下载文档原格式
4.3 The generative approach Chomsky’s Transformational-Generative (TG) GrammarFive stages of development:1) The Classical Theory (Syntactic Structure ，1957)2) The Standard Theory (Aspects of the Theory of Syntax ，1965)3) The Extended Standard Theory (EST ，1968)4) The Revised Extended Standard Theory (Government and Binding /GB Theory ，1981)5) The Minimalist Program (1995)What is a generative grammar ?By a generative grammar ，Chomsky simply means “a system of rules that in some explicit and well-defined way assigns structural descriptions to sentences ”. He believes that every speaker of a language has mastered and internalized a generative grammar that expresses his knowledge of his language. “Thus a generative grammar attempts to specify what the speaker actually knows ，not what he may report about his knowledge.”(Chomsky ，1965) To generate is to predict what could be the possible sentences of language. Transformation is a kind of process that transforms one sentence into another. It uses a finite number of rules to produce infinite number of sentences.4.3.1 Deep and surface structures (Chomsky)Deep structure : the abstract representation of the syntactic properties of a construction.Surface structure : the final stage in the syntactic derivation of a construction. Transformational component hastransformational rules, which change the deep structure component into surface structures.Phrase structure rules (rewriting rules)Aux tense +(M) +(perf) + (prog) M model verbPerf have + -enProg be + -ingVP V +(NP) + (PP)PP prep + NPTense pres/pastThe mother of the boy and the girl will arrive soon4.3.3 Government, binding, etc. Lectures on Government and Binding (1981) Two systems of a grammar : a rule system, a principle systemSystem of principles :1) bounding theory2) government theory3) θ-theory4) binding theory5) case theory6) control theoryBinding TheoryA.An anaphor is bound in its governing category.B. A pronominal is free in its governing category.C. An r-expression is free.Anaphor is used in a narrow sense to includereflexives like myself and reciprocals like each other. Pronominal refer to pronouns other that reflexives and reciprocals.R-expressions (referential-expressions) cover all the other r-expressions except anaphors andpronominals, e.g. John, Bill, the man.Ex.(a)John 1likes himself 1.(b)They 1hit each other 1.(c)John 1doesn ’t like Bill ’s 2criticism of himself 1.(d)John 1 likes him 2.(e)Bill 1 says John 2likes him 2.(f)Bill 1says John 2likes the man 3.4.4 The functional approach4.4.1 Functional sentence perspective(FSP) Theme : “that which is known or at least obvious in the given situation and from which the speaker proceeds ”Rheme : “what the speaker states about, or in regard to, the starting point of the utterance ”(Danes 1974) Communicative dynamism(CD): “the extent to which the sentence element contributes to thedevelopment of the communication ”(J.Firbas 1964)4.4.2 Systemic-functional grammar Three general functions of language (Halliday):Ideational function (a. experiential b. logical)Interpersonal functionTextual functionThree grammatical systems (Halliday):TransitivityMoodthemeQuestions and Exercises What is the criterion used in IC analysis? In what ways is IC analysis better than traditional parsing?What are the problems in IC analysis? Discuss Chomsky ’s binding theory in relation to the Chinese reflexive 自己.In what sense is the analysis of a sentence in terms of theme and rheme functional?。
Chapter OneInvitations to Linguistics1.1 Why Study Language⏹Language⏹Features⏹Function⏹Language learning⏹first language leaning⏹second language learning1.2 What Is Language⏹Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication.⏹System: elements in language are arranged according to certain rules.⏹Arbitrary: There is no intrinsic connection between the word and its meaning.⏹Symbolic nature of language: words are associated with objects, actions, ideas by convention.1.3 Design Features of Language⏹Design features are features that define our human language.⏹Design Features of Language(1)⏹Arbitrariness: the fact that the forms of linguistic signs bear no natural relationship to their meaning.⏹arbitrariness at different levels of a language⏹1) arbitrary relationship between the sound of a morpheme and its meaning⏹2) arbitrariness at the syntactic levelapples, pears and bananas⏹pears, apples and bananasb) He came in and sat down.⏹He sat down and came in.⏹He sat down after he came in.⏹c) She got married and had a baby.⏹She had a baby and got married.⏹d) 屡战屡败⏹屡败屡战⏹3) arbitrariness and convention⏹arbitrariness⏹→ language creative⏹convention⏹→ learnabili ty;⏹→ learning a language laborious1.3 Design Features of Language(2)⏹Duality: the property of having two levels of structures⏹1) sound— secondary units⏹2) meaning — primary units1.3 Design Features of Language(3)⏹Creativity(productivity): Users can understand and produce sentences they have never heard before.⏹1) Words can be used in new ways to mean new things.⏹mouse bridge⏹2) Its potential to create endless sentences by recursiveness （递归性）⏹e.g. a. Smith believes that the earth is flat⏹ b. Brown believes that Smith believes that the earth is flat⏹ c. Smith believes that Brown believes that Smith believes that the earth is flat⏹ d. Brown believes Smith believes that Brown believes that Smith believes that the earth is flat⏹山里有座庙，庙里有个和尚，老和尚在念经，念的什么经：山里有座庙，庙里有个和尚，老和尚在念经，念的什么经：山里有座庙，庙里有个和尚，老和尚在念经，念的什么经……1.3 Design Features of Language(4)⏹Displacement means that human languages enable their users to symbolize objects, events and concepts which arenot present (in time or space) at the moment of communication.1.3 Design Features of Language(5)⏹Cultural transmission: language is passed on through teaching and learning, rather than by instinct.1.4 Origin of Language⏹The bow-wow theory汪汪理论: imitate the sounds of the animals. onomatopoeic⏹The pooh-pooh theory噗噗理论: instinctive sounds of pain, anger and joy. interjection⏹The yo-he-ho theory哟嗬哟理论: rhythmic grunts produced when working . chantsOrigin of Language⏹The divine-origin theory⏹“So he (God) took some soil from the ground and formed all the animals and all the birds. Then he brought them to the man to see what he would name them, and that is how they got their names. So the man named all the birds and the animals,…”（Genesis，Chapter11：6）⏹The invention theory⏹ a. imitative b. cries of nature⏹ c. grunts of men working together⏹The evolution theory1.5 Functions of Language(1)⏹Jakobson⏹"Linguistics and Poetics: Closing Statement"⏹All acts of communication, be they written or oral, are contingent on six constituent elements: context, message, addresser, addressee, contact and code⏹Each of the constituent elements of the communicative act has a corresponding function; thus:⏹referential，poetic，emotive，phatic, conative and metalingual⏹context⏹REFERENTIAL⏹Addresser message addressee⏹EMOTIVE POETIC CONA TIVE⏹contact⏹PHA TIC⏹code⏹METALINGUAL⏹Referential : to convey message and information⏹Emotive: to express attitudes, feelings and emotions⏹Poetic: to indulge in language for its own sake⏹Conative: to persuade and influence others through commands and requests⏹Phatic: to establish communion with others⏹Metalingual: to clear up intentions and meanings1.5 Functions of Language(2)⏹Halliday: three metafunctions of language:⏹1) ide ational function is to organize the speaker’s or the writer’s experience of the real or imaginary world, i. e. language refers to real or imagined persons,things actions,events,states,etc.达意功能指组织说话者或作者现实或虚构世界的体验，即语言指称实际或虚构的人、物、动作、事件、状态等。
⏹2) Interpersonal function is to indicate, establish, or maintain social relationships between people.It includes forms of address, speech function, MODALITY, etc.人际功能表明、建立或维持人与人之间的社会关系，包括称谓形式，语言功能，情态等。
⏹3) Textual function is to create written or spoken TEXTs which cohere within themselves and which fit the particular situation in which they are used.⏹组篇功能指组成书面或口头的语篇，这些语篇内部连贯，并适用于所用的特定场景。
