-试析增值税改革对中小企业的影响 外文翻译学士学位论文

题目（中文）：增值税转型对我国企业的影响及其对策研究（外文）：The influence of VAT Transformation onChinese enterprises and theircountermeasures目录1.引言 (3)2.增值税 (4)2.1增值税的概念及类型 (4)2.1.1增值税的概念 (4)2.1.2增值税的类型2.1.2.1消费型增值税 (4)2.1.2.2收入型增值税 (4)2.1.2.3生产型增值税 (4)2.2我国增值税转型的历程 (5)2.2.1 2009年--生产型增值税到消费型增值税的转变 (5)2.2.2 2012年营改增局部试行到2016年全国试行 (5)3.我国企业“营改增”的现状分析 (6)4.增值税转型对我国企业的影响 (6)4.1 从税务负担方面 (7)4.2 从企业财务核算方面 (7)4.2.1 对财务指标的影响 (7)4.2.1.1固定资产周转率 (7)4.2.1.2净资产收益率 (7)4.2.1.3资产负债率 (8)4.2.2 对会计报表的影响 (8)4.2.3 对利润表的影响 (8)4.3从企业管理方面 (9)5.我国企业应对“增值税转型”的措施 (9)5.1 从财务应对策略分析 (9)5.1.1采购固定资产时应尽量获取增值税专用发票 (9)5.1.2 采购时的供应商尽量选择一般纳税人 (9)5.1.3 固定资产存量问题 (10)5.2 从企业管理分析 (10)5.2.1 加强企业内部的财务规划 (10)5.2.2 重新估量和确定企业产品或服务的市场价格 (10)5.2.3 企业要增强诚信自律意识，依法纳税 (1)6.结语 (11)7. 参考文献 (11)增值税转型对我国企业的影响及其对策研究摘要：我国随后经历了1994年增值税改革和2004年生产型增值税转消费型增值税的改革，于2012年摸索出一条更加完善的税制制度---营业税改增值税。

营业税改增值税外文文献翻译2021年译文3000多字文献出处：Norrman A, Henkow O.. The influence of business tax VAT to the international logistics enterprises [J]. Logistics Technology, 2021, 23: 62-71 原文The influence of business tax VAT to the international logistics enterprisesNorrman, HenkowBased on the background of the policy \and the related solution as a starting point, combined with the practical examples of the tax system reform to the impact of the international logistics and related enterprises.Value added tax and business tax is South Korea two of the most important in the current turnover tax categories of taxes.Taxation scope of VAT in South Korea domestic sales, import goods and providing processing, repairs and replacement services, mainly play a role in the field of industrial production and circulation of commodities;While the scope of the business tax includes other services, transfer of intangible asset and sale of real estate, covers most of the tertiary industry to provide labor services.In short, VAT tax mainly for goods and most services is applicable sales tax, the two parallel in the scope of our tax levy, cross each other.As one of the major tax turnover tax on turnover in full as plan tax basis, according to industry setting different tax rates, calculation is simple, and convenient for collection, it in the balance of the sustainable development of local economy has played a pivotal role.But through long-term practice, the business tax gradually showing its limitations, mainly embodied in the following aspects:Sales tax is a tax on turnover in full, will inevitably produce double taxation. VAT tax only appreciation of this link, especially after the VAT to consumer VAT general taxpayer purchased fixed assets contained can be used as the input VAT tax deduction, thus leading to relatively VAT taxpayer, tax taxpayers tax burden is higher.For companies to buy services or services, as a result of outsourcing servicesincluding business tax cannot get deduction, lead to enterprise more willing to provide the required services rather than outsourcing services, service production internalization, not conducive to the professional division of labor and service outsourcing development of service industry.Based on the background of the policy \and the related solution as a starting point, combined with the practical examples of the tax system reform to the impact of the international logistics and related enterprises.Sales tax is a tax on turnover in full, will inevitably produce double taxation.VAT tax only appreciation of this link, especially after the VAT to consumer VAT general taxpayer purchased fixed assets contained can be used as the input VAT tax deduction, thus leading to relatively VAT taxpayer, tax taxpayers tax burden is higher.For companies to buy services or services, as a result of outsourcing services including business tax cannot get deduction, lead to enterprise more willing to provide the required services rather than outsourcing services, service production internalization, not conducive to the professional division of labor and service outsourcing development of service industry.In exports for investigation is the international practice, because South Korea services for business tax, when exports to drawback, lead totax export service, finally influence of South Korea's service industry in the international market competitiveness.From all over the world can be seen in the history of the development of the business tax, it is the business tax repetition of this disease, resulted in a VAT, and lead.Advantages of value added tax is mainly in the following aspects: don't double taxation, have the feature of tax neutral;Link tax, each link tax deduction, final consumer is all taxes; consideringConvenient for export tax rebates, be helpful for their goods and services fair to participate in international competition;Restrict each other on tax collection and administration, cross audit, avoiding tax evasion.The service lives of taxable sales of more than standard prescribed by the ministry of finance and the total (5 million) of taxpayers for average taxpayer, taxpayer for small-scale taxpayers not in excess of the prescribed standards.Withsound accounting who can provide accurate taxation information small-scale enterprises can also apply for average taxpayer qualification.Pilot policy also specifies the original road, inland waterway cargo transportation since the taxpayer shall be identified in principle of make out an invoice for the general taxpayer.South Korea in 1994, the turnover tax system reform, according to the international common practice to establish the standardization of the production VAT, with value-added tax as the core to establish a new pattern of the turnover tax: a comprehensive value-added tax in the field of the flow of goods production, on the basis of the select few consumer goods cross to impose consumption tax, and for most services trade to impose business tax.At the end of 2008, to ease the impact of the international financial crisis, the central identified the \tax cuts\advocate tone, reflected in terms of turnover tax, mainly will be changed from production VAT to consumer VAT tax.Consumption type allows the enterprise cost ofpurchased fixed assets value contained in the value-added tax is deducted from all.This transition effectively promote the industrial structure adjustment and technology upgrade, improve the domestic products in the international market competitiveness.After the completion of the VAT, the VAT expansion circumference in the sights of south Korean tax reform.The current tax system apply to the practice of different tax system, goods and services between the goods and services in the unification of the tax on property, destroyed the deduction of VAT chain, in South Korea have certain obstacles on the development of modern service industry, is not conducive to further transformation and upgrading of economic structure.To give full play to the advantages of VAT tax burden fair, its basic condition is as far as possible the \coverage, the whole chain, full deduction\VAT.Business tax to the influence of value added tax it away to the enterprise at present, Beijing camp change increases the pilot program has won the approval of the state council, formal implementation is expected to begin in the near future.The company's main business service for international freight forwarders, belongs to the scope of auxiliary \AT, as general VAT taxpayers.Apply to thetax rate of 5%, and the difference between tax;After the change of value added tax for 6% of the value-added tax, offset the input tax.Types of taxes, tax rate and tax changes in the way of the development of the enterprise has a long-term impact.Pilot policies also change during the pilot VAT tax belonging to business tax, the continuation of the business tax preferential transitional policy made detailed provisions.Business tax after the change of value added tax, as a result of value added tax is a tax excluded in price, revenue from the customer can't all as enterprise's revenue, and the need to isolate the income part as the output VAT tax, namely: the business income/(1 + 6%) = tax income.Certaincases, this means that the income items change business tax VAT will inevitably lead to the income of business scale, the tax payable, the corresponding change of turnover and profit.The author's international freight forwarding business is mainly decided by the cost price, gross margin is relatively fixed, in order to facilitate more business tax change VAT after each related financial index change under different circumstances, do the following hypothesis: hypothesis after tax reform without tax gross margin (hereinafter referred to as the gross profit margin) level remains the same;Taxes only consider the business tax and value-added tax, does not consider calculated on business tax and value-added tax each additional taxes and fees;Consider only associated with operating revenue and operating cost of VAT, and both contain VAT rates are consistent, to 6%.The company mainly to international trade, commodity circulation link of customer is given priority to, in the industry's average taxpayer clients, for example, after the tax reform, providing international cargo transport agency services to issue special VAT invoices, my company to maintain the price the same or increase (up to Maori constant), the relevant freight cost will be reduced by more than 5% of the clients.In addition, the customer deductible VAT amount increases, the VAT payable will decrease accordingly.Illustrate that: international freight forwarding business by the tax change after paid VAT, will greatly improve the international trade class customer profit space.Is still using the previous example, the company provides international cargo transport agency services customers in commodity production andcirculation field.By the above analysis can be concluded that the business tax after the change of value added tax, in front of the meet the conditions of the four assumptions listed, if you still perform the original price unchanged,the tax reform to cause a decline in revenue, gross margin level of business, should pay tax increases, eventually reduce enterprise profits;If you raise the price to ensure that the gross margin level is constant, the operating income is reduced, should pay tax increase. Business tax changes are confirmed as general taxpayer VAT, input tax can be calculated at to obtain special invoices for value-added tax deduction.If acquire other taxpayers' original belongs to the scope of business tax differences can collect invoices, can be deducted from the sales in the invoice value;Such as the special invoice to invoice to obtain tax authorities must indicate the output tax deduction.The result of the tax increase, on the one hand, further squeeze corporate profits, the development of industry.On the other hand, in the case of its difficult to digest, will cause freight rate rise, which would push up prices.It is reported that many famous international freight companies in Shanghai after issue VAT invoices to the customer request, on the original cost pay more tax.In view of the problems exposed by the Shanghai pilot, the south Korean federation of logistics and purchasing has been made to the relevant state departments including the goods transportation services into logistics support service, and appropriately increase the input tax deductions in eight Suggestions, in case the camp change increases the pilot policy has adverse effects on the entire logistics industry.Business tax change after VAT as small-scale taxpayers, transport, international freight forwarding business taxpayers obtain other taxpayers' original belongs to the scope of business tax differences can collect invoices, can be deducted from the sales in the invoice value.Other industries such as to obtain the original belong to the scope of business tax differences can collect other taxpayers invoice, can also be deducted from the sales of the invoice value, but the pilot averagetaxpayer or pilot the invoice of small-scale taxpayers shall not deduct the sales.Pilot policies also change during the pilot VAT tax belonging to business tax, the continuation of the business tax。

企业增值税纳税筹划外文文献翻译最新This article discusses the importance of value-added tax (VAT) XXX is a tax on the value added to a product or service at each stage of n and n。

ns pliance.The first step in XXX includes identifying the VAT rates。

ns。

XXX。

It is also XXX.Once the VAT rules are understood。

ns XXX and report VAT。

as well as training XXX.XXX。

This can include taking advantage of VAT ns and ced rates。

as well as optimizing the timing of VAT payments and refunds.Overall。

XXX their financial performance。

It requires a thorough understanding of the VAT rules and ns。

as well as a XXX.译文本文讨论了对于公司而言，增值税规划的重要性。

增值税是对于每个生产和分销阶段所增加的产品或服务价值的税收。

公司可以通过增值税规划来最小化其税务责任，并避免违规行为的罚款。

增值税规划的第一步是了解公司运营所在国家的增值税规则和法规。

这包括确定增值税率、免税和门槛。

同样重要的是确定增值税注册要求和截止日期。

一旦了解了增值税规则，公司可以制定增值税合规策略。

这包括实施系统和程序来准确计算和报告增值税，以及培训员工以确保合规性。

增值税规划还涉及识别增值税节省的机会。

这可以包括利用增值税免税和减税，以及优化增值税支付和退款的时机。

增值税改革对我国企业发展的影响摘要：自2018年底“减税降费”在财政工作会议上提出后，我国税收政策发生巨大改变，2019年“减税降费”全面升级，深化增值税改革成为重要一环。

本次改革的要点是再次下调增值税税率，除6%一档暂保持不变外，其他两档均有所下降，其目的就是减轻税负，确保我国税制往简化方向迈进。

以某些行业为例，探析深化增值税改革引起的正面影响，并提出了增值税改革过程中存在的问题及对应措施。

关键词：增值税；深化改革；企业发展；问题；措施一、深化增值税改革的正面影响1.引起某些行业销售价格下跌，吸引消费者，拉动内需。

增值税作为一种价外税，是附加在产品本身计税价格之外征收的一种流转税，增值税的最终承担者是消费者，也就是说，增值税税率下调可以采用税负转嫁手段影响到某些行业的销售价格，从而影响到大众消费。

通常来说，销售方提供给购买方的销售价格为含税销售价格，这个计算本身非常简单，即含税销售价格（产品最终售价）=不含税价格×（1+增值税税率），假定企业本身的成本以及利润率不变，那么不含税价格通常也不会改变，而影响到最终售价的另外一个重要因素就是增值税税率，那么税率下降将会直接导致产品销售价格下跌，从而吸引更多的购买者，拉动内需。

我们通过计算的方式，以汽车制造业的奔驰品牌汽车为例来直观地看一下增值税税率下调对于销售价格的影响。

按照新的增值税税率，制造业增值税税率由16%下调到13%，车型为S500L4MATIC，计税价格为1493800元，增值税调整前按照16%计算，销售价格应为1493800×（+16%）=1732808元，调整后按照13%计算，销售价格应为1493800×（+16%）=1692800元，我们查阅了奔驰厂商给予的建议零售价格调整前后的价格分别为1732800元和1692800元，降低40000元，降幅达到2.3%，大致符合这个计算结果。

2.扩大企业的利润空间，增加企业资本积累。

增值税改革对中小企业的影响及应对策略中国的增值税改革是经济发展中的一项重要举措。

然而，这项改革对于中小企业产生了一系列的影响，同时也给他们提出了新的挑战。

本文将探讨增值税改革对中小企业的具体影响，并提出相应的应对策略。

一、增值税改革对中小企业的影响1. 税负增加：传统的增值税征收方式是按照销售额来计征税。

而在改革中，增值税实行“按金计税”，即按照企业支付的增值税税款所使用的金融支出额实行计税。

这样一来，部分中小企业的税负将会增加，给他们带来一定的财务压力。

2. 纳税程序变化：改革后，中小企业需要购买相应的财务软件并进行相应的数据统计和核对、申报等操作，以确保纳税的准确性和及时性。

这要求中小企业提升内部财务管理水平，针对新的税收政策进行相应的培训和适应。

3. 竞争压力加大：增值税改革对于大型企业可能带来减负效应，但对于中小企业来说，情况可能相反。

在减税的同时，大型企业可能会直接或间接通过压低采购价格等方式，增加对中小企业的竞争压力。

二、中小企业应对增值税改革的策略1. 加强财务管理：中小企业需要加强财务管理，提升内部核算和准确申报的能力。

建议中小企业利用财务软件进行日常数据的录入和预估纳税额的计算，以确保纳税的准确性和及时性。

此外，中小企业还可以考虑请专业机构或会计师事务所进行财务审核和纳税申报工作。

2. 寻求税收优惠政策：中小企业可以通过与政府相关部门沟通，及时了解并合理利用优惠政策。

政府对中小企业采取了一系列减税政策，包括税率减免、税收抵扣和免税等，中小企业可以结合自身情况，灵活运用这些政策，减轻税负。

3. 创新经营模式：中小企业可以通过创新经营模式来应对增值税改革带来的竞争压力。

通过改进产品质量、提供差异化服务、寻找新的市场机会等方式，提高市场竞争力。

此外，中小企业可以加强与大型企业的合作，做好供应链管理，共同分享市场竞争压力。

4. 开拓国际市场：中小企业可以通过开展国际贸易，开拓海外市场来分散国内增值税改革带来的风险。

中文3120字外文翻译外文出处Tax Policy Center外文作者Eric Toder, Joseph Rosenberg原文：Effects of Imposing A Value-added tax to Replace Payroll taxes orCorporate taxesEconomic Effects and Behavioral ResponsesThese revenue estimates assumed no behavioral responses. We have estimated the effects of behavioral responses on receipts or the effects of the various policy options on economic efficiency and output, but provide below some qualitative discussion.Benefits of a VAT Relative to a Payroll TaxA value-added tax is neutral between present and future consumption, so it does not adversely affect the incentive to save. It does, however, reduce the return from working in the same manner as an individual income tax or payroll tax, although the mechanism for remitting the VAT is very different than the collection mechanism for direct taxes.The result is that the net effect of substituting a VAT for payroll tax on the incentive to work is not large.The substitution of a broad-based VAT for a portion of the employer payroll tax that we simulate would raise the after-tax wage (lower the total tax rate on the employee’s work product) for workers in the 15 and 25 percent brackets, but lower the after-tax wage (increase the total tax rate on work) for high-wage employees who earn more than the maximum wage subject to OASDI tax (Table 8).In the examples shown, all workers contribute an additional $107.65 to the value of an employer’s sales. The worker’s marginal product is as sumed to be invariant under different tax regimes. Under current law, there is no VAT, but employerswithhold from wages $7.65 in employer payroll taxes, leaving $100 of taxable money wages. They also withhold the employee’s $7.65 payroll tax contribution and the employee in the 15 (25) percent bracket pays an additional $15 ($25) of income taxes.The employee in the 35 percent bracket is assumed to have earnings above the Social Security wage threshold, so she and her employer both pay only the 1.45 percent ($1.54) Medicare payroll tax on a money wage that is now $106.11 for every $107.65 of worker product. The 35 percent income tax rate raises $37.14 on the higher money wage base. The total tax rate (as a share of marginal product) paid by the workers in the 35 percent bracket is about the same as the tax rate in the 25 percent bracket, as the reduced marginal payroll tax rate (from crossing the OASDI threshold) almost exactly offsets the higher marginal income tax rate.Introducing a 5 percent VAT on a base that includes just 78.6 percent of consumption (see appendix) is equivalent (in terms of its effect on after-tax income) to introducing a VAT of 3.93 percent on all consumption. Because VAT is expressed in tax-exclusive terms (on sales excluding the tax), the tax on rate on sales including the tax is somewhat lower (3.78 percent). The VAT reduces the gross compensation that can be paid to employees, therefore, by 3.78 percent of the worker’s contribution to sales (including tax). In the example, this comes out to a VAT of $4.07. The VAT revenues are used to reduce the employer payroll tax rate by 5.9 percentage points to 1.75 percent.For workers in the 15 and 25 percent marginal income tax bracket, the employer payroll tax collected equals $1.81 on the $103.58 of gross compensation net of VAT.The remaining $101.77 of money wages is then subject to employee payroll tax on $7.79 (7.65 percent) and income tax of $15.27 (in the 15 percent bracket) and $25.44 (in the 25 percent bracket). Note that the net increase in money wages from substituting a VAT for employer payroll tax contributions raises income tax revenues slightly. The bottom lines, combining all the taxes, are fairly modest declines in the total marginal tax rates on the worker’s product. For the wo rker in the 15 percent income rate bracket,substituting VAT for payroll taxes reduces the total marginal tax rate from 28.1 percent to 26.8 percent. For the worker in the 25 percent income taxbracket, the total marginal rate falls from 37.4 percent to 36.3 percent.Thus, for the workers in lower marginal tax brackets, substituting a VAT for the employer payroll tax slightly increases the after-tax return from working more. Both the VAT and payroll tax adversely affect work effort, but because part of the VAT also falls on consumption from old wealth, the net return to work from the payroll tax substitution is slightly higher.Table 8Example: Taxation of Sample Employees, Partial Substitution of a VAT for a Payroll TaxNotes: VAT is the 5 percent broad-based VAT. It includes 77 percent of consumption, so the VAT rate on all sales is 3.93%. This is a tax exclusive rate; the tax inclusive rate equals (3.93/1.0393) = 3.78%.The payroll tax rates under current law are 7.65% for both the employer and employee.The VAT revenues are used to reduce the employer payroll tax rate by 5.9 percentage points to 1.75%.For taxpayers in the 35 percent income tax rate bracket, it is assumed that their wages are above the Social Security thresholds, so only the Medicare tax (1.45 percent of the money wage for both the employer and employee) applies at the margin. In the VATsimulations we perform, only the OASDI tax is reduced.These calculations assume the workers views the payroll tax as a "tax," and do not take into account any increase in future Social Security benefits from higher payroll tax contributions.The story is different for the worker in the 35 percent bracket, however. She gets no incentive to work more from the reduction in the OASDI payroll tax rate because she is already over the wage threshold for OASDI taxes. The employer payroll tax collected from her declines slightly only because the VAT reduces her gross compensation. The resulting decline in her money wages also lowers her income tax payment. But, after these offsets, the VAT raises the total marginal tax rate she faces on an additional dollar of earnings from 37.4 percent to 39.8 percent.Benefits and Costs of Corporate Rate ReductionsThe effects of substituting a VAT for part of the corporate income tax are very different than the effects of substituting it for part of the payroll tax. The corporate income tax does not distort the choice between working for current consumption and leisure, but it does either reduce the after-tax return on capital or increase the return investors must receive from a corporate investment. Thus, substituting VAT for a portion of the corporate income tax should increase incentives to save and invest.In an open economy with international capital flows, different ways of taxing capital income may affect incentives to save and invest differently. Most corporate income tax is paid by large multinational corporations. For those companies, the tax is largely a source-based tax on their profits from investments in the United States. Both U.S. and foreign-owned multinational corporations are taxable on their U.S.-source income, but U.S. multinational corporations pay little additional tax on profits from overseas investments because of provisions such as deferral and foreign tax credits (Grubert and Altshuler, 2006). This means that the corporate level tax may raise the cost of corporate capital in the United States by raising required pretax returns on investments in the United States by internationally mobile investors, by much more than it lowers after-tax returns to U.S. savers, who can escape the U.S. corporate tax by investing in foreign assets. Beyond this, even if the after-tax return to U.S. saversfalls, some research shows this may not reduce their saving much because savers respond little to changes in after-tax returns (Bernheim, 2002).This analysis suggests that the main benefit of lowering the corporate income tax would be to attract more investment to the United States. In addition, because corporations can use transfer pricing and other techniques to shift the source of reported income among countries, a lower corporate tax rate could lead to more reported profits in the United States. A shift of reported corporate profits to the United States would raise revenue collected from U.S. corporations, partially or fully offsetting the direct loss in revenue from a lower corporate rate, even if domestic investment does not increase.Increased Domestic Investment. Many studies find that the location of investment of multinational corporations is sensitive to the local effective tax rate on corporate income (de Mooij and Ederveen, 2003). This means that reducing the U.S. corporate income tax would encourage U.S. companies to substitute domestic for foreign investment and foreign-owned companies to invest more in the United States. The increased investment would also raise the corporate income tax base, therefore offsetting some of the revenue loss from the lower corporate tax rate. More investment would raise real wages in the United States and lower pretax returns to capital, shifting some of the benefits of the tax reduction from capital owners to workers.Reduction in tax-motivated Income Shifting. A lower U.S. corporate tax rate would also reduce income-shifting within multinational corporations from U.S. to foreign affiliates (Clausing, 2007). With a higher corporate rate in the United States than in other countries, companies have an incentive to manipulate transfer prices between their affiliates, overstating the value of goods and services purchased from foreign affiliates and understating the value of goods and services sold or licensed to them (especially unique intangibles, for which it is difficult to establish a comparable “arms-length” price). Companies may also engage in other transactions, such as debt-equity swaps, that shift reported income among their affiliates.Responses of Other Advanced Countries. Since enactment of the 1986 tax reformact, the U.S. federal statutory corporate rate has remained virtually unchanged, rising from 34 to 35 percent in 1993. (The deduction for domestic production activities enacted in 2004 reduced the tax rate to 31.85 percent for certain domestic investments.) Most other countries in the OECD reduced their corporate tax rates substantially over the same period. Currently the U.S. federal-state average top corporate rate of 39.3 percent (excluding the domestic production deduction) is substantially above the average statutory rates for the rest of the G7 (32.2 percent) and the rest of the OECD (26.2 percent) (Altshuler, Harris, and Toder, 2009).Reducing the U.S. corporate tax rate would help correct this imbalance. But if other countries react to a lower U.S. corporate tax rate by reducing their tax rates further, the benefit to the United States of lower rates would be substantially reduced. Instead of a lower rate shifting investment to the United States, its net effect could instead be a loss in revenue to all OECD treasuries.Potential Erosion of Individual Income Tax Base. In an income tax system, a corporate income tax is necessary to prevent individuals from accruing tax-free profits within corporations. A neutral rule for taxing investment income under an income tax would tax corporations the same ways as partnerships. There would be no separate corporate income tax, but corporate profits would be allocated to shareholders in proportion to share ownership and taxed as accrued under the individual income tax. The partnership method of taxing corporate income, however, is administratively impractical for large corporations with many shareholders and frequent changes of share ownership.Lowering the corporate rate below the top individual income tax rate would provide an incentive for many small closely held businesses that are currently taxed as flow-through enterprises (limited partnerships or subchapter S corporations) to choose to be taxed as corporations. With an additional individual income tax of 15 percent on dividend income and a top individual tax rate of 35 percent, the combined corporateindividual rates on dividends would be lower than the tax rate on partnership income for corporate rates below 23.6 percent. And if individuals wanted to accrue and reinvest profits or could find ways to convert labor income to corporate income,the lower corporate rate would make corporations an attractive tax shelter that would erode the individual income tax base. Special rules would need to be devised to limit the ability of small or closely-held businesses to be taxed as corporations and to prevent shifting of reported income from labor compensation to profits (Halperin, 2009).Source: Eric Toder, Joseph Rosenberg. Effects of Imposing A Value-added tax to Replace Payroll taxes or Corporate taxs[R].Tax Policy Center，2010.译文：用增值税代替工资税或企业所得税的影响经济效应及行为反应这些税收预算被认为没有行动上的回应。

浅析增值税转型对我国中小企业的影响【摘要】2009年1月1日起,我国全面实行消费型增值税,这将对我国企业,特别是中小企业的发展产生深远的影响。

文章通过比较生产型增值税与消费型增值税体制下企业固定资产投资所产生的差异来分析增值税转型对我国中小企业产生的影响。

【关键词】增值税转型;消费型增值税;影响2008年11月5日,国务院第34次常务会议决定自2009年1月1日起在全国范围内实施增值税转型改革,即由原来的生产型增值税改革为消费型增值税。

这标志着我国增值税改革向前迈出了重要一步,对我国的企业,特别是中小企业的发展将产生积极而又深远的影响。

一、增值税转型概述依据增值税允许抵扣已纳税款扣除项目范围的大小,可将增值税分为生产型增值税、收入型增值税与消费型增值税三种类型。

自1994年税制改革以来,我国一直实行生产型增值税,即以纳税人的销售收入(或劳务收入)扣减用于生产、经营的外购原材料、燃料、动力等物质资料价值后的余额作为法定的增值额,不允许扣除购入固定资产的价值及其生产经营过程中固定资产磨损的那部分转移价值(即折旧)。

增值税转型,是指从2009年1月1日起由生产型增值税转变为消费型增值税,允许企业将购置物质资料的价值和用于生产、经营的固定资产价值中所含的税款,在购置当期一次性扣除。

可以看出,同生产型增值税相比较,实行消费型增值税对于企业来讲是一项重大的减税政策。

消除生产型增值税制下存在的重复征税因素,对于提高我国企业竞争力和抗风险能力起积极作用。

二、增值税转型对我国中小企业的影响(一)降低项目投资成本,有利于中小企业扩大规模同生产型增值税相比较,在消费型增值税下允许企业将购置用于生产、经营的固定资产价值中所含的税款在购置当期全部一次扣除。

这就使得在不同的增值税体制下,固定资产的成本计价内容不一样。

假定固定资产买价为V,不考虑运费等其他项目,在生产型增值税下,固定资产投资成本包括固定资产的买价、增值税,为V+17%V。

原文：Effects of Corporate Tax Reforms on SMEs’ Investment Decisions under the Particular Consideration of Inflation Corporate tax reforms carried out in EU countries since 1980 entail lower statutory tax rates and reductions in generous tax depreciation provisions. Several countries including the UK have reduced tax rates for small and medium sized enterprises (SMEs). This study compares incentive effects of such reforms on the SMEs‟ investment decisions adopting a simple present value model. Ceteris paribus, tax rates and depreciation rules vary in the model simulation, while the application of historical cost accounting method in inflationary phases leads to fictitious increases in nominal net present value. Apart from the construction of international ranking, country-specific patterns of reform effects are also illustrated.The vast majority of firms that operate in advanced countries are small and medium-sized enterprises (SMEs). Therefore, SMEs‟ competitiveness significantly affects the competitive posit ion of a country‟s economy as a whole. The concentration of SMEs‟ activities on domestic market leads to a bounded business vision. Combined with the asymmetric information about profit opportunities abroad, this fact tends to limit the diversification of SMEs‟ investments in an international context. Consequently they appear to be more directly affected by the national corporate tax reform than is the case with large multinational firms. On the other hand, SMEs have quite often been the primary target group of such an investment promotion policy (Chen et al., 2002; Devereux et al., 2004; Hendricks et al., 1997). According to Coyne (1995), SMEs are generally more responsive to domestic tax incentives than large ones. Taxes may play a more important role in the cost structure of SMEs because they do not have the financial and human capacity to developed sophisticated tax avoidance strategies.Some EU countries including the UK have traditionally had lower tax rates for SMEs, whereas such a corporate tax reduction does not exist in countries like Austria, Finland and Germany at all. Although it is disputable, those countries that providefiscal incentives and preferential tax treatment to SMEs claim that they (1) create a large number of jobs and (2) enhance the level of entrepreneurship, which implies flexibility, speed, risk-taking and innovation (Chen et al., 2002). A further reason for the tax policy attention paid to SMEs is that they represent ……an important breeding ground for large, profitable, tax-paying employers of the future and [experience] high growth rates in comparison to large enterprises‟‟ (Hendrickset al., 1997, p. 1). According to Santarelli and Vivarelli (2002), however, those less-efficient SMEs tend to have a higher expected probability to exit from the market than larger firms do and for this reason it is optimal for them to invest more gradually in the course of time, since entry and other investment costs made at the setting-up phase are sunk. In this context a government subsidy may reduce differences between the efficient and the inefficient firms, and consequently disturb not only investment decisions but also market selection as well as the learning process undergone by entrepreneurs.The statutory corporate tax rate is clearly important in calculating the overall tax burden. However, this tax rate does not, in itself, establish the ultimate tax burden on a firms‟ investment activity. Equally crucial are the effects of depreciation and other investment promotion provisions that determine the tax base (2004). In the practice of corporate tax policy different tax depreciation rules are employed that do not typically ensure the socalled true economic depreciation (Samuelson,1964; Sinn, 1987). Furthermore, their generosity has been extended to stimulate private investment.On the other hand, depreciation based upon historical cost is undervalued during inflationary phases, as the real cost of depreciation of today‟s assets is underestimated when the asset base is measured in nominal terms (Cohen and Hasset, 1999; Haufler and Schjelderup,2000; Ott, 1984). There have been a number of attempts to estimate the current value of a capital good on the basis of indexation (Feldstein, 1979; Feldstein and Summers, 1979; Hulten and Wykoff, 1996).The research of the effective capital income tax rates based on the so-called user cost of capital approach received a significant stimulus from King and Fullerton (1984). The follow-up studies in this area often suggested that ……the tax systems of most [advanced] economies were characterized by serious non-neutralities in the earlyand mid-1980s, [...] reflected in large differences in marginal effective tax rates on capital across different asset types, modes of finance, and investor groups, [and] their overall burden was quite high, in particular because of failure to adjust the nominal tax base for inflation‟. Triggered by the liberalization of international capital flows in the1980s, Alworth (1988) and Keen (1991) further developed the King-Fullerton approach – originally focussed on domestic investments financed by domestic savings –to capture the aspect of taxing multinational companies. The studies made by Devereux together with Griffith and Klemm (including Devereux and Griffith, 1998, 2003; Devereux et al., 2002; Devereux, 2004) have made a decisive contribution to the generalisation and expansion of the same approach for estimating average1 and marginal effective tax rates on domestic and foreign investment in the EU and OECD countries (European Commission, 2001; OECD, 1991). According to these international studies of effective tax rates, foreign investment is likely to be overtaxed in relation to the domestic type due to incomplete alleviation of international double taxation. Yet an overestimation of the tax burden can emerge since the open-economy King– Fullerton framework does not allow for all the important possibilities for tax planning available to multinational companies, which include taxation of royalties, use of tax havens for financing subsidiaries, allocation of parent interest expense to foreign income, shifting options for debt to high-tax foreign locations or the home country, etc. (Altshuler and Grubert, 2003; Grubert, 1998, 2003, 2004; 2004).The effective (marginal and average) corporate tax rates are often defined as forward looking measures demonstrating the effect of tax on future expected earnings on a specific investment project. On the other hand, the calculation of average tax burden – for example, in terms of a proportion of aggregate tax revenue to profit or a certain macroeconomic tax base like a measure of the operating surplus of the economy (Mendoza et al., 1994) –is characterised to be backward-looking since it captures ……the impact of tax on the returns in any period of th e whole past history of a firm‟s investment decisions”(Devereux et al., 2002, p. 456). One reason for the low popularity of this method in the field of capital income taxation is that apart from corporate income taxes the aggregate tax revenue also includes, for instance, taxes onland, an immobile factor (Griffith and Klemm, 2004). However, the effects of taxation on such immobile factors and other input taxes for production are increasingly gaining importance for firms‟ investment decisions and location c hoices in the international context (Desai et al., 2004).A similar forward-looking examination can also be carried out based on the present value model (Atkinson and Stiglitz, 1980; Nam and Radulescu, 2005). In other words this study argues that discrete investment choices of profit-maximising SMEs are dependent on the post-tax net present value (NPV). Without taxation, NPV is equal to the present value of future gross return, discounted at an appropriate interest rate less investment cost.After the introduction of tax on corporate income, the present value of the asset generated from an investment amounts to the sum of present value of net return (gross return less taxes) and tax savings led by an incentive depreciation provision. An investment project is considered to be profitable when NPV is positive. Only in an exceptional case when tax depreciation corresponds to Samuelson‟s true economic depreciation and its calculation is based on current replacement cost of capital is the tax neutrality guaranteed in an inflationary phase. The superior features of such a dynamic investment decision model include, for example, that (1) one can adequately consider the development of gross return generated by an investment, (2) the true economic depreciation rate is not simply assumed but endogenously derived from the trend of gross return, (3) the impacts of adopting different accounting methods of tax depreciation can be well illustrated when inflation prevails, and (4) firms most widely apply this method in practice, especially when carrying out the socalled feasibility study for checking overall profitability of investment projects.Unlike a large number of previous studies Unlike a large number of previous studies mainly dealing with capital income taxation of large multinational firms based on the user cost of capital approach, this study primarily examines adopting a simple present value model the incentive effect of corporate tax reforms on the SMEs‟ investment decisions under the particular consideration of inflation, which were carried out in selected EU nations since the beginning of 1980s. Ceteris paribus,(SME-specific) corporate tax rates and depreciation rules vary in the model simulation carried out under the assumption of self-finance, while the application of historical cost accounting method in inflationary phases leads to fictitious increases in nominal NPV (Devereux et al., 2002; Feldstein, 1979; Kay, 1977). As a consequence in period with inflation generous tax concession measures do not provide incentive effects as initially designed, since such fictitious gains prevail (Nam and Radulescu, 2004). In spite of the fact that the inflation rate has been gradually decreased in Europe the low rate still appears to matter for the calculation of the tax base and SMEs‟ investment decisions.The agenda of study is as follows. Section 2 briefly explains the recent evolution of corporate tax system in selected EU countries. Section 3 technically describes the major nature of present value model applied for the calculation of true investment promotion effects of tax policy measures. Section 4 illustrates the empirical results based on the calculated nominal NPV under the plausible parameter assumptions and compares the changes in international competitiveness of individual countries led by the numerous corporate tax reforms. The final section summarises the major findings of the study and concludes.For the selected six EU countries this study examines under the particular consideration of inflation the effects of corporate tax reforms on SMEs‟ investment decisions implemented since the beginning of the 1980s. By and large corporate tax reforms carried out in the investigated countries have entailed lower statutory tax rates accompanied by a reduction in generous tax depreciation provisions. Among them the UK has traditionally had the SME-specific, reduced tax rates. Yet the timing and direction of changing individual tax policy measures did not always take place simultaneously and coherently.Unlike a large number of previous studies on measuring effective marginal tax rate this forward-looking study measures the tax incentive and/or burden on investment activity in terms of nominal net present value (NPV) under the specific assumptions of relevant parameters and self-finance. In particular it highlights the fact that the application of the historical cost accounting system (instead of the currentcost accounting method) in the inflationary economy when calculating tax depreciation amounts creates the fictitious gain in nominal NPV (FGgdd*), although the equity of tax depreciation and TED – the important condition for tax neutrality –is assumed. In general this type of gain decreased gradually in the period between 1980–2003, since the corporate tax rate and the inflation rate continued to sink in the investigated EU nations.Source: Chang Woon Nam Doina Maria Radulescu,2007. “Effects of Corporate Tax Reforms on SMEs‟ Investment Decisions under the Particular Consideration of Inflation”. Small Business Economics, vol.41, no.4, October, pp.101-105.译文：在通货膨胀下企业税制改革对中小企业投资决策的影响自1980年以来欧盟国家公司税制改革，公司承担较低的法定税率、大幅度降低税收折旧的规定。

营业税改增值税的思考外文翻译1. The tax regulation theoryAdvocated government intervention in the economy tax theory, under the guidance of thoughts and ideas, it focuses on the regulation function of taxation. So-called tax regulation is country by means of tax allocation, directly regulating the taxpayer's income, indirect influence the behavior of the taxpayer, resulting in changes in social economic activities, to achieve national macroeconomic regulation and control goal. Tax regulation theory is that the tax is not only the main source of government revenue, and it is to implement the government's economic and social decision-making, implement effective important means of macroeconomic regulation and control.Tax regulation function is very extensive, in economic regulation, the tax can not only realize total regulation, has obvious economic stability and counter-cyclical role function, also has a wide range of structural adjustment. This control function is based on the production, distribution and consumption and so on each link of implementation: (1) the influence of tax on the adjustment of the production. One is through the adjustment of the macro tax burden level to adjust the scale of production, from the total amount that adjust aggregate supply; 2 it is through the structural adjustment of tax to realize the industrial structure, product structure, regional economic structure adjustment. (2) the tax regulation of distribution. It is through the overall macro tax burden level adjustment, adjust the social products, and national income in configuration between the government and the private sector. Second is to adjust social product and the national income in configuration between the central and local governments, mainly through the determination of reasonable tax management system implementation. 3 it is to adjust the gap between income and wealth distribution, realize the fair distribution of income. (3) regulation of tax on consumption. One is adjust the total scale of consumption. 2 it is to adjust the consumption structure.2. The theory of tax expenditureTax expenditure is in the west in the late 1960 s tax theoretical circle formed an economic concept. In 1967, the U.S. Treasury Department responsible for tax policy to the assistant secretary, harvard professor at the university of surrey (Stardeg. S.S arrey) first put forward the concept of tax expenditure. In 1968, the U.S. Treasury Department according to the needs of us tax practice, officially introduced a concept of tax expenditure, its basic meaning is to point to in some of the tax in the tax system arrangement of the project, have the same properties with financial aid spending. In this sense, the government give up part of tax revenue, is equal to the increased fiscal aid spending.State intervention in the economy in the history of tax, one of, is the use of a variety of preferential tax arrangements of the project, through to the taxpayer to provide corresponding financial support, to carry out the policy of the government's economic and social. Although these preferential tax project as specified in the tax system, through the design of the tax system to make arrangement, but, after all, it is different from the general terms of tax system. Namely the goal isn't to income taxpayers, but to take the initiative to give up part of the revenue, offer financial aid to a particular taxpayer. It by reducing specific taxpayer or specific tax obligations of economic activities in this way, the government give up this part can be obtained by tax expense, its fundamental purpose is to use this as a means of policy, regulation, induced the operation of the economy. To achieve the established policy and target, the government can give up this tax, reduce the specific amount payable for the taxpayer, and with the government, first of all, according tothe unified tax law indiscriminately to taxpayers tax, and then according to the policy goals, through fiscal spending will return part of the tax revenue to the taxpayer, it needs the aid compared two kinds of situations, the final result is no fundamental difference. Therefore in the tax system arrangement of many tax breaks, "in fact equivalent to use public money to provide allowance". But since the tax expenditure form, people constantly points out its shortcomings, induces mainly has: tax expenditure distorts the market selection and resource allocation, complicate the high tax rate, tax system and tax management, low transparency, fairness, and not easy to control, etc. But at the same time, people also hard to deny that tax expenditures on the mechanism of action of advantage: one is the tax expenditure fixed in the form of law, has the relative stability; Second, tax expenditure can intervene in fiscal expenditure directly can consider areas; Three is that it has a strong timeliness and lower cost.The basic form of tax expenditure include: (1) the tax base. Is that narrow tax base, so that the taxpayers tax, it mainly includes the threshold, the tax deduction and break even three forms;(2) the rate of discount. To conform to the regulations of the state, business or goods consist of basic tax rate than low rate: (3) the amount of discount. Tax preferential tax expenditure is the most direct form, the amount payable for the taxpayer credit or refund of tax, including tax breaks, preferential tax refund in two forms; (4) tax preferential treatment in time. Mainly has accelerated depreciation and tax deferred two forms.3. The tax neutral theory application in circulation taxIn circulation, the traditional link sales tax in accordance with the product sales income in full or more according to the turnover of the business income tax, double taxation problems; Leads to taxpayer stepped tax increases, the more a product of circulation, the heavier tax burden. So would strongly encourage a vertical joint, easy to form a "lot, conveniently small" enterprise organization form, specializing in the arrangement of production. So, do not conform to the tax neutral principle.And the VAT can manifest the request of tax neutrality. Value-added tax by sales development, is the enterprise production of the goods or provide services to a kind of duty that appreciation forehead as the object of taxation. Due to appreciation not only for all income tax, value-added tax avoiding the many forms of sales tax has the characteristics of the multi-stage tax, which eliminates the sales of the intermediate links, and the final link for double taxation in the same. Production take any organization form, as long as the product price is the same, the same tax, make the enterprise no longer bear repeating for commodity circulation link more taxes, it helps enterprises to organize production, and in the best way for professional collaboration, in order to improve efficiency, so the V AT to the enterprise organization structure and the change of the circulation does not produce interference effect, that is neutral feature on the allocation of resources.1.税收调控理论主张政府干预的经济思想和观念指导下的税收理论，则强调税收的调控作用。

本份文档包含：关于该选题的外文文献、文献综述一、外文文献标题: The reduced V AT rate for small business in Croatia作者: Blazic, H., & Dimitric, M.期刊: Zbornik Radova Ekonomski Fakultet Rijeka, 卷: 27；期: 1；页: 83-114；年份: 2015The reduced V AT rate for small business in CroatiaAbstractThis paper assesses the potential effects of introduction of the reduced V AT rate for small business, based on the EU V AT legislation development. The analysis includes effects on prices, sales, shadow economy and employment. It starts with the assumption of no substantial effect. Survey for Croatia is done by small business owners' interviews and encompasses descriptive and inferential statistics based on parametric tests. The EU expected existence of a link between V AT reduction, price reduction, sales increase and positive effects on employment (as well as decline in the shadow economy) is proved even in this research. However, the pass-through to prices is very moderate as well as other effects. The reduced V AT rate could have some positive results for the restaurants and bars only. There exists also some possibility for construction of housing and construction services related to housing as well as some other labor intensive services.Key words: public finance, small business, reduced V AT rates, efficiency, Croatia1. IntroductionThe V AT, as the indirect tax, is assumed to have been borne by the consumers. The reduction of its rates is expected to decrease prices and increase demand, which is especially important for those small businesses with high price elasticity of demand. This possibility, along with other tax incentives for small business, is used by the EU since the end of the last century for labour intensive services (offered mostly by the small business). One of the most recent proposed changes is the extension of thereduced V AT rates to the set of locally supplied services in the broader sense. That includes labour intensive services (reduced rate currently being offered temporarily), which are now even broadened, as well as housing and restaurant and catering services. However, this proposal of the European Commission was accepted by the EU Council only concerning restaurant services.Since the option of the reduced V AT rates will soon be available in Croatia as future EU country, this paper is analyzing and assessing the potential effects of introducing the reduced V AT rate for small business (business units that pay personal income tax) in general as well as for its activities. The research is based on the existing EU rules and last European Commission proposal. The analyses include effects on income/ prices, sales, shadow economy and employment in small business. The methodology in the research for Croatia is based on survey (telephone interview) and encompasses descriptive and inferential statistics based on parametric tests.Although the recent EU research seems to be positively inclined to the effects of reduced V AT rates, no such optimism is expected to be found in Croatia. This hypothesis of no substantial effect was based on our impressions and contacts with small business and some pre-research interviews. Negligible price effect was expected, with the resulting income effect for small business owners being relatively high (no or very slight pass-through) as well as very slight effect on shadow economy and employment. Differences in results per activities were also expected. However, the conducted research has brought a little bit more optimism.After the introductory chapter, in the theoretical chapter the paper reviews the V AT rates general literature and research. This review does not include specific EU research, since it is presented in the second chapter, which is devoted to the EU policy in that field and its effects. The fourth chapter is dedicated to the possible introduction of reduced V AT rates for small business in Croatia. In the end there are policy recommendations and conclusion.2. Theory and literatureThe classical V AT analysis (for instance Musgrave, 1993: 297; Stiglitz, 2000: 112; Sever, 1995: 316; Piffano, 2007: 7) usually starts with the simple case ofhorizontal (perfectly elastic) supply curve, when the entire tax burden is shifted (passed) to the consumer, as presented in Figure 1.The tax incidence is simple. Price rises by the amount of tax and quantity falls respectively. This simple framework is often used in other similar analysis (for instance for customs or monopoly) to indicate the deadweight welfare loss (the triangle in the middle) caused by taxes.Alternative schedules include perfectly inelastic demand (the tax burden is again borne by the consumer), perfectly inelastic supply and perfectly elastic demand (the tax burden is borne by the producer). The "middle case", also often used in the literature, is the situation when ordinary supply and demand curves intercept ("normal" elasticity of both curves) and where the tax burden is shared among both parties. However the above presented case is close to the small business labour intensive case of very elastic supply, reflecting the intended incidence of V AT (in the theory as well as in the EU expectations concerning reduced V AT rates) and seems to be more appropriate for further analysis.The reduction in the V AT rates implies a little bit different framework for further analysis, which is presented in Figure 2(4).It is obvious that the reduction in the V AT rate lowers the price and increases quantity in a way that they partially move to their hypothetical pre-tax values. Such an incidence is crucial to the achievement of the desired EU tax policy goals, presented in detail in the next chapter.It is also in line with Ramsey taxes philosophy where under simplified situation of horizontal supply schedule (Figures 1 and 2) the tax should simply be inversely proportional to compensated elasticity of demand. Vice versa, the V AT tax reduction is mostly advocated in the situations where demand elasticities are higher. Although this philosophy could be seen as unacceptable in a case of basic necessities (negative equity effects) such an efficiency case could be taken into account in the case of small business labour intensive services.The chosen figure presenting complete V AT pass-through has its justification in the empirical findings about V AT incidence, which are rather positive, indicatingconsiderable, full pass-through or even over shifting (for instance Harris, 1987; Baker and Brechling, 1992: 57: Poterba, 1996; Besley and Rosen,1999; Kenkel, 2005; Blundell, 2009).However, the full pass-through is mostly limited to competitive markets, as the theory requires. In imperfectly competitive markets, it is less than full (Ruffle, 2005), but could be even over-shifted depending on the market structure in more detail, as well as elasticities.5 It depends also on economic cycles.6The old "warning" with V AT that V AT increases seems to be more shifted to consumers than V AT decreases is also confirmed (Carbonnier, 2005). One could easily links that to the general inflation tendencies, but the author links it with the short- run effects. In the short run, it is easier to decrease than to increase production (based on the demand elasticity expectations). However, such adaptations in capital stock (and new employees) are less likely to occur in the capital intensive sectors and more likely to occur in the labour intensive services (see also next chapter). This asymmetry in shifting is valid for mostly competitive markets, while in monopolistic markets or in a case of collusion another asymmetry is present (Carbonnier, 2005): price increases are relatively weak in order to prevent the fall of the demand, and price decreases are relatively strong in order to take profit of the takeoff of the demand (case study of French V AT reform in oligopoly markets).The application to locally supplied services market is not completely straightforward. It is mostly labour intensive sector with greater flexibility and supply curves with very high elasticity. Furthermore, the demand for such services seems to poses considerable elasticity, partly due to the fact that great part of the services could be done by the taxpayers themselves. The departure from the perfect competition of the textbooks in the sense of closer relations between service providers and consumers is nevertheless positive, since it could imply high/complete pass-through of V AT reductions. On the other hand, there is some degree of monopoly power of locally supplied service producers due to the transportation or travel costs, which could have opposite effect.Relatively high differences in quality could characterize locally supplied services.This sector has also relatively high supply side uncertainty (in terms of future prices and demand). Such a high general supply-side uncertainty and demand-side quality uncertainty will also increase the pass-through and the job-creating effects of a V AT reduction (Copenhagen Economics, 2007b: 11-12).Small business, which is locally restricted and labour intensive, is relatively more inclined to be engaged in a black economy. Main reason is mostly tax evasion. Almost all kinds of tax reductions influence the spread of the black economy (Lemieux et al., 1994). A reduced V AT rate can act directly at the primary source of income.The expected link between reduced rates of V AT and new working places (as well as decrease in black economy) is based on the following link (with intermediate links):It is common belief (for instance Commission of the European Communities, 2003a: 4) that the price has to fall sufficiently to generate increased demand for the service. However, high demand elasticity will reduce the measurable effect on prices, i.e. the pass-throughs, but increase the effect on demand (Copenhagen Economics, 2007b: 5 and 7-8). So, the size of pass-through and job-creating effects could be inversely related. The pass-through to prices could generally be lower when demand elasticity is high. On the other hand, in a cases of inelastic demand, the incentive to passthrough the V AT reduction to prices will not exist (this is why EU rules insist of elastic demand cases when applying reduced V AT rates for labour intensive and locally supplied services).3. EU policyBesides the use of the reduced V AT rate (Annex III of Directive 2006/112/EC) for equity reasons and for "merit" goods,7 the EU allows the reduced V AT rates for labour intensive services too for the efficiency reasons8 (Directive 2006/112/EC, Article 106 and 107). Those services must be labour-intensive, provided largely direct to final consumers, mainly local and not likely to cause distortion of competition. There must be a close link between the decrease in prices resulting from the rate reduction and the foreseeable increase in demand and employment.9 Positive impact on black economy is also expected. The reduced rates could be applied to servicesfrom no more than two (in exceptional cases three) of the following categories (now Directive 2006/112/EC, Annex IV): minor repairing of bicycles, shoes and leather goods and clothing and household linen; renovation and repairing of private dwellings, window-cleaning and cleaning in private households; domestic care services such as home help and care of the young, elderly, sick or disabled and hairdressing. They have been applied for the experimental period of three years, having being prolonged and used now by even eighteen EU countries.First EU research, that tested the intended overall impact of the reduced V AT rate for labour intensive services for nine countries having implemented it at that time found no significant positive results (Commission of the European Communities, 2003a; Commission of the European Communities, 2003b). Reduced rates of V AT were never fully reflected in consumer prices, because part of the V AT reduction was used to increase the margins of service providers. Renovation and repair of private dwellings as well as hairdressing (but less intensively), seem to be the sectors in which prices were lowered, but mostly only temporarily. In certain cases, most notably that of bicycle repair, service providers refused to apply the reduced rate, arguing that the measure was too complex. The Member States' reports do not allow the effects of growth10 to be distinguished from the possible effects of V AT rate cuts being partially passed on to prices. The Member States' reports did not identify solid evidence of reduced V AT rates having an impact on employment.11 The Commission conducted a simulation exercise and concluded that reducing V AT rates is more costly in budget terms than other measures that directly target labour costs (reduce labour taxes/charges), which is consistent with the conclusions of similar previous studies12. It was not possible to demonstrate that the measure had contributed to decline in the black economy.The second most important EU research is the Copenhagen Economics study (Copenhagen Economics, 2007a and 2007b), which came to the more optimistic conclusions. Although the study confirms that uniform V AT rate is the optimal solution, it still claims that there is a strong argument for exceptions for sectors, whose services are easily substituted for do-it-yourself or underground work, such aslocally supplied services. Simulations indicated that the gains in welfare, productivity and GDP are sizeable in all member states, even though the largest gains by far will accrue to member states with high tax wedges.The study also claims that there is a theoretical but not an empirical argument for extending reduced V AT rates to sectors employing many low skill workers in order to boost low skill demand, e.g. hotels, restaurants and locally supplied services.13 However, simulations indicated that the overall impact on demand for low skill workers was unimpressive because differences in low skill employment between industries are limited. If implemented, reduced V AT rates are not expected to have negative implications for the functioning of the internal market in the former case, but could have some limited implications in the latter case (in particular through tourism).4. Research: Case study of Croatia4.1. MethodologyIn order to assess the possible incentive effects of the lower V AT rate for small business in Croatia, the business units that pay personal income tax were selected (trades and crafts). The telephone interview survey was carried out. Since the questionnaire was relatively short and required some interaction with the interviewer, this was the most applicable technique. It enabled to gather relatively easy the required structure and absolute number of responses as well as more reliable results.A couple of small business owners and the President of the Chamber of Trades and Crafts of one of the Croatian counties were engaged as a consulting team to correct the questionnaire and to test it on some relevant business units ("the pilot")18.At the beginning of the questionnaire there was an introductory explanation concerning the planned new development of the reduced V AT rate in EU, accompanied by a short presentation of the existing (and possible future) rules in the EU concerning reduced V AT rate. The scope of the reduced V AT rates for labour intensive (and locally supplied services) was based on the last European Commission proposal (European Commission - Taxation and Customs Union, 2009).The introductory question checked the liability of V AT and supply of goods and services to final consumers as well as gathered data about activity and number ofemployees (besides the owner himself). The core part of the questionnaire consists of only four questions. All the answers are five scale Likert type.The first one asks whether the introduction of lower V AT rate of 5%19 would induce the small business in question to reduce the price and at what scope (1 - no price reduction; 5 - full reduction / full shifting of tax onto prices / full pass-through). Those who had given the positive answer for the previous question were also asked about expected influence of that lower price on the increase in sales (1- no increase; 5 - substantial increase).4.2. Results and discussion4.2.1. Analysis of variablesThe descriptive statistics gives the following results per questions/variables presented in Table 3.As it can be seen in Table 3, the general summary results are neither as low as previously expected (based on the pilot), nor high enough to be considered as the general recommendation for the application of the reduced rates to the small business in Croatia due to the efficiency goals.The first - price effect (readiness to price reduction due to the reduced V AT rate) is far away from the full pass-through. The sales effect (expectations of sales increase due to the price reduction) is higher, mostly due to two effects. The former comes from the fact that this question was put only to the positive respondents to the first question (only for the interviewees that have been prepared to reduce prices - have not given the negative answer). The latter is probably connected with the (positive) expectations of the respondents. It is the question that reveals their market "optimism" - expectations of the increased demand, and that is not directly linked to their action (however, it presumes their positive response - their possibility to increase their supply)24.According to the expectations of the EU harmonisation rules25 that were additional confirmed by the correlation analysis in our research26, the last two variables / effects are a direct consequence of the fulfilment of the first two effects (prerequisites).4.2.2. CorrelationsTwo correlation analyses were performed. The first one encompasses only small business that gave positive answer to the first question (150 respondents) and is presented in Table 4.As it can be seen from the Table 4, all variables are positively correlated and almost all correlations are statistically significant. The highest correlation is between first and second variable and first and fourth variable (moderate correlation). It means that those small businesses that are prepared to reduce prices to a greater extend (greater or full pass through) do also expect higher increase in demand, which is completely logical. They are also more inclined to increase the employment.The second analysis encompasses all respondents (200 respondents) and is presented in Table 5.As expected, Table 5 shows smaller, but also statistically significant coefficients. The very high correlation is between first and second variable only, being influenced by the fact that only positive answers to the first question were taken into account in the second question.The correlation between variables per activities (Appendix, Table A5) shows statistically significant and highest correlation between price reduction and increase in sales for all activities, which is completely logical. High and statistically significant correlation is found between price reduction and higher employment for food production and restaurants and bars. Statistically significant and moderate (or small) correlation is found between price reduction and higher reporting only for construction and restaurants and bars. Furthermore, for restaurants and bars, there is statistically significant correlation between all the variables and higher employment (small to moderate correlation). Other services have statistically significant and high correlation between reporting and higher employment.324.2.3. Tax proactive and reactive small business clustersClustering of small business is done by taking into account two variables: readiness to price reduction and readiness to increase employment. This simplified synthesis has taken only those variables into account, which are dependant on thetaxpayers alone.33 The procedure forms the groups of small business according to the highest differences in selected variables (see Appendix, Tables A6a and A6b).Three quarters of the population belong to the tax reactive cluster and only one quarter to the tax proactive cluster. Tax reactive cluster has very moderate results (M(price reduction) = 2.39; SD(price reduction) = 1.06; M(employment increase) = 1.28; SD(employment increase) = 0.45) while tax proactive cluster has, of course, better results, but still not extremely high (M(price reduction) = 2.96; SD(price reduction) = 1.44; M(employment increase) = 3.60; SD(employment increase) = 0.82).Taking into account differences in activities (Appendix, Tables A6a and A6b) it could be concluded that restaurants and bars as well taxi services are most "tax proactive". Those results are confirmed also by Fisher LSD (Appendix, Table A7). However, this analysis takes into account two selected ("most important") variables only.In order to assess general responsiveness of small business to reduced V AT rate different variants of the synthetic variable were created and tested (normality test, application of parametric test). The chosen synthetic variable34 has been constructed with the following proportions for particular variables: 35Price reduction : Sales increase : Employment increase = 1 : 0.6 : 0.4 (2)The results of ANOV A show statistically significant influence of activity on the differences in value of variables (F (7.192) = 3.3224; p < 0.05; η = 0.108) and statistically significant influence of the small business size - number of employees also (F (3.196) = 2.653; p < 0.05; η = 0.039). As it could be seen, absolute value of partial eta-square is very small for the business size.Means of tax sensitivity for activities (Appendix, Table A8a), with their theoretical maximum value being 10, range from 3.13 up to 5.78. Fisher LSD post-hoc test reveals that out 28 tested pairs of activities, statistically significant difference is detected at 10 pairs of activities and it appears most frequently for hairdressers and beauty services and restaurants and bars.365. Policy implicationsThe general impression from the entire analysis is that there is a possibility for some positive effects of reduced V AT rates for small business in Croatia. However, the entire effect (as well as the particular ones) is very moderate. Furthermore, the evidence seems to be suggesting the selective approach.The EU expected existence of a link between V AT reduction, price reduction and positive effects on employment (as well as decline in the shadow economy) is proved even in this research. However, the full pass-through will definitely not occur. Moreover, the tax shifting is only between slight and moderate not only in general, but also per activity. Agriculture and fishing, food production, restaurants and bars as well construction services have a little bit better pass-through than other activities, but still only moderate.The latter two activities (maybe together with the group of other services and cleaning services) had best results for the increase in sales. It is worth pointing out the differences in price elasticity of demand influencing the link between lower prices and increase in sales. So, agriculture and fishing (as well as food production) have the combination of relatively higher pass-through and lower increase in sales, while construction services (as well as other services) have opposite combination. The relatively "negative" results for former two activities (that are not typical labour intensive or locally supplied services and were included in this research due to the fact that Croatia does not have reduced V AT rate for food) are in line with the EU reasoning. The results indicate that if reduced V AT rate were introduced here (and it probably would be), it should (and would) be introduced primarily due to the equity reasons (decline in regressive effect of V AT) and not the efficiency ones (still the food production has some potential for the increase in employment, which will be elaborated later). On the other hand, the opposite results for construction (and other services) have proven the already stated potential of exploiting the positive effects of sales increase (combating unemployment and shadow economy) even without significant pass-through (reduction in prices). So, even the rate of 10% with only moderate pass-through for that activity could reach some results. The group of "other services" entails typical labour intensive services and offers great potential for theutilization of the reduced V AT rate. However, further research per each of the activity in that group is necessary in order to distinguish particular activities with the greatest potential. The same is true for cleaning services, whose results were good, but however, not reliable due to the small absolute number of respondents. Restaurants and bars seem to be a good candidate for the reduced V AT rate (probably 10% as in the case of hotel accommodation), which is in line with the latest EU assessments and Council decisions.The further variables support those conclusions, but in a case of the shadow economy particular attention should be devoted to taxi services. Maybe the results for that activity indicate high non-compliance in that sector and need for the other forms of reaction. However, they are not encouraging, so the lower V AT rate does not seem to be a policy measure to rely on to combat the shadow economy.But, it seems that it could be one of the measures to slightly mitigate the unemployment problem, especially for the restaurants and bars again, where three quarters of small businesses are inclined to employ some additional part time / seasonal or one full time worker. Taxi services show the great potential here again. Since they are not highly positioned in the first two variables, this could indicate that this activity strongly requires additional research in the direction of additional tax incentives / subsidies. Food production, despite the lower price elasticity of demand offers some potential for employment, which is a little bit peculiar, but probably connected with the relatively higher decrease in prices. However, the effects on employment remain limited, as pointed out also in the latest EU assessments.6. Concluding remarksThe results seem to be more optimistic than our starting hypothesis. It could be concluded that some positive effects of reduced V AT rate for small businesses in Croatia such as price reduction, increase in sales, decline in shadow economy and increase in employment could be expected. It also implies some policy recommendations.If introduced for the efficiency reasons, the reduced V AT rate could only be recommended without almost any reservation for the restaurants and bars that seem tooffer the greatest potential (some moderate increase in sales and employment) among the activities in question. It is reasonably to believe that positive effects found out in this research for small business (in form of business units that pay income tax) could be extended also to other legal forms of business. Probably even the 10% rate (the current level of reduced rate in Croatia applied to hotel accommodation) will gain almost the same positive results, but this research and its results were based on the rate of 5%. Surprisingly, the decision of the EU Council (which was made after this research was performed) in spite of European Commission proposal, supported the extension of the reduced rate for labour intensive services to the restaurant services only, which is in line with our research results.Some positive results for small business in Croatia could also be achieved for the construction services, even with the higher rate than used in this research (due to the high price elasticity of demand). So, again, a rate of 10% could be appropriate. Reduced rates might also be suitable for some other labour intensive services. However, they cannot be identified precisely, so that the additional research is required. Our research does not provide enough support for the straight policy recommendation for introducing the reduced V AT rate for the mentioned activities. The same is true for cleaning services. Taxi services seem to be a good candidate for other more direct fiscal measures (income tax incentives or subsidies), which, again, requires future research.No spectacular results for small business in Croatia could be expected based on the reduced V AT rate only. As already pointed out in the latest EU assessment, there are only moderate results that are possible.Furthermore, research results have the limitation of being related to the small business defined as personal income taxpayers only. Two problems arise because of that: the entire potential reduced rate V AT population has not been covered and the stratification was based on existing personal income tax grouping of businesses and not the precise list of activities that are potential candidates for reduced V AT rate. The further problem is that the research results have been influenced by the taxpayers' perception, assessment and expectation, which is inevitable for such type of。