胡壮麟语言学课件

白皇后号。)
b. I bequeath my watch to my brother.(我把手表遗赠给我弟弟。) c. I bet you sixpences it will rain tomorrow. (我用六便士跟你打赌明
天会下雨。)
d. I promise to finish it in time. (我答应按时完成。) e. I apologize. (我道歉。) f. I declare the meeting open. (我宣布会议开始。) g. I warn you that the bull will charge. (我警告你这头公牛会撞人。)
Language in Use 10
Chapter 8
Language in Use
8.1 Speech act theory言语行为理论(by Austin) 8.1.2 illocutionary act行事行为理论(by Austin) Act and locutionary（发话） – utterance meaning of illocutionary（行事）– purpose doing things perlocutionary（取效）– effect
Language in Use 4
Chapter 8
Language in Use
semantic (related to words and sentences) （语义学/固定意义）
Meaning contextual (related to utterances) （语用学/附加意义） 但在文献中，"sentence句子"和"语句"并不总是分 得很清楚的。研究这种意义的学科叫语用学 pragmatics。因为这种意义部分来自语言的使用环 境，语用学也可以被定义为研究语言使用的学科。 那么我们就可以说pragmatics=meaning – semantics (语用学意义=意义 – 语义学意义)。

句子成分
句子由主语、谓语、宾语、定语、状 语等不同的成分组成，各成分在句子 中起到不同的作用。Biblioteka 句法结构与句型句法结构
句法结构是指句子的内部构造和组织方 式，包括简单句、复合句、并列句等。
VS
句型
句型是根据句子的结构特点和语义功能划 分的句子类型，如陈述句、疑问句、祈使 句等。
语法的层级体系
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层级体系
语言学的研究对象与范围
总结词
语言学的研究对象是语言，包括语音、语法、词汇、语义等方面。
详细描述
语音学研究语言的发音和音系规则，语法学研究词法和句法规则，词汇学研究词汇的构成和意义，语义学研究词 汇和句子的意义。此外，社会语言学、心理语言学、计算机语言学等分支学科也丰富了语言学的研究范围。
语言学与其他学科的关系
详细描述
该领域关注第二语言学习的过程、影响因素、学 习策略等，旨在揭示第二语言学习的本质和规律 ，为外语教学提供理论支持和实践指导。
语言教学理论与实践
总结词
语言教学理论与实践主要研究如何有 效地教授和学习语言。
详细描述
该领域关注语言教学方法、教材设计 、课程设置等方面，旨在提高语言教 学的效果和质量，培养学习者的语言 运用能力。
语言接触与变异
语言接触是指不同语言或方言之间的接触和交流 01 ，这种接触会导致语言的变异和融合。
语言变异是指在一个语言的内部，由于地域、社 02 会、年龄等因素的影响，导致语音、词汇、语法
等方面的差异。
社会语言学研究语言接触与变异，旨在揭示语言 03 变化的原因和规律，以及变异对语言的生存和发
展的影响。
音变现象
音变定义
音变是指语音在连续发出时发生的音素变化， 包括同化、异化、弱化等。

举例: too 和 tea 中的 /t/ 发too中的/t/时, 舌位更靠近口腔前部 发tea中的/t/时，舌位更靠近口腔后部 所以too 和 tea 中的 /t/两个不同的音子
Hale Waihona Puke Phoneme(音位): phonological and abstract unit, a unit of distinctive value; the smallest unit of sound in a language which can distinguish two words.
1. Bilabial双唇 ; 2. Labiodental唇齿的; 3. Dental or
interdental齿音和齿 间; 4. Alveolar齿龈音 ; 5. Palatoalveolar腭齿音; 6. Palatal 腭音; 7. Velar软腭音; 8. Uvular小舌音; 9. Glottal声门.
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What is linguistics
Linguistics, the scientific study of language, concerns itself with all aspects of how people use language and what they must know in order to do so.
The diagram of single vowel classification by applying the two criteria so far mentioned:
I Language as a Formal System
The study of how speech sounds in a language form patterns and how these sounds are used to convey meaning in linguistic communication. is called phonology音系学.

language.
2. Scopes of linguistics
☺General linguistics—studies linguistics as a whole.
☺ Phonetics—study of sounds ☺ Phonology--study of the system of
sounds, how they are combined ☺ Morphology—study of the structure and
language development, more practical than written form, hard to record • writing : • permanent, can be recorded
• ngue and parole • —by the Swiss linguist F. de Saussure
• descriptive –describes and analyzes the language people are currently speaking. It deals with “what people actually say”
• 3.2 synchronic vs. diachronic • synchronic—description of a language at
• 2.1.4. Language is symbolic. • 2.1.5. Language is human –specific. • 2.1.6. Language is used for
communication
2.2. Design features of language
• 2.2.1. arbitrariness • 2.2.2. productivity • 2.2.3. duality • 2.2.4. displacement • 2.2.5. cultural transmission

4.3 The generative approach Chomsky’s Transformational-Generative (TG) GrammarFive stages of development:1) The Classical Theory (Syntactic Structure ，1957)2) The Standard Theory (Aspects of the Theory of Syntax ，1965)3) The Extended Standard Theory (EST ，1968)4) The Revised Extended Standard Theory (Government and Binding /GB Theory ，1981)5) The Minimalist Program (1995)What is a generative grammar ?By a generative grammar ，Chomsky simply means “a system of rules that in some explicit and well-defined way assigns structural descriptions to sentences ”. He believes that every speaker of a language has mastered and internalized a generative grammar that expresses his knowledge of his language. “Thus a generative grammar attempts to specify what the speaker actually knows ，not what he may report about his knowledge.”(Chomsky ，1965) To generate is to predict what could be the possible sentences of language. Transformation is a kind of process that transforms one sentence into another. It uses a finite number of rules to produce infinite number of sentences.4.3.1 Deep and surface structures (Chomsky)Deep structure : the abstract representation of the syntactic properties of a construction.Surface structure : the final stage in the syntactic derivation of a construction. Transformational component hastransformational rules, which change the deep structure component into surface structures.Phrase structure rules (rewriting rules)Aux tense +(M) +(perf) + (prog) M model verbPerf have + -enProg be + -ingVP V +(NP) + (PP)PP prep + NPTense pres/pastThe mother of the boy and the girl will arrive soon4.3.3 Government, binding, etc. Lectures on Government and Binding (1981) Two systems of a grammar : a rule system, a principle systemSystem of principles :1) bounding theory2) government theory3) θ-theory4) binding theory5) case theory6) control theoryBinding TheoryA.An anaphor is bound in its governing category.B. A pronominal is free in its governing category.C. An r-expression is free.Anaphor is used in a narrow sense to includereflexives like myself and reciprocals like each other. Pronominal refer to pronouns other that reflexives and reciprocals.R-expressions (referential-expressions) cover all the other r-expressions except anaphors andpronominals, e.g. John, Bill, the man.Ex.(a)John 1likes himself 1.(b)They 1hit each other 1.(c)John 1doesn ’t like Bill ’s 2criticism of himself 1.(d)John 1 likes him 2.(e)Bill 1 says John 2likes him 2.(f)Bill 1says John 2likes the man 3.4.4 The functional approach4.4.1 Functional sentence perspective(FSP) Theme : “that which is known or at least obvious in the given situation and from which the speaker proceeds ”Rheme : “what the speaker states about, or in regard to, the starting point of the utterance ”(Danes 1974) Communicative dynamism(CD): “the extent to which the sentence element contributes to thedevelopment of the communication ”(J.Firbas 1964)4.4.2 Systemic-functional grammar Three general functions of language (Halliday):Ideational function (a. experiential b. logical)Interpersonal functionTextual functionThree grammatical systems (Halliday):TransitivityMoodthemeQuestions and Exercises What is the criterion used in IC analysis? In what ways is IC analysis better than traditional parsing?What are the problems in IC analysis? Discuss Chomsky ’s binding theory in relation to the Chinese reflexive 自己.In what sense is the analysis of a sentence in terms of theme and rheme functional?。

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1. A: Are you going to the seminar? B: It‟s on linguistics. 2. A: Would you like some coffee? B: Coffee would keep me awake. 3. A: 我带的钱不够，今天买不了。 B: 那就下次再买吧。
Chapter Eight Language in Use
1. Definition of Pragmatics


The study of language in use. The study of meaning in context. The study of speakers‟ meaning, utterance meaning, & contextual meaning.
2. Robert Gibbs named Obama Press Secretary U.S. President-elect Barack Obama has named his longtime spokesman Robert Gibbs as his White House press secretary

“Janet! Donkeys!” (David Copperfield)
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Leech曾指出，“意义”在语义学中是二价 的(bivalent)，而在语用学中就成了三价的 (trivalent)。也就是说，语义研究的是“X 的意义是Y”(X means Y)。例如：Donkey means “ass”。而语用学研究的是“说话者 S通过话语X来表达Y的意思”(S means Y by X)。例如一个家庭主妇对仆人说： “Janet! donkeys!”的时候，单独从语义上 看并没有明确的意思；但是从语用学角度 看，女主人是想让Janet把驴子从草坪上赶 走。 Sentence meaning: What does X mean? Utterance meaning: What do you mean by X?

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1.2 Input
Language learning can take place when the learner has enough access to input in the target language.
This input may come in written or spoken form.
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The study of UG has attracted considerable attention from many second language acquisition researchers because knowledge of linguistic universals may help to shape L2 acquisition in a number of ways.
Authentic input Comprehensible input (Krashen): i+1 Premodified input Interactively modified input: tends to do
a better job
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(Krashen): i+1
Do we teach grammar?
How do we teach grammar?
As a compromise between the “purely formfocused approaches” and the “purely meaningfocused” approaches, a recent movement called focus on form seems to take a more balanced view on the role of grammar in language learning.

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1.1 Definition of language
In the Textbook
Language is a means of verbal communication. It is instrumental in that communicating by speaking or writing is a purposeful act. It is social and conventional in that language is a social semiotic and communication can only take place effectively if all the users share a broad understanding of human interaction including such associated factors as nonverbal cures, motivation, and social-cultural roles
However, language is not entirely arbitrary. There are words which are created in the imitation of sounds.
But the non-arbitrary words are quite limited in number.
Language: Language is a system of arbitrary vocal
symbols used for human communication.
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1.2 Design features of language

.
Chapter 1 Language and Linguistics
1.1 Language and Human 1.2 Design features of language 1.3 Functions of Language 1.4 Linguistics and its branches 1.5 Basic Concepts in linguistics
Duality
Duality is the nature of language which shows that language is a system and consists of two sets of structure, or two levels, one of sounds and the other of meanings.
It is the structural feature of language that words are made up of elemental sounds
.
1.3 Functions of language
Malinowski: pragmatic function; magical function; phatic function
.
1.1 Definition of language
In the Textbook
Language is a means of verbal communication. It is instrumental in that communicating by speaking or writing is a purposeful act. It is social and conventional in that language is a social semiotic and communication can only take place effectively if all the users share a broad understanding of human interaction including such associated factors as nonverbal cures, motivation, and social-cultural roles

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The internal syntax of a construction is really a description of the construction‟s “make-up”, with the terms such as “subject, predicate, object, determiner, noun”.
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It also refers to groups of more than one word which may be jointly substitutable grammatically for a single word of a particular set.
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This is what Saussure called ASSOCIATIVE relations, or in Hjemslev's term, PARADIGMATIC relations. To make it more understandable, they are called VERTICAL relations or CHOICE relations.
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1.1 Positional Relation


For language to fulfill its communicative function, it must have a way to mark the grammatical roles of the various phrases that can occur in a clause. The boy kicked the ball NP1 NP2 Subject Object
In the context of discourse/text analysis, construction refers to a token of a constructional type. The sentence The girl is giggling is recognised as “Subject + Predicate” type, but it is realized in a string The + girl + is +

3. The meaning of meaning
C. K. Ogden & I. A. Richards (1923). The Meaning of Meaning.John means to write.A green light means to go.Health means everything.His look was full of meaning.What is the meaning of life?What does ‘capitalist’ mean to you?What does ‘cornea’ mean?
domicile: very formal, officialresidence: formalabode: poetichome: generalsteed: poetichorse: generalnag: slanggee-gee: baby language
Hale Waihona Puke 3.4 Affective meaning
3.2 Connotative meaning
The communicative value an expression has by virtue of what it refers to, over and above its purely conceptual content.A multitude of additional, non-criterial properties, including not only physical characteristics but also psychological and social properties, as well as typical features.

语料库语言学：研究任何这样的语料中的数据。
Criticisms and the revival of corpus linguistics
Chomsky changed the direction of linguistics away from empiricism to rationalism.
(c) He lends Tony books.
(d) He owes Tony books.
How can ungrammatical utterances be distinguished from ones that haven’t occurred? If the corpus does not contain sentence (a), how do we conclude that it is ungrammatical while the rest of the sentences are grammatical?
1. the corpus could never be a useful tool for the linguist, as the linguist must seek to model language competence rather than performance.
2. the only way to account for a grammar of a language is y description of its rules, rather than by enumeration of its sentences. It is the syntactic rules that are finite.
There are also problems of practicality with corpus linguistics.

语料（corpus，复数形式corpora）：一个语言数据 的存储，可以是被编辑为书面文本，也可以是被作 为录音言语的誊本。语料的主要目的是鉴定一个语 言的假说--例如，确定一个特定的语音、单词，或 句法结构的使用如何变化。
3.1 Corpus Linguistics
Corpus linguistics deals with the principles and practice of using corpora in language study.
Leech（1993）描写了适用于文本语料的注解的7条 准则。
1. 为了恢复到自然的语料，从有注解的语料里删去 注解是可能的。 2. 从文本里单独摘录注解是可能的。 3. 注解方案应该以终端用户可利用的指导方针为基 础。 4. 应该弄清楚，注解是如何并且由谁来完成。 5. 终端用户应该知道语料注解不是没有错误的，而 只是一种潜在的有用的工具。 6. 注解方案应尽可能地立足于普遍接受的和中性的 理论原则。 7. 任何注解方案都无优先权被视为是标准的注解。
Semantics语义学
Corpus linguistics contributes to semantics by helping to establish an approach which is objective, because semantic distinctions are associated in texts with characteristic observable contexts—syntactic, morphological and prosodic—and by considering he environment of the linguistic entities an empirical objective indicator for a particular semantic distinction can be arrived. Another role of corpora in semantics has been in establishing more firmly the notions of fuzzy categories and gradience. In looking empirically at natural language in corpora, clearcut boundaries do not exist; instead there are gradients of membership which are connected with frequency of inclusion.

Chapter 12 Theories and SchoolsIntroduction 1 Modern linguistics began from theSwiss linguist Ferdinand deSaussure (1857-1913), who isoften described as “father of modernlinguistics”. His lectures arecollected in the book “Course inGeneral Linguistics”.2 Saussure believed that languageis a System of Signs. This sign isthe union of a form and an idea,which he called the signifier andthe signified.3 Saussure’s ideas on the arbitrarynature of sign, on the relationalnature of linguistic units, on thedistinction of Langue and Paroleand of Synchronic and Diachroniclinguistics pushed linguistics into abrand new stage.12.1The Prague School12.1.1 Introduction1) The Prague School can be traced back to its first meeting u nder theleadership of V.Mathesius in 1926. This school practiced a special style of synchronic linguistics, and its most important contribution to l inguistics is that it sees language in terms of function.2) Three most important ideas developed in Prague School12.1.2 Phonology & Phonological Oppositions1) The Prague School is best known for its contribution to p honology and thedistinction of phonetics and phonology.2) Its representative is Trubetzkoy.3) Oppositions ( a---I )bilateral opposition; multilateral opposition; proportio nal opposition; isolated opposition;privative opposition; gradual opposition; equivalent opposition;neutralisable opposition;constant opposition.12.1.3 Functional Sentence Perspective (FSP)1)Theme & Rheme.2) Communicative Dynamism (CD).Picture from the International Phonetic Congress, Amsterdam 1932 The person in the middle is the Dutch linguist Jac. van Ginneken; on his left is Nikolaj Trubetzkoy12.2 The London School12.2 The London School12.2.1 Malinowski’s theories12.2.2 Firth’s theories1）language is a means of doing things and of making others do thin gs.2) Prosodic Analysis.12.2.3 Halliday & Systemic-Functional Grammar1) Systemic Grammar2) Functional GrammarI) The ideational function is to convey new information, to communicate acontent that is unknown to the hearer.ii) The interpersonal function embodies all uses of language to express social and personal relations.iii) The textual function refers to the fact that language has mechanisms to make any stretch of spoken or written discourse into a coherent and unified text and make a living passage different from a random of senten ces.12.3 American Strcturalism 12.3.1 Early Period: Boas & Sapir12.3.2 Bloomfield’s theory1) Bloomfieldian Era2) BehaviourismStimulus-Response12.3.3 Post-Bloomfieldian Linguistics1) Harris & Methods in Structural Linguistics2) Hockett& A Course in Modern Linguistics3) K. Pike & Tagmemics12.4 Transformational-Generative Grammar1)Chomsky’s Syntactic Structure(1957) marked the beginning of the Chomskan Revolution.2) TG Grammar has seen five stages of development since its birth:the Classical Theory; the Standard Theory; the Extended T heory; the Revised Extended Standard Theory and the Minimalist Program.12.4.1 the Innateness Hypothesislanguage is innate, and children are born with a Language Ac quisition Device ( LAD).12.4.2 What is a Generative Grammar?1) By a Generative Grammar,Chomsky simply means “a system of rules that in some explicit and well-defined way assigns structural descriptions to sentences.2)Chomsky put forward three different levels to evaluate grammar on:Observational Adequacy; Descriptive Adequacy and the Exp lanatory adequacy.12.4.3 The Classical Theory12.4.4 The Standard Theory12.4.5 The Extended-Standard Theory12.4.6 Later Theories12.5 Revisionists? Rebels?12.5.1 Case GrammarCase Grammar is an approach that stresses the relationship o f elements in a sentence. It is a type of generative grammar developed by C.J. F illmore in the late 1960s.in this grammar, the verb is the most important part of the sentence, and has a number of case-making relationships with various noun phrases.12.5.2 Generative Semantics.Generative Semantics, developed in the late1960s and early 1970s, is a reaction to Chomsky’s Syntactic-based TG Grammar.The leading figures are J.R. Ross, G. Lakoff, J.D. Cawley, and P.Postal. Generative Semantics considers that all sentences are generate d from a semantic structure.Generative Semantics holds that there is no principled distinct ion between syntactic processes and semantic processes.Questions for Discussion1 Why is Saussure hailed as the father of modern linguistics?2 What are the three important points of the Prague School?3 What is the essence of Functional Sentence Perspective?4 What is special about systemic –Functional linguistics?5 What are the special features of American structuralism?6 How is behaviorist Psychology related to linguistics?7 How many stages of development has Chomsky’s TGGrammar undergone?8 What is special about TG Grammar?9 What is Case Grammar?。

Chapter 5 Meaning Semantics:the study of the meaning of linguistic units, words and sentences in particular.5.1 Meanings of “meaning”7 types of meaning(Leech):1. Conceptual meaning: Logical, cognitive, ordenotative contentAssociate meaning:2. Connotative meaning:What is communicatedby virtue of what language refers to.3. Social meaning:What is communicated of thesocial circumstances of language use.4. Affective meaning: What is communicated ofthe feelings and attitudes of thespeaker/writer.5. Reflected meaning: What is communicatedthrough association with another sense ofthe same expression.6. Collocative meaning: What is communicatedthrough association with words which tendto occur in the environment of another word.7.Thematic meaning: What is communicatedby the way in which the message isorganized in terms of order and emphasis.-Connotation and denotation5.2 The referential theory-The theory of meaning which relates the meaning of a word to the thing it refers to, or stands for, is known as the referential theory.-Semantic triangle(Ogden and Richards):conceptword thing-Sense and reference5.3 Sense relationsSense: the semantic relations between one word and another, or more generallybetween one linguistic unit and another.3 kinds of sense relations:1)Sameness relation---Synonymy2)Oppositeness relation---Antonymy3)Inclusiveness relation---Hyponymy5.3.1 Synonymy1)Differ in style: buy and purchase2) Differ in connotations: thrifty, economicaland stingy3) Dialectual difference: autumn and fall, flatand apartment, underground and tube5.3.2 Antonymy1) Gradable antonymy: good-bad, long-short, big-small, hot-cold, warm-cool“Marked”(unusual)and “Unmarked”(the cover term, unusual, e.g. old)2) Complementary antonymy:alive-dead, male-female,present-absent, pass-fail (a test),odd-even, hit-miss (a target), boy-girl3) Converse antonymy(Relational opposite): buy-sell, lend-borrow, give-receive, before-after, husband-wife, host-guest, employee-employer5.3.3 Hyponymy Hyponyms: the members, the lower termsCo-hyponyms: members of the same classSuperordinate:the name of a classA superordinate may be missing. Hyponyms may also be missing.Ex. livingplant animalbird fish insect animalhuman animaltiger lion elephant …5.4 Componential analysis Componential analysis refers to an approach by structural semantics in describing the meaning of words.It aims at breaking down the meaning of a word into its minimal distinctive features which are also called components.E.g. the meaning of the word boy may be analyzed into three components: HUMAN, YOUNG and MALE. Girl may be analyzed into HUMAN, YOUNG and FEMALE; man into HUMAN, ADULT and MALE, and woman into HUMAN, ADULT and FEMALE.5.5 Sentence meaning5.5.1 An integrated theoryThe principle of compositionality: the meaning of a sentence depends on the meanings of the constituent words and the way they are combined.A semantic theory consists of two parts(Katz and Postal): a grammantical classification and semantic rules.Grammatical/Syntactic markers Semantic markers DistinguishersSelection restrictions Problems5.5.2 Logical semantics Propositional logic( propositional calculus or sentential calculus) is the study of the truth conditions for propositions: how the truth of a composite proposition is determined by the truth value of its constituent propositions and the connections between them.“A proposition is what is expressed by a declarative sentence when that sentence is uttered to make a statement.”(J.Lyons)Predicate logic( predicate calculus) studies the internal structure of simple propositions.Argument and predicateAn argument is a term which refers to some entity about which a statement is being made.A predicate is a term which ascribes some property, or relation, to the entity, or entities, referred to. In terms of the number of arguments it takes, it can be classified into: one-place predicate: Socrates is a man.two-place predicate:John loves Mary.three-place predicate: John gave Mary a book.Questions and Exercises Some people maintain that there are no truesynonyms. If two words mean really the same, one of them will definitely die out. Do you agree? In general what type of meaning we are talking about when we say two words are synonymous with each other?Consider the following antonyms: friendly:unfriendly, honest: dishonest, normal: abnormal, logical: illogical.Which type of antonymy do they belong to?Comment on F.R.Palmer’s following argument: “…We can treat male/female, married/single, alive/dead as gradable antonyms on occasions. Someone can be very male or more married and certainly more dead than alive.”Which type of antonymy do the following antonyms belong to? Bigger:smaller, longer:shorter, better: worse, older: younger.姜望琪（1991：79）claims that “To some extent, we can say that any two words of the same part of speech may become antonyms, as long as the meaning difference between them is what needs to be emphasized in the particular context.”He uses the two sentences below as examples. What do you think of the claim?You have to peel a raw potato but you can skin a boiled one. He’s no statesman, but a mere politician.。

1.3 Design features of languageDesign features:the features that define our human languages. They make our language advantageous over animal “languages”.1.3.1 ArbitrarinessThe forms of linguistic signs bear nonatural relationship to their meaning.(Saussure)(1) Arbitrary relationship between the soundof a morpheme and its meaning(2) At the syntactic level(3) Arbitrariness and convention1.3.2 Duality“By duality is meant the property of having two levels of structures, such that units of theprimary level are composed of elements ofthe secondary level and each of the twolevels has its own principles of organization”(Lyon, 1982:20).Advantage:A large number of different units can be formed our of a small number ofelements.1.3.3 CreativityLanguage can produce sentence that has never been heard. Language is resourceful because of its duality and recursiveness.1.3.4 DisplacementHuman languages enable their users to symbolize objects, events and concepts which are not present ( in time and space) at the moment of communication.Other design featuresCultural transmissionLanguage is passed down from generation to generation. Human being must be exposed to language environment.InterchangeabilityAny human being can be both a producer and receiver of the message.1.4 Origin of languageThe bow-wow theoryThe pooh-pooh theoryThe “yo-he-ho”theory1.5 Functions of language 1.5.1 Informative1.5.2 Interpersonal function1.5.3 Performative1.5.4 Emotive function1.5.5 Phatic communion1.5.6 Recreational function1.5.7 Metalingual function1.6 What is linguistics?Linguistics is the scientific study of language.1.7 Main branches of linguistics1.7.1 PhoneticsPhonetics is the subfield of linguistics thatstudies speech sounds in human language. Major domains: Articulatoryphonetics1.7.2 Phonology-Phonology is the subfield of linguistics that studies the sound pattern of a language. -It deals with the rules governing the structure, distribution and sequencing of speechsounds and the shape of syllables.-Phonetics vs. PhonologyPhonetics is the study of speech soundsthat the human voice is capable of creating whereas phonology is the study of a subset of those sounds that constitute languageand meaning. The first focus on chaos while the second focuses on order.1.7.3 MorphologyMorphology is the subfield of linguistics that studies the internal structure of words andthe relationships among words.1.7.4 SyntaxSyntax is the subfield of linguistics thatstudies the internal structure of sentencesand the relationships among the internalparts.1.7.5 SemanticsSemantics is the subfield of linguistics that studies the nature of the meaning ofindividual words, and the meaning of words grouped into phrases and sentences.1.7.6 PragmaticsPragmatics is the subfield of linguistics that studies the use of words, phrases andsentences in the actual context of discourse.1.8 Macrolinguistics1.8.1 PsycholinguisticsPsycholinguistics studies the relationshipbetween language and mind. It also studies language development in the child, biological foundations of language and the relationship between language and cognition.1.8.2 SociolinguisticsSociolinguistics is the study ofcharacteristics of language varieties, thecharacteristics of their functions, and thecharacteristics of their speakers.1.8.3 Anthropological linguisticsAnthropological linguistics is the study of the history and structure of formerly unwrittenlanguages. They are concerned with theemergence and divergence of languagesover thousands of years.1.8.4 Computational linguisticsComputational linguistics is aninterdisciplinary field which centers aroundthe use of computers to process or produce human language.1.9 Important distinctions in linguistics1.9.1 Descriptive vs. prescriptive-Descriptive(non-normative): to describe what people say. “…the linguist tries to discoverand record the rules to which the members ofa language-community actually conform anddoes not seek to impose upon them otherrules, or norms, of correctness.”(Lyon,1982:47)-Prescriptive: to prescribe how people shouldsay. In the 18th century, the grammarianstried to lay down rules for the correct use oflanguage and settle the disputes over usage once and for all.1.9.2 Synchronic vs. diachronic-Synchronic linguistics is the study of a given language at a given period of time. E.g. “A Grammar of Modern Greek”-Diachronic linguistics is the study of the changes the language has experienced.1.9.3 Langue & parole(Saussure)-Langue is the abstract linguistic form or system shared by all the members of a speech community. It is a social product. It is a set of convention.-Parole is the actual or actualized language. It is the concrete use of the conventions or application of the rules.1.9.4 Competence and performance (Chomsky)-Competence refers to the ideal language speaker’s underlying knowledge about the system of rules.-Performance refers to the actual use of language by the speaker in concrete situation.1.9.5 Etic vs. Emic(Pike)Questions and ExercisesDo you think that onomatopoeia indicates a non-arbitrary relationship between form and meaning? Does the traffic light system have duality, why?Communication can take many forms, such as sign, speech, body language and facial expression.Do body language and facial expression share or lack the distinctive properties of human language? Can you mention some typical expressions of phatic communion in Chinese?。

胡壮麟语言学课件Chapter OneInvitations to Linguistics1.1 Why Study LanguageLanguageFeaturesFunctionLanguage learningfirst language leaningsecond language learning1.2 What Is LanguageLanguage is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication.System: elements in language are arranged according to certain rules.Arbitrary: There is no intrinsic connection between the word and its meaning.Symbolic nature of language: words are associated with objects, actions, ideas by convention.1.3 Design Features of LanguageDesign features are features that define our human language.Design Features of Language(1)Arbitrariness: the fact that the forms of linguistic signs bear no natural relationship to their meaning.arbitrariness at different levels of a language1) arbitrary relationship between the sound of a morpheme and its meaning2) arbitrariness at the syntactic levelapples, pears and bananaspears, apples and bananasb) He came in and sat down.He sat down and came in.He sat down after he came in.c) She got married and had a baby.She had a baby and got married.d) 屡战屡败屡败屡战3) arbitrariness and conventionarbitrariness→ language creativeconvention→ learnabili ty;→ learning a language laborious1.3 Design Features of Language(2)Duality: the property of having two levels of structures1) sound— secondary units2) meaning — primary units1.3 Design Features of Language(3)Creativity(productivity): Users can understand and produce sentences they have never heard before.1) Words can be used in new ways to mean new things.mouse bridge2) Its potential to create endless sentences by recursiveness （递归性）e.g. a. Smith believes that the earth is flatb. Brown believes that Smith believes that the earth is flatc. Smith believes that Brown believes that Smith believes that the earth is flatd. Brown believes Smith believes that Brown believes thatSmith believes that the earth is flat山里有座庙，庙里有个和尚，老和尚在念经，念的什么经：山里有座庙，庙里有个和尚，老和尚在念经，念的什么经：山里有座庙，庙里有个和尚，老和尚在念经，念的什么经……1.3 Design Features of Language(4)Displacement means that human languages enable their users to symbolize objects, events and concepts which are not present (in time or space) at the moment of communication.1.3 Design Features of Language(5)Cultural transmission: language is passed on through teaching and learning, rather than by instinct.1.4 Origin of LanguageThe bow-wow theory汪汪理论: imitate the sounds of the animals. onomatopoeicThe pooh-pooh theory噗噗理论: instinctive sounds of pain, anger and joy. interjectionThe yo-he-ho theory哟嗬哟理论: rhythmic grunts produced when working . chantsOrigin of LanguageThe divine-origin theory“So he (God) took some soil from the ground and formed all the animals and all the birds. Then he brought them to the man to see what he would name them, and that is how they got their names. So the man named all the birds and the animals,…”（Genesis，Chapter11：6）The invention theorya. imitativeb. cries of naturec. grunts of men working togetherThe evolution theory1.5 Functions of Language(1)Jakobson"Linguistics and Poetics: Closing Statement"All acts of communication, be they written or oral, are contingent on six constituent elements: context, message, addresser, addressee, contact and codeEach of the constituent elements of the communicative act has a corresponding function; thus:referential，poetic，emotive，phatic, conative and metalingualcontextREFERENTIALAddresser message addresseeEMOTIVE POETIC CONA TIVEcontactPHA TICcodeMETALINGUALReferential : to convey message and informationEmotive: to express attitudes, feelings and emotionsPoetic: to indulge in language for its own sakeConative: to persuade and influence others through commands and requestsPhatic: to establish communion with othersMetalingual: to clear up intentions and meanings1.5 Functions of Language(2)Halliday: three metafunctions of language:1) ide ational function is to organize the speaker’s or the writer’s experience of the real or imaginary world, i. e. language refers to real or imagined persons,things actions,events,states,etc.达意功能指组织说话者或作者现实或虚构世界的体验，即语言指称实际或虚构的人、物、动作、事件、状态等。