. You leave the busy street as you enter the historic building. The school specializes in making one-of-a-kind bags and in teaching paying students the secrets of high-quality leather working.The bookbinding (书籍装订) store——Il TorchioIl Torchio is a beautiful bookbinding store run by Erin Ciulla. If you ask Ciulla, she might take you to see the “guillotine”, which is actually a very large, antique-looking machine that’s used to cut large amounts of paper. Beyond binding with leather covers, Ciulla also covers books, journals, and photo albums in hand-made papers.1．What is the main reason for Pierotucci’s high price?A．The special material.B．The handmade process.C．The high cost of the visit.D．The long history of the factory.2．Which places provide the opportunity to learn leather-making?A．Pierotucci and Il Torchio.B．Seuola del Cuoio and Il Torchio.C．Pierotucci and Stefano Bemer.D．Stefano Bemer and Scuola del Cuoio.3．What can you do in the bookbinding store?A．Buy a high-quality leather bag.B．Buy an antique-looking machine.C．Have a photo album covered with leather.D．Have the leather covers cut by the guillotine.4.(湖北省重点高中智学联盟2022-2023学年高三上学期10月联考)When romantic partners argue over things like finances, jealousy, or other interpersonal issues, they tend to employ their current feelings as fuel for a heated argument. But thinking about the future helps overcome relationship conflicts, according to a University of Waterloo study just published online in Social Psychological and Personality Science. Alex Huynh, a doctoral candidate in psychology is the lead author of the study, which he published with Igor Grossmann from the University of Waterloo, and Daniel Yang from Yale University.Previous research has shown that third-perspective reasoning can be a positive strategy for reconciliation(调解) of interpersonal struggles. Huynh and his collaborators investigated whether similar benefit can be induced by simply thinking about the future. Study participants were instructed to reflect on a recent conflict with a romantic partner or a close friend. One group of participants were then asked to describe how they would feel about the conflict one year in the future, while another group was asked to describe how they feel in the present.The team examined participants’ written responses through a text-analysis program for their use of pronouns — such as I, me, she, he. These choices of pronouns were used to capture participants’ focus on the feelings and behaviour of those involved in the conflict. Written responses were also examined for forgiveness and reinterpreting the conflict more positively, both of which implied the participants’ use of reasoning strategies.The researchers found that envisioning future relationship affected both participants’ focus on their feelings, and their reasoning strategies. As a result, participants reported more positivity about their relationship altogether, especially when study participants extended their thinking about the relationship a year into the future.“Our study demonstrates that adopting a future-oriented perspective in the context of a relationship conflict — reflecting on how one might feel a year from now — may be a valuable coping tool for one’s psychological happiness and relationship well-being,” said Huynh. 32．What do romantic partners do in face of most disagreements?A．They lose faith in their future.B．They focus on their present feelings.C．They look forward to a fierce conflict.D．They care more about financial problems. 33．What does the underlined word “induced” in Paragraph 2 most probably mean？A．Caused.B．Explained.C．Reduced.D．Improved.34．What do we know about the study?A．All the study participants described how they felt both in the present and in the future. B．Study participants described their recent relationship with their romance partners or friends. C．A text-analysis program was employed to examine participants’ use of negative words. D．The reasoning strategies in participants’ written responses were well worthy of note. 35．What can be the best title of the text?A．You have a year to solve your interpersonal problems!B．Thinking about future is essential for relationship maintenance!C．Your current feelings are the real cause of your heated arguments!D．Beneficial reasoning is a positive strategy for reconciliation!5.（2022-2023学年广西9月联考英语试题）Spring is just around the corner, but if you are tired of sunflowers, tulips (郁金香) and other standard gardens, why not head to one of these mysterious and wonderful botanical gardens？Butchart Gardens, British Columbia, CanadaOne of the rarest flowers you’ll find at Butchart Gardens is the Meconopsis, otherwise known as the Tibetan blue poppy. The most impressive flowers can be found in the borders, where you’ll find over one million bedding plants. And although the gardens are famous for their perennials (多年生植物), 300,000 spring-flowering plants are grown every year, and over 900 varieties of plants are grown for the summer gardens alone.Kirstenbosch National Botanical Garden, Cape Town, South AfricaKirstenbosch National Botanical Garden is one of a handful of botanic gardens to grow only native plants. Some of the most popular varieties include the king protea, which produces enormous flowers between autumn and summer, and the rare silver tree, a silky-leaved plant, which experts believe could become extinct in the next 50 years.Denver Botanic Gardens, Colorado, USOnce native to South Africa, these oddly-named flowers are famously drought-hardy, making them perfect for this part of North America. This garden is one of the few to focus on draught-tolerant plants from Colorado and the grasslands of Africa, Mongolia and Argentina. In fact, Colorado is home to nine species of endangered plant, and several can be found here.Arctic-Alpine Botanic Garden, Tromso, NorwayVisit the world’s northernmost botanical garden and you’ll find a breathtaking collection of plants from the world’s polar and mountainous regions including, in the Himalaya section, the rare giant Tibetan blue poppy, with its huge flowers and metre-high stem. You’ll also see the Wilander buttercup, which can only be found in the quite terrible areas of Svalbard’s unforgiving icy islands.1．Which botanical garden only plants local species?A．Arctic-Alpine Botanic Garden.B．Denver Botanic Gardens.C．Butchart Gardens.D．Kirstenbosch National Botanical Garden.2．Which is typical of the Tibetan blue poppy ?A．Rare and hot-tolerant.B．Smelly and ill-looking.C．Large and tall.D．Endangered and colorful.3．What is the purpose of the text?A．To analyze the features of plants.B．To make an advertisement.C．To protect the endangered plants.D．To introduce some fantastic gardens.6. (辽宁省葫芦岛市协作校2022-2023学年高三上学期第一次月考英语试题)When you swim on the beach and sea, have you ever accidentally drunk the seawater? How did it feel? It must have tasted salty. So, why is the seawater salty?Seawater is water that comes from the ocean. Seawater can be salty because it contains an average salt content of 3.5%. This is also a place for the salt farmers to produce cooking salt and other salt.Some theories explain that seawater comes from rainwater that falls and flows through rivers and estuaries (河口) where the seawater will be fully filled and again formed clouds because the steam uses the help of the sun. When we talk about this, we talk about the rainwater cycle. But when the rainwater cycle occurs, the water that passes through the river carries mineral salts. These mineral salts are obtained from various places of the land starting from rocks and soils that the rainwater flows through, these remaining mineral salts make seawater salty, so the salinity of seawater is different in each part of the world. But it is certain that seawater is salty or has high salinity.The saltiest sea in the world is the Red Sea. There the temperature is extremely hot so that evaporation (蒸发) is greatly carried out. High evaporation, coupled with little rainfall and little input of water from the river, causes its highest level of salinity. There is also the Dead Sea, which is nine times saltier. Due to the high salinity, when you swim there, you can float. However, the Dead Sea is not a sea at all which is a lake geographically.8．What’s the purpose of paragraph 1?A．To draw a conclusion.B．To make the article interesting.C．To introduce a famous beach.D．To bring in the topic.9．Where is the salt in seawater originated from?A．Land.B．Ocean.C．Rain.D．Cloud.10．What can we infer about the Red Sea?A．Its salinity is higher than that of the Dead Sea.B．The climate there causes the highest salt level.C．People are in danger when they swim there.D．The land around it contains the most salt.11．Which is the most suitable title for the text?A．The reason why the seawater tastes saltyB．The reason why the Dead Sea is not a seaC．The reason why the rainwater cycle occursD．The reason why the sea looks blue and green7. (江苏省南通市海安市实验中学2022-2023学年高三上学期10月月考)Have you ever spent an afternoon in the backyard，maybe grilling or enjoying a basketball game, when suddenly you notice that everything goes quiet? There is an old phrase “calm before the storm",often used in a situation—a quiet period just before a great activity or. excitement. According to our own experience, we know there is actually calm before the storm. But what causes this calm? And is it always calm before the storm? Let's hear what scientists have to say.A period of calm happens in a particular kind of storm, the simplest kind of storm—a single-cell thunderstorm. In this type of thunderstorm, there is usually only one main updraft, which is warm, damp air and drawn from places near the ground. Storms need warm and damp air as fuel, so they typically draw that air in from surrounding environment. Storms can draw in the air that fit their need from all directions—even from the direction in which the storm is traveling.As the warm, damp air is pulled into a storm system, it leaves a low-pressure vacuum（真空）coming after. The rising air meets the cold dry air that has already existed in the storm clouds, thus the temperature of the warm, damp air drops, and the water vapour（水蒸气）in it changes into tiny drops that are a precondition of rain. These drops accumulate and build on larger particles like dust, until they grow large enough to form raindrops.This warm, damp air keeps moving upwards, but it becomes cooler and drier during its trip through cloud. When it reaches the top of the cloud, the air gets spit out（被挤出）at the top. This air is sent rolling out over the big thunderclouds. From there, the air goes down. Warm and dry air is relatively stable, and once it covers a region, that air, in turn, causes the calm before a storm.Most thunderstorms, though, don't start with calm. That's because most are actually groups of storms with complex wind patterns. There's so much air moving up and down storm groups that the calm before the storm never happens. Instead, before the storm,让might be really windy! 12．Which best fits the description of a particular kind of storm?A．A thunderstorm with a single shape.B．A thunderstorm without strong winds.C．A storm with air drawn from every directi on.D．A storm fueled by moving air from the ground.13．What does the underlined word “it” in Paragraph 3 refer to?A．Cold and dry air.B．Warm and dry air.C．Cold and damp air.D．Warm and damp air.14．Which does the writer most likely agree to?A．Presence of the calm relies on stable air.B．Not all thunderstorms start with the calm.C．The drier the air is, the bigger the storm will be.D．Storm happens without air moving up and down.15．What is the passage mainly about?A．Causes and effects of a heavy storm.B．A brief description of a peaceful storm.C．A personal experience of a heavy storm.D．An explanation of the calm before a storm.8.(山东师范大学附属中学2022-2023学年高三10月学情诊断考试)In habitats across the planet, animals periodically drop everything to walk, fly or swim to a new place. Wildlife such as whales and geese learn migration paths by following their parents. Others, including small songbirds, gain the distance and direction of their migration within their genetic code. And some animals use a combination of genetics and culture to guide their migration.Another group of migrators does not quite fit either model, and researchers have only recently started to figure out how they find their way. Take the Cory’s shearwater, an oceangoing sea bird that migrates over the Atlantic every year. The young do not migrate with their parents, so culture cannot explain their journeys. And the exact paths vary wildly from individual to individual, making genetics equally unlikely.Cory’s shearwaters are long-lived, rarely producing young successfully before age nine. This leaves an opening for learning and practice to develop their migration patterns. Researchers call this the “exploration-refinement”, and until now it has been hypothetical (假设的) because of difficulties in tracking migratory animals’ movements.But a team of researchers has done that by attaching small geolocators to more than 150 of the birds aged four to nine. They found that younger birds traveled longer distances, for longer periods, and had more diverse paths than older birds. “We finally have evidence of the ‘exploration-refinement’ for migratory birds,” says Letizia Campioni, who led the study. Younger Cory’s shearwaters are able to fly just as fast as the adults— but they do not, suggesting that the young do more exploring, which gradually fades as they mature and settle into a preferred course.Although it may seem less efficient than other strategies, “exploration refinement could be beneficial to birds and other organisms in a rapidly changing world due to unpredictable man-made changes,” says Barbara Frei. “It might be safer to repeat a behavior that was recently successful than to rely on patterns that were perfected long ago but might no longer be safe.”47．What is the first paragraph mainly about?.A．It describes animals’ habitats.B．It talks about migration models.C．It compares different species.D．It introduces a tracking technology.48．What does the underlined word “this” in paragraph 3 refer to?A．The opening for learning and practice.B．The unique living habit of Cory’s shearwaters.C．The way Cory’s shearwaters form their migration patterns.D．The process scientists track Cory’s shearwaters’ movements.49．What does Letizia’s study find about the younger Cory’s shearwaters?A．They travel as much as adult birds.B．They move in a predictable manner.C．They lower the speed for exploration.D．They look for a course with their parents.50．What can we conclude from the last paragraph?A．Man-made changes make migration easier.B．Animals make a safer journey via a fixed track.C．Course exploration contributes to birds’ adaptability.D．A combination of strategies assures migration success.答题处：1.___________;2.____________;3.____________;4.___________;5.____________;6.___________;7.____________;8.____________;9.___________; 10.___________;高考质量提升是一项系统工程，涉及到多个方面、各个维度，关键是要抓住重点、以点带面、全面突破，收到事半功倍的效果。
应对理论的回顾与展望王云霞1万明钢 2（甘肃河西学院教育系，甘肃张掖；西北师范大学教育科学研究院，甘肃兰州）1. 7340002. 730000摘要 ：应对作为一个心理科学的学术概念，是本世纪六十年代开始，在的防御机制理论和应激Freud.S 理论的基础上，被以为代表的一批心理学家引进认知评估理论，与临床心理相结合进行研究的。
从不Lazarus 同的理论渊源出发产生了应对的特质和情境两种理论，它们分别从应对的内外部探讨了影响应对的因素，但它们各有利弊，最终相互结合，理清了应对的影响机制。
为了更加有效地利用应对方式，在探清了应对的性质、类型、过程、功效及不同群体的应对特征以后，应对研究将表现出如下新特点：把应对当作解决社会问题能力的一部分加以研究；应对的前提—应激事件将转向以正性事件为主；在获得了大量的横断研究资料以后，心理学工作者进而要探索应对的发展规律，必将以纵向研究为主；更深一步地研究应对方式的影响因素可以把应对看作是个体对自己内外资源的利用，应对方式与应对资源、影响资源利用的因素间的匹配将成为应对研究的点。
关键词：应对方式；特质论；情境论中图分类号：G447文献标识码： A 文章编号： －－(2002)03004604在心理卫生工作日益普及和学校心理健康教育日受重视的情况下，应对研究受到了国内心理学工作者的广泛关注。
总结过去的研究成果有助于形成和完善应对的理论体系，对以后的研究和应用具有重要的理论和实践意义。
我们根据目前掌握的资料，对应对研究的历史给予回顾，并结合实际展望未来的研究趋势，以期能够为以后的应对研究起到一定的借鉴作用。
一、理论孕育阶段的基本观点本世纪六十年代以前，应对只是一个日常概念，尚未进入学术领域，但是应对所包含的内容及其功能在的防御机制理论和应激理论中已经有所论述。
在研究神经症病例时发现，当内Freud.S Freud.S 在的或外在的刺激因素引起情绪冲动，使个体处于焦虑、紧张等状态时，人们往往会不自觉地使用一些习惯化的内隐或外现的心理活动方式来解释和处理主客观之间的冲突，以保持内心平衡和适应环境，这便是心理防御机制。
Tenacious Goal Pursuits and Striving Toward Personal Growth:Proactive CopingRalf SchwarzerSteffen TaubertFreie Universität BerlinSchwarzer, R., & Taubert, S. (2002). Tenacious goal pursuits and striving toward personal growth: Proactive coping. In E. Frydenberg (Ed.), Beyond coping: Meeting goals, visions and challenges (pp. 19-35). London: Oxford University Press.Address correspondence to:Ralf SchwarzerGesundheitspsychologieFreie Universität BerlinHabelschwerdter Allee 4514195 Berlin, GermanyFax: +49 (30) 838-55634E-Mail: health@zedat.fu-berlin.dehttp://www.RalfSchwarzer.de/Trends in Stress and Coping Theory: Resources, Goals, and Positive EmotionsResearchers disagree about the definition of stress. In the biomedical sciences, stress is understood as an organism’s response to adverse stimulation. In psychology, however, stress is usually the process where a person and the environment interact, whereby research sometimes focuses on the nature of the stressor. Health psychologists study the joint effects of the person and environment on pathology, along with mediating and moderating factors, such as coping and social support (Hobfoll et al., 1998). Basically, three broad perspectives can be chosen when studying the stress process: (a) response-based, (b) stimulus-based, and (c) cognitive-transactional. We will briefly address this distinction in order to provide a better understanding of the history and scope of the topic. We will mention the theories of Selye (1956), Holmes and Rahe (1967), Lazarus (1966, 1991), and Hobfoll (1998) and will conclude with our Proactive Coping Theory (Greenglass, this volume; Schwarzer, 2000). The Response-Based PerspectiveWhen people say, ‘I feel a lot of stress,’ they are usually referring to their response to an adverse situation. The focus is on the way their body reacts. Selye (1956) has distinguished between a stressor (the stimulus) and stress (the response). Selye was not interested in the nature of the stressor, but rather in the physiological response and the development of illness.This response to a stimulus follows the same typical three-stage pattern in humans and animals, called the general adaptation syndrome (GAS). According to the GAS, the body initially defends itself against adverse circumstances by activating the sympathetic nervous system. This has been called the alarm reaction. It mobilizes the body for the ‘fight or flight’ response, which can be seen phylogenetically as an adaptive short-term reaction to emergency situations. In many cases, the stress episode is mastered during the alarm reaction stage.Often, however, stress is a longer encounter, and the organism moves on to the resistance stage, in which it adapts more or less successfully to the stressor. Although the person does not give the impression of being under stress, the organism does not function well and eventually becomes sick. According to Selye, the immune system is compromised, so some typical ‘diseases of adaptation’ develop under persistent stress, such as cardiovascular diseases.Finally, in the exhaustion stage, the organism’s adaptation resources are depleted, and a breakdown occurs. This is associated with parasympathetic activation that leads to illness, burnout, depression, or even death.This response-based perspective of stress has its merits, and it is still dominant in the biomedical sciences. However, it is no longer supported in psychology, mainly because Selye has disregarded the role of emotions and cognitions by focusing solely on physiological reactions in animals and humans. Selye (1956) claimed that all these organisms show a nonspecific response to adverse stimulations, regardless of how the situation appears. In contrast, modern psychological theories highlight the individual’s interpretation of the situation as a major determinant of a stressful encounter.The Stimulus-Based PerspectiveWhen someone says, ‘I have a stressful marriage,’ they refer to a trying situation, not to their response to that situation. The stimulus-based perspective takes this approach, paying more attention to the particular characteristics of the stressor. It is argued that each critical episode has its unique demands, be it physical, social, role, or task, that specifically tax the individual’s coping resources, thus triggering a particular stress response. The research question is how to establish relationships between a variety of distinct stressors and outcomes, including illness.This line of research emerged when Holmes and Rahe (1967) attempted to measure life stress by assigning numbers, called life-change units, to critical life events. They assumed that the average amount of adaptive effort necessary to cope with an event would be a useful indicator of the severity of such an event. Dohrenwend and Dohrenwend (1974) subsequently edited a publication that was another milestone of the stimulus-based perspective of stress. Today, research in this tradition continues, but it is often flawed by several problems. One basic shortcoming is the use of average weights for events, neglecting the fact that different individuals may perceive the same kind of event differently. Also, studies rely too often on retrospective reports of previous challenges that might not be remembered correctly, or that are distorted as a result of defense mechanisms. In addition, coping processes and changes in social support are often insufficiently examined. The degree to which the objective nature of the stressor should be emphasized in contrast to its subjective interpretation is still undergoing debate (Hobfoll, 1998; Schwarzer and Schulz, in press).Cognitive-Transactional Theory of StressThe cognitive-transactional paradigm sees stress as an on-going process, initiated and maintained by the cognitive appraisal of demands and resistance resources. It is the standardparadigm in the field of psychology. The present section summarizes this approach. This cognitive-transactional theory of stress emphasizes the continuous, reciprocal nature of the interaction between the person and the environment. Since its first publication (Lazarus, 1966), it has not only been further developed and refined, but it has also been expanded to a meta-theoretical concept of emotion and coping processes (Lazarus, 1991). Stress is defined as a particular relationship between the person and the environment that is appraised by the person as taxing or exceeding his or her resources and endangering his or her well-being.Within a meta-theoretical system approach, Lazarus (1991) conceives the complex processes of emotion as being composed of causal antecedents, mediating processes, and effects. Antecedents are personal resources, such as wealth, social networks, competencies, commitments or beliefs, on the one hand, and objective demands, critical events, or situational constraints on the other. Mediating processes refer to cognitive appraisals of such resources and demands as well as to coping efforts. The experience of stress and coping bring along immediate effects, for example affect and physiological changes, and long-term effects concerning psychological well-being, somatic health, and social functioning.There are three meta-theoretical assumptions: transaction, process, and context. It is assumed, first, that emotions occur as a specific encounter of the person with the environment, and that both exert a reciprocal influence on each other; second, that emotions and cognitions are subject to continuous change; and third, that the meaning of a transaction is derived from the underlying context, that is, various attributes of a natural setting determine the actual experience of emotions and the resulting action tendencies.Research has mostly neglected these meta-theoretical assumptions in favor of unidirectional, cross-sectional, and context-free designs. Within methodologically sound empirical research, it is hardly possible to study complex phenomena such as emotions and coping without constraints. Also, because of its complexity and transactional character leading to interdependencies between the variables involved, the meta-theoretical system approach cannot be investigated and empirically tested as a whole model. Rather, it represents a heuristic framework that may serve to formulate and test hypotheses in selected subareas of the theoretical system only. Thus, in practical research, one has to compromise within the ideal research paradigm. Researchers have often focused on structure instead of process, measuring single states or aggregates of states. Ideally, however, stress has to be analyzed and investigated as an active, unfolding process. Cognitive appraisals comprise two component processes, namely (primary) demand appraisals and (secondary) resource appraisals. Appraisal outcomes are divided into the categories challenge, threat, and harm/loss. First, demand appraisal refers to the stakes a person has in a stressful encounter. A situation is appraised as challenging when it mobilizes physical and mental activity and involvement. In the evaluation of challenge, a person may see an opportunity to prove herself or himself, anticipating gain, mastery, or personal growth from the venture. The situation is experienced as pleasant, exciting, and interesting, and the person feels ardent and confident in being able to meet the demands. Threat occurs when the individual perceives danger, anticipating physical injuries or blows to one’s self-esteem. In the experience of harm/loss, some damage has already occurred, for instance injury or loss of valued persons, important objects, self-worth, or social standing.resource appraisals refer to one’s available coping options for dealing withSecond,the demands at hand. The individual evaluates his or her competence, social support, and material or other resources that can help to readapt to the circumstances and to reestablish an equilibrium between person and environment.Antecedents of Stress and Coping: Demands and ResourcesTodemands or situational stressors, Lazarus (1991) describes formal characterizeproperties, such as novelty, event uncertainty, ambiguity, and temporal aspects of stressful conditions. For example, demands that are difficult, ambiguous, unexpected, unprepared, or prolonged under time pressure, are more likely to induce threat than easy tasks that can be prepared for thoroughly and solved at a convenient pace without time constraints. The work environment can be evaluated with respect to the stakes inherent in a given situation. For example, demanding social situations imply interpersonal threat, the danger of physical injury is perceived as physical threat, and anticipated failures endangering self-worth indicate ego threat. Lazarus additionally distinguishes between task-specific stress, including cognitive demands and other formal task properties, and failure-induced stress, including evaluation aspects, such as social feedback, valence of goal, possibilities of failure, or actual failure. In general, unfavorable task conditions combined with failure-inducing situational cues are likely to provoke stress.Personal resources refer to the internal coping options that are available in a particular stressful encounter. Competence and skills have to match the work demands. Individuals who are affluent, healthy, capable, and optimistic are seen as resourceful and, thus, are less vulnerable toward stress at work. Social competence, empathy, and assertiveness might be necessary to deal with specific interpersonal demands. It is essential to feel competent to handle a stressful situation. But actual competence is not a sufficient prerequisite. If the individual underestimates his or her potential for action, no adaptive strategies will be developed. Therefore, perceived competence is crucial. This has been labeled ‘perceived self-efficacy’ or ‘optimistic self-beliefs’ by Bandura (1997). Perceived self-efficacy and optimism are seen as a prerequisite for coping with all kinds of stress, such as job loss, demotion, promotion, or work overload.Social resources refer to the environmental options that are available to a person in a stressful encounter. Social integration reflects the person’s embeddedness in a network of social interactions, mutual assistance, attachment, and obligations. Social support reflects the actual or perceived coping assistance in critical situations (for a review, see Schwarzer and Rieckmann, in press). Social support has been defined in various ways, for example as a resource provided by others, coping assistance, or an exchange of resources the provider or the recipient perceives to be intended to enhance the well-being of the recipient. Among the types of social support that have been investigated are: instrumental (e.g., assist with a problem), tangible (e.g., donate goods), informational (e.g., give advice), and emotional support (e.g., give reassurance).Dimensions of CopingMany attempts have been made to reduce the universe of possible coping responses to a parsimonious set of coping dimensions. Some researchers have made two basic distinctions, such as instrumental, attentive, vigilant, or confrontative coping, as opposed to avoidant, palliative, and emotional coping (for an overview, see Schwarzer & Schwarzer, 1996). A well-known approach is that by Lazarus (1991), who separates problem-focused from emotion-focused coping. Another conceptual distinction has been suggested between assimilative and accommodative coping, whereby the former aims at modifying the environment and the latter at modifying oneself (Brandtstädter, 1992). This coping pair has also been coined ‘mastery versus meaning’ (Taylor, 1983) or ‘primary control versus secondary control’ (Rothbaum et al., 1982). These coping preferences may occur in a certain time order, for example, when individuals first try to alter the demands that are at stake, and, after failing, turn inward to reinterpret their plight and find subjective meaning in it.The number of dimensions that have been established theoretically or foundempirically also depends on the level within a hierarchy of coping concepts. Krohne (inpress), for example, distinguishes between a behavioral level and a conceptual level, eachconsisting of two subclasses:1. Reactions and acts constitute the behavioral level at the bottom of this hierarchy. Acoping reaction is considered as a single behavioral element, for instance tuning in to a musicchannel instead of an information channel during a laboratory stress experiment. Severalsimilar reactions can be grouped into an act, such as executing a specific problem-solvingbehavior.2. At the conceptual level, researchers can identify a set of acts reflecting a particularstrategy, for example making use of social resources or turning to religion. Strategies, in turn,can be grouped into dispositional superstrategies, two of which are vigilance and cognitiveavoidance (similar to monitoring and blunting; Miller, 1987).Theoretical Advancements in the FieldHobfoll (1988, 1998) has expanded stress and coping theory with respect to the conservationof resources as the main human motive in the struggle with stressful encounters. Resourceshave also been an important ingredient in Lazarus’s theory. The difference between the twotheories lies mainly in the status of objective and subjective resources. Lazarus sees objectiveresources only as antecedents that may have an indirect effect, whereas subjective resources(resource appraisals) represent the direct precursors of the stress process. Actually, thesimultaneous appraisal of demands and resources constitutes the beginning of a stressepisode. In contrast, Hobfoll, considering both objective and subjective resources ascomponents, lends more weight to the former than Lazarus does. Thus, the difference betweenthe two theories, in this respect, is a matter of degree, not a matter of principle. Hobfoll tendsto interpret Lazarus’s approach as a highly subjective ‘appraisal theory’ and argues thatobjective resources are more important. This reinterpretation does not do justice to the comprehensive model of a stress episode that starts with objective antecedents, includesappraisal as well as coping, and ends with more or less adaptive outcomes, such as health,well-being, or social harmony. Viewed from a process perspective, Lazarus deals more withinitial appraisal, whereas Hobfoll deals more with prior objective resource status andsubsequent coping. Thus, his model could also be labeled ‘resource-based coping theory.’ Resource loss is central to Hobfoll’s theory. He distinguishes the categories (a)resources threatened with loss, (b) resources actually lost, and (c) failure to gain resources.This loss/gain dichotomy, and in particular the resource-based loss spirals and gain spirals,shed a new light on stress and coping. The change of resources (more so the loss than thegain) appears to be particularly stressful, whereas the mere lack of resources or theiravailability seems to be less influential.Failure to gain resources following an investment is another unique feature. Hobfollargues that burnout and ill health might be consequences of such a detrimental motivational state. In a similar vein, Siegrist (1996) has suggested that ‘effort-reward imbalance’ may compromise the health of employees. This is a highly attractive concept that enriches stressand coping research.Extensions of the Coping ConstructIn general, there is a trend to broaden stress and coping research by including positivestrivings that were formerly domains of motivation and action theories. The notions ofmastery, optimization (Baltes, 1997; Freund & Baltes, 2000), challenge and benefit (Lazarus,1991), and resource gain (Hobfoll, 1998) are in line with proactive coping theories (e.g., Aspinwall & Taylor, 1997; Schwarzer, 2000). People strive for more resources, desire to maximize gains, and build up resistance factors either to ward off future crises or to grow and cultivate their capabilities for their own sake. This forward time perspective opens new research questions and helps to overcome traditional coping models that overemphasize the reactive nature of coping.The broadening of stress and coping research has also included the search for meaning in stressful encounters (Folkman & Moskowitz, 2000; Janoff-Bulman, 1992; Schwarzer & Knoll, in press; Taylor, 1983; Tennen & Affleck, in press). Researchers have further subdivided the construct. Davis et al. (1998) suggest a two-dimensional construal of meaning as ‘sense-making’ and meaning as ‘benefit-finding.’ Sense-making relates to finding a reason for what happened, integrating it into existing schemata, such as religion, knowledge about health, or consequences of life stress. Benefit-finding, on the other hand, pertains to positive implications of a negative event or the pursuit of the silver lining of adversity.Baumeister (1991) has proposed four needs for meaning: (a) purpose (objective goals and subjective fulfillment), (b) efficacy and control, (c) value and justification, and (d) self-worth. Each of these can be regarded as general goals of coping with life stress. Specific coping strategies in certain stress situations can be evaluated with respect to the degree that they serve such higher-order goals in life. Examples of psychological markers of ‘efficacy and control’ are: (a) perceiving a link between present behaviors and future outcomes, (b) maintaining ‘illusions of control’ over uncontrollable events, or (c) reporting success in overcoming difficult obstacles in one’s past. This need, as Baumeister (1991) calls it, is in line with proactive coping (see Table 1).Table 1 Four Needs for Meaning and their Psychological Markers (Baumeister, 1991)Need Psychological MarkersPurpose: Objective goals and subjective fulfillment Forming new goals when old goals are reached; linking negative events to future, positive fulfillment states – such as greater appreciation for life; reflecting on one’s accomplishmentsEfficacy and control Perceiving a link between present behaviors andfuture outcomes; maintaining ‘illusions of control’over uncontrollable events; reporting success inovercoming difficult obstacles in one’s pastValue and justification Downplaying the consequences of, or externalizingresponsibility for, immoral or hurtful actions;reporting good and admirable intentions; claiming thevictim statusSelf-worth Comparing the self with less fortunate others;reiterating one’s appeal to others; relegating personalfailures to the past; assuming credit for success but notfailures; asserting superiority over othersA different approach at this general level of meaning in life has been taken by Wong (1998), who proposes five dimensions that reflect meaning, namely cognitive, motivational, affective, relational, and personal. The motivational dimension includes coping characteristics, such as ‘pursues worthwhile goals,’ ‘seeks to actualize one’s potential,’ and‘strives toward personal growth.’ Again, these represent proactive coping (see Table 2).Table 2 Dimensions of the Conceptualization of a Meaningful Life (Wong, 1998) Cognitive believes that there is an ultimate purpose in lifebelieves in moral lawsbelieves in an afterlifeMotivational pursues worthwhile goalsseeks to actualize ones potentialstrives toward personal growthAffective feels content with who one is and what one is doingfeels fulfilled about what one has accomplishedfeels satisfied with lifeRelational is sincere and honest with othershas a number of good friendsbrings happiness to othersPersonal likes challengeaccepts ones limitationshas a healthy self-conceptThe recent broadening of coping theory might be a reaction to earlier conceptualizations of coping that neglected goals, purpose, and meaning. As these become more salient and explicit in the current thinking, it is appropriate to redesign coping theory in order to extend it into volition and action theory. The present approach makes a systematic distinction between proactive coping and three other kinds of coping that might shed more light on some previously neglected aspects.Proactive Coping TheoryThis section provides a further perspective that stems from a time-related classification of coping modes and proposes a distinction between reactive coping, anticipatory coping, preventive coping, and proactive coping.Stressful demands can either reflect a distressing loss in early life or an ongoing harmful encounter. They can also exist in the near or distant future, creating a threat to someone who feels incapable of matching the upcoming tasks with the coping resources at hand. In light of the complexity of stressful episodes in social contexts, human coping cannot be reduced to primitive forms, such as fight-and-flight responses or relaxation. Besides other factors, coping depends on the time perspective of the demands and the subjective certainty of the events.The temporal aspect of coping has often been neglected. One can cope before a stressful event takes place, while it is happening (e.g., during the progress of a disease), or afterwards. Beehr and McGrath (1996) distinguish five situations that create a particular temporal context: (a) preventive coping, long before a stressful event occurs or might occur (e.g., a smoker might quit well in time to avoid the risk of lung cancer); (b) anticipatory coping, when the event is expected soon (e.g., someone might take a tranquillizer while waiting for surgery); (c) dynamic coping, while it is ongoing (e.g., diverting attention to reduce chronic pain); (d) reactive coping, after it has happened (for example, changing one’s life after a limb has been amputated); and (e) residual coping, long afterwards, by contending with long-term effects (e.g., controlling one’s intrusive thoughts years after a traumatic accident has happened).To introduce an alternative perspective, we distinguish between reactive, anticipatory, preventive, and proactive coping. Reactive coping refers to harm or loss experienced in the past, whereas anticipatory coping pertains to imminent threat in the near future. Preventive coping refers to an uncertain threat potential in the distant future, whereas proactive coping involves upcoming challenges that are seen as potentially self-promoting (see Figure 1).Figure 1. Outline of Proactive Coping Theory.Reactive coping can be defined as an effort to deal with a past or present stressful encounter or to compensate for or accept harm or loss. Examples of harm or loss are marital dissolution, being criticized by parents or friends, having an accident, doing poorly at a job interview, being demoted, or losing one’s job. All of these events happened in the past with absolute certainty. Thus, the individual has to either compensate for the loss or alleviate harm. Another option is to readjust goals, find benefit, or search for meaning to reconceptualize one’s life. Reactive coping may be problem-focused, emotion-focused, or social-relation-focused. For coping with loss or harm, people need to be resilient. Because they aim at compensation or recovery, they need ‘recovery self-efficacy,’ a particular optimistic belief in their capability to overcome setbacks (Schwarzer, 1999).Anticipatory coping is fundamentally different because the critical event has not yet occurred. It can be regarded as an effort to deal with impending threat. In anticipatory coping,individuals face a critical event that is certain or fairly certain to occur in the near future.Examples are speaking in public, a dentist appointment, adapting to parenthood, an exam, a job interview, increased workload, promotion, company downsizing, retirement, etc. There is a risk that the upcoming event may cause harm or loss later on, thus the person has to manage this perceived risk. The situation is appraised as either threatening or challenging, or is associated with benefiting, or some of each. The function of coping may lie in solving the actual problem at hand, such as increasing effort, enlisting help, or investing other resources. Another function may lie in feeling good in spite of the risk, for example by redefining the situation as less threatening, by distraction, or by gaining reassurance from others. Thus, anticipatory coping can be understood as the management of known risks, which includes investing one’s resources to prevent or combat the stressor or to maximize an anticipated benefit. One of the personal resource factors is situation-specific ‘coping self-efficacy’ (Schwarzer & Renner, 2000), an optimistic self-belief of being able to cope successfully with the particular situation at hand.Preventive coping can be seen as an effort to prepare for uncertainty in the long run. This is contrary to anticipatory coping, which is a short-term engagement with high-certainty events. The aim is to build up general resistance resources that result in less strain in the future by minimizing the severity of the impact, with less severe consequences of stress, should it occur, or a less likely onset of stressful events in the first place. In preventive coping, individuals consider a critical event that may or may not occur in the distant future. Examples of such events are job loss, forced retirement, crime, illness, physical disability, disaster, or poverty. When people carry a spare key, lock their doors twice, have good health insurance, save money, or maintain social bonds, they cope in a preventive way and build up protection without knowing whether they will ever need it. The perception of ambiguity need not be limited to single events. There can be a vague wariness that ‘something might happen,’ which motivates one to prepare for ‘everything.’ The individual anticipates the nonnormative life events that are appraised as more or less threatening. Coping here is a kind of risk management because one has to manage various unknown risks in the distant future. The perceived ambiguity stimulates a broad range of coping behaviors. Because all kinds of harm or loss could materialize one day, the individual builds up general resistance resources by accentuating their psychological strengths and accumulating wealth, social bonds, and skills - ‘just in case.’ Skill development, for example, is a coping process that may help to prevent possible trouble. Preventive coping is not born out of an acute stress situation. It is not sparked by state anxiety, rather by some level of trait worry, or at least some reasonable concern about the dangers of life. General ‘coping self-efficacy’ seems to be a good personal prerequisite to plan and initiate successfully multifarious preventive actions that help build up resilience against threatening nonnormative life events in the distant future.Proactive coping is not preceded by negative appraisals, such as harm, loss, or threat. Proactive coping can be considered as an effort to build up general resources that facilitate promotion toward challenging goals and personal growth. In proactive coping, people have a vision. They see risks, demands, and opportunities in the far future, but they do not appraise them as a threat, harm, or loss. Rather, they perceive demanding situations as personal challenges. Coping becomes goal management instead of risk management. Individuals are not reactive, but proactive in the sense that they initiate a constructive path of action and create opportunities for growth. The proactive individual strives for life improvement and builds up resources that assure progress and quality of functioning. Proactively creating better living conditions and higher performance levels is experienced as an opportunity to render life meaningful or to find purpose in life. Stress is interpreted as ‘eustress,’ that is, productive arousal and vital energy.。
