Managing the Semantic Aspects of Learning using the Knowledge Life Cycle

外语学习的重要性（The importance of learning a foreignlanguage）Why should we learn English? Exactly, now we should think about why not learn English, but how to make English for us, because English has become ubiquitous in our life. According to statistics, 60% of the world's radio program is conducted in English, 75% TV programs are in English on the Internet, as many as 80% of the information is English, most of the International Conference on English as their first language, one of the official working languages of the United Nations or english.I agree with Thomas Friedman in "the world is a book in the flat" point of view, he believes that the process of globalization, is to the enterprise from the state to the process of personal dominate globalization integration, in the world more "flat" within the next 30 years, the world will be from "sell China" into "Chinese manufacturing" then, "Chinese design". This process we can see from the study of: from the earliest national public school to study abroad, transnational enterprise exchanges and integration; from the elite to study abroad, in recent years the study of mass. All of these have witnessed Chinese internationalization process, while English is the international bridge. It can be said that 30 years of reform and opening up Chinese, realized the transition from elite to mass study abroad, this change is accompanied by the Chinese to English gradually change and improve cognitive level.As early as two, thirty years ago, when asked why to learn English, many people may be answered: English is a piece of astepping-stone to success, is to get the Diploma in school,professional title, promotion and other essential conditions in the unit. For the people, because the environment is relatively closed, the actual work and life, almost no opportunity to use English, so long as rote, hard back, exam, pass, take the diploma can satisfy the needs of. On English learning, mostly stay in how to recite the words, how to pull the grammar and how to score high on these basic level, English is regarded as "to study science subjects" pure knowledge type, the "title sea tactics" became a ready-made panacea to solve the problem.With the promotion of reform and opening-up, our country is more and more open, economic, political, cultural and other aspects in line with international standards, the connotation of learning English is also quietly changing. For most of 70 and80 students, English is a tool, whether it is education, finda job or communicate with foreigners, can come in handy, such as Beijing Xiushui Street foreign trade market vendors, learn a few words of English will be able to pull business, earn money. People began to feel that English is useful. English is from the paper into our life and work. From the learning methods of English speaking people in this period are more concerned on the "tools" that's how to find a shortcut to clever response, the pursuit of short-term effects, ignoring long-term accumulation. However, the learning concept is flawed. Because the tool will think only when people need to use, usually on the shelf, it will be rusted".In twenty-first Century 10 years ago has been in the past, the global village, a total of second international, the global economy, the indisputable fact showed that a trend has beenChina and all over the world together, Chinese learning English, also entered the tool from era to era of capacity.More and more students to study abroad, more and more multinational companies doing business in China. In such a background, English is not just a tool, astepping-stone to success, is also a kind of ability of a successful person must have, can really play a role in learning and work. Is the important ability, it is not empty talk, not temporary.In 2010, President Obama came to a community college speech to encourage American students to actively participate in scientific research and technology. He said: "50 years ago, people don't need a diploma to a decent life, find a job in the factory will be able to feed their families. But the world has changed, a company set up shop and hire workers to the local network sales products, these changes lead to fierce competition in various countries, people are fighting for future work and industry. A few weeks ago, I went to Asia, 1 billion Indians suddenly involved in the world economy, 1 billion 300 million Chinese is also engaged in the global economy." What this means for us? Means for 90, 00 after the students, our competitors are not only domestic peers, but the world various countries of the same age elite, we only create its own ability of using English, in order to win the initiative in the fierce competition.Language is a weapon in the struggle of human survival, and English is a tool to help us move toward internationalization, its value lies in our ability to master in english.China to international, the United States is the internationalization trend of internationalization, there is no national boundaries. At present, China is integrated into the world with an open mind and speed, and the whole world is also warmly embraced Chinese. In such a great era to surge high and sweep forward, English only as a tool, astepping-stone to success, does not allow you to form competitive enough, only you really have the ability of English, not only the so-called astepping-stone to success, it also be nothing difficult, your career and life in the wings, so we should put forward the problem not "why do we have to learn English now, but" we are ready".--------------------------Adhering to the traditional harmonious inspirational Zhang Lei 2012 senior high school entrance examination English test in recent years adhering to the test type and test center span balanced traditional 2012 senior high school entrance examination English examination paper analysis, the overall difficulty coefficient is more stable. After the test change in 2011 after atypical English test in senior high school entrance examination this year, return to the public senior high school entrance examination of EnglishThe 2012 senior high school entrance examination English test in recent years adhering to the test type and test center span balanced tradition, the overall difficulty coefficient is more stable. After the test change in 2011 after atypical English test in senior high school entrance examination this year, no longer go back to the public senior high school entranceexamination in English, offbeat route. A comprehensive analysis of the English exam this year will find that each type of moderate difficulty, there is no problem in partial blame, as long as the students usually play good English, can write the correct answers. But the basic problem there is a vicious circle phenomenon, the more basic more easily makes careless mistakes, which requires students to answer carefully thinking, should not see the simple title on the excitement, it will affect the answer. From the points of the test proportion, grade one and grade two occupy a large proportion of knowledge point,That trend more weight basis in recent years the application of the senior high school entrance examination. Next analyzes each item.A radiobuttonlist.This test to test: articles, prepositions, adverbs, noun phrases, verb PK, tense, comparison, the passive voice and the object clause. In these sites, nouns, adverbs, phrasal verbs PK, tense, comparative and passive voice is almost a year compulsory senior high school entrance examination test center, and this year to examine these test sites are concentrated more intuitive. Such as the 21 questions focused on examining the use of the articles, as long as the candidates a clear the= prepositional phrase, you can successfully select the answer. Another example is the 25 question for phrasal verbs PK, up centric, different collocation verb, the problem and the 2010 radio twenty-second item options are basically the same, which reveals a rule -- the year at the senior high school entrance examination exam, and also to provide a review of the candidatespro forma information, to do the following year review of knowledge points. Another example of 27 questions, to examine the usage of Shaanxi senior high school entrance examination after 2010 and 2011 for the completion of have/has+done examination, this year the focus of test for the completion of the time since, also highlights the characteristics of human nature proposition - then again two, no time after time. The RadioButtonList, first test sites accounted for 40%, the second test accounted for 40%, three sites accounted for more than 20%, so the students basic knowledge of grade one and grade two is very important, do not lose at the starting line.Two, cloze test.The theme of the first interest in the education of different times and create a different life, profound educational significance. Compared with the 2011 test, difficulty slightly. The topic in options and questions on the intuitive question is not much, mainly the method of vocabulary sentence principle, PK principle, through the principle of the jump and jump principle. In the answer process, as long as the candidates pay attention to reading through, grasp the semantic field of Gestalt, will not lose.Three, reading comprehension.This year the main ecological environment, diligent, inspirational, innovation and local brand, in the examination of the candidates to speak while still in education, the significance of activity in recent years is also the senior high school entrance examination. In setting questions, this yearfor the details of problem examination are not many, the detail is mainly concentrated in the number, mark words and other basic reading skills. Most of the questions are the main idea of the test, the type of answer skills for the position relations, as long as the candidates in the examination on the first sentence and the last sentence of reading will be smoothly done or easily solved. In task-based reading can still find the above answer skills, the reading subject set up more complete and unified, the continuation of the topic and the characteristics of senior high school entrance examination.Four, complete the sentences and fill in the blanks according to.The two generation of questions is not so too strong in this year in the senior high school entrance examination. 5 questions are the first sentence completion test, even the spelling test vocabulary is favorite, but many candidates due to the busy mind high-end low frequency words may lead to loss of marks for this level of vocabulary is not too slobber peacetime attention. Fill in the blanks according to the center span is still concentrated in grade one and two, for example, the past tense, past, modal verbs and so on,The third point is mainly concentrated in the passive voice, when candidates answer, easy to ignore the overall tense due to the past tense right, so the answer must be careful carefully.Five, complete the conversation.The difficulty and the difficulty of keeping the whole paper, A article by recycling the subject so that the students can think about environmental issues in the answer, at the same time option basically has no set difficulty, as long as you can read and choose the correct answer. B to how as the main line, by talking about the dialogue form questions, is a topic of common subjectivity in dialogue. But the candidates need to write the sentence structure, the spelling of words in order to get the corresponding scores.Six, composition.To help others as the theme, describing the three good deeds students, embodies the concept of a harmonious society, is presented in this paper. English tips, which reduces the difficulty of writing to a certain extent. The candidates in writing, in addition to the text, may be appropriate to expand the imagination, write some full. But this will not have a ready pen, deviation, away from the theme, also won't get high marks in this formal setting of composition.In short, the 2012 senior high school entrance examination Hello everyone I am a good theme features, augurs well this year examinee achievement. But this is not a result of the high scores to the satisfaction of all, that means high scores, but also to merit, so candidates completing the volunteer must be careful, lest the situation in the surface, the wrong way.Note that:1. to base. The foundation is the key problem of clouds.The first 2. methods. The test method is correct, in advance.Data interchange for tradeA 20-year-old girl learnt she would lose the sight in her right eye when she was diagnosed with orbital cancer. But Liu Jinghuan decided to make some good come out of her misfortune and decided to donate her cornea so that others could see.For two patients with eye sickness, their dream of being able to see the world again has become a reality.All thanks to Liu Jinghuan.She was diagnosed with orbital cancer in July. To reduce the risk of the cancer cells spreading, her right eyeball had to be removed.Faced with such a harsh reality, Liu Jinghuan decided to donate her cornea.Liu said, "Many people can" t see the world. I feel good if I can help them. Although I lost my right eye, they can see the colorful world again"A 20-year-old girl learnt she would loseThe sight in her right eye when she wasDiagnosed with orbital cancer. But LiuJinghuan decided to make some good come。

《英语语言学》导学手册程可拉主编英语语言学教学大纲一、教学目的和要求英语语言学是英语本科专业的自考课程。

本课程的目的是帮助学生系统地学习语言学基本理论知识和研究方法，为从事英语语言教学与研究打下良好的基础。

本课程教学的具体要求是：１．系统掌握语言学的基本理论和基本知识。

２．能应用语言学知识分析各种语言现象。

３．能应用语言学的基本理论来指导中学英语教学。

二、教学内容I. Introduction1. Linguistics1.1 What is linguistics?1.2 Linguistics vs. traditional grammar1.3 The scope of linguistics2. Language2.1 What is language?2.2 The defining properties of human languageII. Phonology1. The phonic medium of language2. Phonetics2.1 What is phonetics?2.2 The speech organs2.3 Narrow and broad transcriptions2.4 Some major articulatory variables2.5 Classification of English speech sounds3. Phonology3.1 Phonetics and phonology3.2 Phone, phoneme and allophone3.3 Phonemic contrast, complementary distribution, and minimal pair3.4 Some rules of phonology3.5 Suprasegmental features---Stress, tone, intonationIII. Morphology1. Morphology1.1 Open classes and closed classes1.2 Internal structure of words and rules for word formation2. Morphemes---the minimal units of meaning3. Derivational and inflectional morphemes4. Morphological rules of word formation5. CompoundsIV. Syntax1. Syntax1.1 What is syntax?1.2 Sentence2. Structuralist approach2.1 Form classes2.2 Constituent structure2.3 Immediate constituent analysis2.4 Endocentric and exocentric constructions2.5 Advantage of IC analysis2.6 Labelled tree diagram2.7 Discontinuous constituents3. Transformational-generative grammar3.1 Competence and performance3.2 Criteria for judging grammars3.3 Generative aspect3.4 Transformational aspect3.5 Deep and surface structures4. The Standard Theory4.1 Components of a TG4.2 The base4.3 Transformations4.4 The form of T-rules4.5 The phonological component4.6 The semantic componentV. Semantics1. Semantics1.1 What is semantics?2. Some views on semantics2.1 Naming things2.2 Concepts2.3 Context and behaviourism2.4 Mentalism3. Lexical meaning3.1 Sense and reference3.2 Synonymy3.3 Polysemy and homonymy3.4 Hyponymy3.5 Antonymy3.6 Relational opposites4. Componential analysis4.1 Componets of meaning4.2 Meaning relations in terms of componential analysis5. Sentence meaning5.1 How to define the meaning of a sentence?5.2 Selectional restrictions5.3 Basic statements about meaning6. The semantic structure of sentences6.1 Extended use of componential analysis6.2 Prediction analysis6.3 Subordinate and downgraded predictions6.4 Advantages of predication analysisVI. Pragmatics1. What does pragmatics study?2. Speech act theory3. Principles of conversation3.1 The co-operative principle3.2 The politeness principleVII. Language change1. Introduction2. Sound change3. Morphological and syntactic change3.1 Change in “agreement” rule3.2 Change in negation rule3.3 Process of simplification3.4 Loss of inflections4. V ocabulary change4.1 Addition of new words4.2 Loss of words4.3 Changes in the meaning of words5. Some recent trends5.1 Moving towards greater informality5.2 The influence of American English5.3 The influence of science and technology6. Causes of language changeVIII. Language and society1. The scope of sociolinguistics1.1 Indications of relatedness between language and society1.2 Sociolinguistics vs. traditional linguistic study1.3 Two approaches in sociolinguistics2. Varieties of language2.1 Varieties of language related to the user2.2 Standard dialect2.3 Varieties of language related to the use3. Communicative competence4. Pidgin and creole5. Bilingualism and diglossiaIX. Language and culture1. Introduction2. What is culture?3. Language and meaning4. Interdependence of language and culture5. The significance of cultural teaching and learning6. Linguistics evidence of cultural differences6.1 Greetings6.2 Thanks and compliments6.3 Terms of address6.4 Colour words6.5 Privacy and taboos6.6 Rounding off numbers7. Cultural overlap and diffusion8. ConclusionX. Language acquisition1. Introduction1.1 Language acquisition1.2 The beginning of language1.3 Stages in first language acquisition1.4 Age and native language acquisition1.5 Common order in the development of language1.6 Different rate of language development2. Phonological development2.1 Regular sound development2.2 Mother and father words2.3 Grammatical development2.4 Vocabulary development2.5 Sociolinguistic development3. Theories of child language acquisition3.1 A behaviorist view of language acquisition3.2 A nativist view of language acquisitionXI. Errors analysis and second language acquisition1. Differences and similarities between first and second language acquisition2. The inadequacy of imitation theory3. Interference3.1 Phonological evidence3.2 Lexical evidence3.3 Grammatical evidence4. Cross-association5. Overgeneralization6. Strategies of communication7. Performance errors三、教学原则和方法１．启发式教学原则：教师积极引导学生理解分析问题，发挥学生的主观能动性，培养他们综合分析问题解决问题的能力。

知识管理的名词解释英语Knowledge Management (KM) is a discipline that encompasses a range of strategies and practices aimed at identifying, capturing, organizing, storing, retrieving, and utilizing an organization's knowledge assets to foster innovation, increase efficiency, and improve decision-making capabilities. It involves a systematic and structured approach to managing knowledge within an organization to ensure that valuable knowledge is shared and leveraged effectively.At its core, KM recognizes that knowledge is a critical asset that holds the potential to drive competitive advantage and business success. It is not limited to explicit knowledge that is codified and easily transferable, but also encompasses tacit knowledge, which resides in an individual's experiences, insights, and intuition. By harnessing both forms of knowledge, organizations can unlock hidden potential and facilitate effective collaboration across teams and departments.One of the key components of KM is knowledge creation. This involves the generation of new knowledge through various means such as research and development, experimentation, or simply by leveraging the collective intelligence of the organization. Innovation, creativity, and continuous learning play significant roles in this process. Organizations that prioritize knowledge creation foster an environment that encourages curiosity, experimentation, and risk-taking, allowing for the discovery of new insights and opportunities.Another important aspect of KM is knowledge capture. This refers to the process of identifying and capturing knowledge from various sources within the organization, including individuals, documents, databases, and even external networks. Captured knowledge is then organized and stored in a format that is easily accessible and searchable. This allows for efficient retrieval of information when needed, enabling employees to quickly find and apply relevant knowledge to their work.Knowledge organization and categorization are critical to effective KM. Information and knowledge need to be classified and structured in a way that reflects theorganization's goals, processes, and workflows. This often involves the use of taxonomies, ontologies, and metadata to categorize and tag knowledge assets, making them easily discoverable and retrievable. Additionally, knowledge management systems and technologies, such as intranets, databases, and content management systems, are used to facilitate the organization and storage of knowledge.Knowledge sharing and dissemination play a fundamental role in KM. Organizations must establish channels and platforms that enable employees to share their knowledge and experiences with others. This can take the form of formal training programs, communities of practice, knowledge sharing sessions, or even social collaboration tools. By sharing knowledge, organizations benefit from collective insights, avoid reinventing the wheel, and foster a culture of learning and collaboration.Beyond sharing, KM also emphasizes the importance of knowledge utilization. It's not enough to simply hoard knowledge; organizations must actively encourage and facilitate the application of knowledge in decision-making processes and problem-solving activities. This requires the integration of knowledge into various business processes and systems, ensuring that it is available and utilized at the point of need.Moreover, KM also encompasses knowledge evaluation and improvement. Organizations need to continuously assess the relevance, accuracy, and effectiveness of their knowledge assets. This involves monitoring usage patterns, soliciting feedback from users, and regularly updating and improving knowledge resources to ensure their continued usefulness and relevance.In conclusion, Knowledge Management is a multifaceted discipline aimed at maximizing the value and impact of an organization's knowledge assets. It involves a range of strategies and practices, from knowledge creation and capture to organization, sharing, utilization, and evaluation. By adopting effective KM practices, organizations can foster a culture of learning, innovation, and collaboration, leading to improved performance and sustained success.。

跨文化商务沟通复习资料第一章一．文化适应的四个维度P9Dimensions of AcculturationIntegration - persons become an integral part of the new culture while maintaining their cultural integritySeparation - individuals keep their culture and stay independent of the new culture Assimilation - persons are absorbed into their new culture and withdraw from their old cultureDeculturation - individuals lose their original culture and do not accept the new culture第二章不作为考试重点第三章一．不同文化的人们对待女性，道德标准以及工作的态度不同P47~P56①Attitudes Toward Women：Influenced by cultural roots;U.S. women are supposed to have the same rights as men;Kenya women are considered subordinate to men;Gender differences in the U.S. workplace are de-emphasized - women are accepted at higher levels in government and in many companies；U.S. women have taken two-thirds of new jobs created; they are starting new businesses at twice the rate of men;In France, one-fifth of small businesses are owned by women; in Canada, the rate is one-third；The U.S. and Canada lead the world in the number of women in executive positions; Northern and Western Europe, Australia, and New Zealand also have high numbers of women managers.Percentage of Women in Top Management Positions:The Russian Federation 42%，European Union 30%,Australia 23%,United Kingdom 21%,United States 20%,Japan 7%.②Cultural Attitudes Toward Work:Work ethic - hard work is applauded and rewarded; not working is viewed negatively. U.S. persons value work; executives work-56 hours per week.-take 14 days of vacation a year.European persons work-36 to 41 hours per week.-take 4 to 6 weeks of vacation a year.Europeans:Relaxed;Vacation during month of August;Do not work weekends or holidays (The French take longer vacations than people of any other country.) Australians:Value free time; Value short work weekJapanese :Work Monday through Friday, often 18 hours a day;Work until their boss leaves③Attitudes Toward Ethics:Ethical behavior means acting with integrity, honesty, competence, respect, fairness, trust, courage, and responsibility.Ethical standards are guidelines established to convey what is perceived to be corrector incorrect behavior by most people in a society.Ethics: The Four-Way Test:Is it the truth?Is it fair to all concerned?Will it build goodwill and better friendships?Will it be beneficial to all concerned?二．个人主义和集体主义P57Individualism - attitude of valuing ourselves as separate individuals with responsibility for our own destinies and actions.Collectivism - emphasizes common interests, conformity, cooperation, and interdependence.第四章一．文化冲击的阶段P69Stages of Cultural Shock:Stage 1: Excitement and fascination with the new culture; the "honeymoon" stage. Stage 2: Crisis or disenchantment period; excitement has turned to disappointment. Stage 3: Adjustment phase; you begin to accept the new culture, try new foods, see the h umor in situations.Stage 4: Acceptance or adaptation phase; feel at home in the new culture and become involved in activities of the culture.Stage 5: Reentry shock; follows the stages identified earlier: initial euphoria, crisis or disenchantment, adjustment, and adaptation.二．如何缓解文化冲击P71~P74To alleviate cultural shock, try to see the environment from the perspective of the host nationals.①慎重挑选外派人员Alleviating Cultural Shock by Careful Selection of Overseas Personnel(Sensitive, cooperative, able to compromise;Open to others' opinions;Reaction to new situations; appreciation of cultural differences;Understanding of own values and aware-ness of values in other cultures;Reaction to criticism;Understanding governmentsystem;Ability to develop contacts in new culture;Patience and resiliency.)②提供出国前培训Intellectual or classroom model - involves giving facts about the host country using a variety of instructional methods;Area training or simulation model - emphasizes affective goals, culture specific content, and experiential processes;Self-awareness or human relations model - based on the assumption that the trainee with self-understanding will be more effective in the overseas assignment;Cultural awareness model - emphasizes cultural insight and stresses affective goals and an experiential process;Interaction approach - participants interact with people in the host country; Multidimensional approach - attempts to combine cognitive, affective, and behavioral aspects of training;③提供反馈和奖励Reward systems include special allowances for housing, hardship, home leave, medical, taxes, etc.Appraisal and reward system must reflect the purpose and expectations of theassignment (profit or building a presence in the country).Reward system must compensate for what persons are leaving behind and must be based on the idea of equity④发挥员工的最大潜力Developing Employees to Their Potential:Plan for repatriation, including reasons for the assignment and how the employee will contribute to the company upon his/her return.Allow adequate time for readjustment before employee reports to work.Provide appropriate compensation for transition expenses.Assist in locating proper housing.Show appreciation to family for their contributions.第五章一．高语境和低语境的语言P86High-Context Language 特点：Low-Context Language 特点：二．线性语言和非线性的语言P90Linear Language:Has a beginning and an end;Is logical;Is object oriented;Linear languages look at time on a continuum of present, past, and future (English).Nonlinear Language:Is circular;Is tradition oriented;Is subjective;Nonlinear languages view time asLow Context -Get down to business first -Value expertise and performance -Agreement by specific, legalistic -contract -Negotiates as efficiently as possible High Context -Establish social trust first -Value personal relations and goodwill -Agreement by general trust -Negotiations slow and ritualistic -Nonverbal; cultural aspects are important-Language transmits little of explicit messageExample: Japanese language Chinese language-Restricted code - speech coding system of high-context languages; spoken statement reflects the social relationship-Message is explicit-May be given in more than one way to assure understanding-Very direct and verbalExample: U.S. English (high-context language viewed as a waste of time) Example: Spanish language-Elaborated code - speech coding system of low-context languages; verbal elaboration is necessary due to few shared assumptionscyclical and seasons as ever-repeating pattern (Chinese and Japanese).三．寓言和谚语P92四．语言的性质P94How Languages Differ①②①Syntactic Rules – arrangement of words in a sentence. Subject, verb, object can be combined in six possible ways. English follows mainly a subject-verb-object order (as do French and Spanish). Japanese and Korean have the preferred order of subject-object-verb. Hebrew and Welsh follow verb-subject-object. The object does not come first in any language.②Meanings - Denotative (Japanese Spider Crab), Connotative (Alaskan King Crab), and Figurative (kicking the bucket)Variations in Verbal Style①②③④⑤⑥（了解）①Japanese Verbal Style:The Japanese converse without responding to what the other person says. Emphasis is on nonverbal communication so they do not listen.They prefer less talkative persons and value silence.The Japanese prefer a person say something in as few words as possible.They make excuses at the beginning of a talk for what they are about to say. They do not want apologies for was already said.They use “yes” to mean many different things.②Mexican Verbal Style:The Mexican style seems overly dramatic and emotional by U.S. persons.Mexicans rise above fact; they embellish facts; eloquence is admired.They like to use diminutives, making the world smaller and more intimate.They add suffixes to words to shrink problems. Mexicans come across as less than truthful.Their rationale involves two types of reality - objective and interpersonal. Mexicans want to keep people happy for the moment. When asked directions, if they do not know the answer, they will make up something to appear to be helpful.③Chinese Verbal Style:The Chinese understate or convey meanings indirectly. They use vague terms and double negatives. Even criticism is indirect.Harmony is very important. During negotiations, the Chinese state their position in such a way that seems repetitious.They do not change their point of view without discussing it with the group.They speak humbly and speak negatively of their supposedly meager skills and those of their subordinates and their family.④Verbal Styles in the Arab World:The Arabs encourage eloquence and “flowery” prose. They are verbose, repetitious, and shout when excited.For dramatic effect, they punctuate remarks with pounding the table and making threatening gestures.Arabs view swearing, cursing, and the use of obscenities as offensive.They like to talk about religion and politics but avoid talking about death, illness, and disasters. Emotional issues are avoided.The first name is used immediately upon meeting but may be preceded by the title “Mr.” or “Miss.”⑤German Verbal Style:In the German language, the verb often comes at the end of the sentence. In oral communication, Germans do not get to the point right away.Germans are honest and direct; they stick to the facts. They are a low-context people; everything is spelled out.Germans usually do not use first names unless they are close friends (of which they have few).They do not engage in small talk; their conversations are serious on a wide variety of topics. Avoid conversations related totheir private lives.⑥Language Variations in the U.S.Age - some word s are specific to an age group (“cool”).Gender - men speak more, they repeat more, and more often than women; women are more emotional and use such terms as “sweet,” “darling,” and “dreadful.”Race - Black English includes such terms as rapping (a narration to a musical beat). Regional Variations - distinctive language patterns exist between various parts of the United States.五．语言和文化的相互影响 P102Sapir-Whorf Hypothesis - The main idea is that language functions as a way of shaping a person’s experience, not just a device for reporting that experience. Both structural and semantic aspects of a language are involved.Linguistic determinism is the assumption that a person’s view of reality stems mainly from his or her language. Ex: The absence of the word snow in Inuit, the language of the Eskimo people. The language does, however, have numerous words for types of snow, while other languages do not have the equivalent of flaky snow or crusty snow.Bernstein Hypothesis - explains how social structure affects language and is an extension of the Sapir-Whorf Hypothesis. Bernstein considers culture, subculture, social context, and social system to be part of social structure. Speech emerges in one of two codes - restricted or elaborated. Channels used in the restricted code would be oral, nonverbal, and paralinguistic. Restricted codes would include highly predictable messages. Elaborated codes are used with strangers; involve messages that are low in predictability. Give very explicit information. The verbal channel is important in elaborated codes, while restricted codes make use of nonverbal and paralinguistic cues.第六章看案例第七章不考第八章一．电子通讯礼仪P157Electronic Communication EtiquetteWhen communicating by telephone, the initial impression is formed more on vocal quality than on words spoken.Good telephone manners include answering the phone promptly, identifying yourself properly, and being courteous at all times.When using voice mail, be brief but complete when leaving a message.When using e-mail, avoid negative or personal information.Proper netiquette avoids the following:shouting - typing the message in all capital lettersdissing - speaking ill of someoneflaming - sending vicious, insulting messagesspamming - mass mailings of commercial advertisements or material cross-posted to numerous newsgroups.二．小费文化P160Tipping:People communicate nonverbally by their tipping practices; those who are basically stingy and those who are basically generous will reveal these traits by their tipping behavior.“Insult tipping” (leaving a few coins) shows a lack of breeding and is always inappropriate.Although a tip of 15 percent of the bill used to be considered a generous tip in fine restaurants, 20 percent is now closer to the norm when the service is excellent.第九章特色食品和饮食禁忌P187Unusual Foods:特色U.S. - corn-on-the-cob, grits, popcorn, marshmallows, crawfishSouth Korea - dog meatSaudi Arabia - sheep's eyeballsMexico - chicken's feet in chicken soupChina - duck's feetRussia - Danish pastry stuffed with raw cabbageSome African countries - gorillaConsumption Taboos:禁忌U.S. - horse meat and dog meatStrict Muslims - pork and alcoholOrthodox Jews - pork, shellfish, meat, and milk togetherHindus - beef。

A Brief Introduction to Communicative Language TeachingMethodDefinitionCommunicative language teaching is an approach to the teaching of second and foreign languages that emphasizes interaction as both the means and the ultimate goal of learning a language. It is also referred to as ―communicative approach to the teaching of foreign languages‖ or simply the ―communicative approach‖.Background and development of communicative language teaching The idea of communicative language teaching developed in the UK in the early70s. The earliest reference to the term, according to Brumfit, was made in Candlin’spaper ―Sociolinguistics and Communicative Language Teaching‖ presented to theconference in London in 1971. The socio-linguistic theory emphasizes onmeaning and communication and attempts to develop learners’communicative competencefrom the socio-cognitive perspective. Rules should not be learned in isolation but should be linked with the functional usesof language. These specific functional needs of the learner have to be ascertained by aneeds analysis. Use, not merely usage, should be the objective of the CLTteacher. CLT thus posited an approach towards language teaching.Since the notion of ―communicative competence‖wasfirst put forward by Hymes in 1972, many researchers and scholars havedeveloped theoriesand practices of CLT method. With theadvance of the notion, CLT approach have developed as an important language teachingmethod and replaced the previous traditional grammar teaching methods gradually.Hymes introduced the concept of ―communicative competence‖ in order to contrast toChomsky's view of ―linguisticcompetence‖. Chomsky made a differentiation betweenlinguistic competence and linguistic performance.For Chomsky, the focus oflinguistic study is to show the speaker's abstract abilities which make them producegrammatically correct sentences. Hymes pointed out that such a view of linguistic study wasmeaningless, linguistic theory should be seen as part of a broader theory combiningcommunication and culture and stated that Chomsky'scategory of performance, which included just psychological restraints on performance and ignored all factors of socialinteraction.In Hymes' opinion, a person who acquires communicative competence acquires notonly the grammatical knowledge but also the ability to use the language as for if something isformally possible; if something is practical by the way of implementation available; ifsomething is appropriate in relation to a context that it is used; if something is done in fact.The main characteristics and principles of CLTCLT derives its essential characteristics from the fact that at every stage-the setting oflearning objectives, the development of learning contents, the elaboration and implementationof classroom activities, the judgment of learners' progress, and the definition of a syllabus—itfocuses on language as a medium of communication (Little, 1991). CLT has manycharacteristics which can be summarized as follows:(1) Language teaching should pay more attention on meaning rather thanform;(Johnson,1982; Bnunfit, 1981);(2)Fluencyshould be emphasized beforeaccuracy (Finocchiaro&Bnmifit, 1981);(3)After the learners have achieved fluency, the accuracy ofexpression should become the focus of teaching (Savignon, 1983);(4)The sequence of language presentation should be based on the semanticconsiderations and the analysis of learners' needs rather than according to linguistic structure(Munby,1978);(5) Since learning a language means learning to do things by way of the language,language teaching should be on the basis of activities (Littlewood, 1981);(6)CLT focus systematic on functional as well as structural views of language, integrating these views into a more fully communicative idea (Littlewood, 1981);(7)Since authentic communication needs a real exchange of information, classroom communication should have information gap (Prabhu,1987);(8)Since language use is the main goal of language teaching, learners should be exposedto real language in use on the basis of real materials (Allright,1981);(9)Learners should be encouraged to improve the strategies to communicate meaning inreal situations which may be above their present level of language proficiency (Canale,1983);(10) Learners should become subtle to the notion of suitableness in communication (Canale,1983).Richands and Rogers stated that ―there are some principles to be taken into considerationin practice: the task principle, the communication principle and theprinciple.‖ The followings are seven principles of CLT which s ummarized by Berns in 1990.(1) Language teaching is on the basis of the notion that language is used forcommunication. That is, language is viewed as a social tool which speakers use to makemeaning and communicate with someone about something for some purpose.(2) Diversity is recognized and accepted as a part of language development.(3) A learner's competence is viewed in relative, not in absolute aspects.(4) Over one variety of a language is recognized as a feasible sample for languageteaching and learning.(5) No single methodology or regular set of techniques is provided.(6) Language use is considered as serving textual, ideational, and interpersonal functionsand is bound up with the development of learners' competence.(7)It is fundamental that learners should be at devoted to doing things with language—that is, they use language for a lot of purposes in all periods of learning.Classroom ProceduresSano, et al (1984) argues that communicative language teaching should meet the local needs and the methodology of FL teaching should vary significantly according to the environments in which teachers find themselves working. Based on the teaching aim at the secondary schools in Japan "linguistic competence plus an ability to use the language appropriately", teachers from the communicative Teaching Society chose a method of teaching English which would be effective and appropriate in Japan and which was different from that of CLT developing in Europe at about the same time.Their procedures is :1) Warm-up.This offers learners interesting language activities to relax them and to let them use English creatively. Establishing a non-threatening environment is given prime importance here.2) Introduction of new grammatical items. This is usually carried out through conversion between the teacher and learners concerning objects or incidents familiar to them.... After eliciting appropriate responses for learners, the teacher explains the meaning of the items briefly in Japanese.3)Practice.This is generally carried out either by stimulating learners’ intellectual curiosity or by appealing to their emotional value judgments. Self—expression, activities, though sometimes quite limited in scope, are incorporated even at the earliest stage. C are is also taken to make learning and Production ―deep‖ .4) Reading the text.This includes listening to the tape of a ―gist‖explanation of the content, as well reading the text both silently and aloud.5) Communicative practice. This requires not only mastery of the target item, but also creative use of the knowledge of language so far acquired. It can be totally oral, but quite often involves some writing.There is another procedure designed by Terry Moston and Malcolm Sexton which is a systematic collection of exercise-types. They are:1) Organizing Information. Exercises in this phase focus on ways of encouraging learners to check their basic understanding of a variety of texts in a controlled way, using a range of matching and multiple choice exercises linked to various written, pictorial and heard stimuli.2) Implanting Skills. Here exercises introduce controlled simulations, designed to exploitthevariety of social meanings contained with particular grammatical structures in different situations. Once again the exercises make use of a range of stimuli.3) Developing Skills. Exercises in this phase are intended to enable the learner to make productive use of his language, but still within controlled situations.Gradually,however, the exercises encourage manage transfer to those situations and areas of interest which are personal to the hearer.4) Using Skills.In this open-ended phase, exercises concentrate on language charts and discourse plans to stimulate the production of extended spoken and written communication.Evaluation(1)Advantages of CLTCommunication—According to AbilityWhether CLT should be considered an approach or a methodology is a more abstract debate and here I want to deal with its more practical aspects. In fact, it is those very elements, and the name itself, which have been used to challenge the future relevance of CLT. Firstly, the label implies a focus on communication and some might argue that this method can't be employed genuinely with low levels as there is no authentic communication, due to a limited vocabulary and restricted range of functions. Initially, many of a learner's utterances are very formulaic. As an aside, consider just what percentage of our own English expressions are unique, and how often we rely on a set phrase; just because it is delivered unselfconsciously and with natural intonation does not make it original. The aim is that the length and complexity of exchanges, and confident delivery, will grow with the student's language ability.With the emphasis on communication, there is also the implication that spoken exchanges should be authentic and meaningful; detractors claim that the artificial nature of classroom–based (i.e. teacher - created) interactions makes CLT an oxymoron. Nevertheless, a proficient teacher will provide a context so that class interactions are realistic and meaningful but with the support needed to assist students to generate the target language. We need to consider that producing language is a skill and when we learn a skill we practise in improvised settings. For example, before a nurse gives a real injection, they have punctured many a piece of fruit to hone their technique.Accuracy as Well as InfluencyThis focus on accuracy versus fluency is one of the issues not often considered in a discussion of CLT. The teacher decides to pay attention to one or other end of this band, depending on the type of lesson, or the stage of a particular lesson, and accuracy is their choice if they want to deal with students getting things right, take an opportunity for correction, or gauge the success of their teaching, for example. Freerspeaking involves more choice, therefore more ambiguity, and less teacher intervention. While CLT implies the lessons are more student-centered, this does not mean they are un-structured. The teacher does have a very important role in the process, and that is setting up activities so that communication actually happens. There is a lot of preparation; accuracy practice is the bridge to a fluency activity. By implication, CLT involves equipping students with vocabulary, structures and functions, as well as strategies, to enable them to interact successfully.Promoting LearningThis returns us to the consideration of who we are teaching, and why. Are our students aiming to learn or acquire English? Do they need to know lexical items and linguistic rules as a means of passing an exam, or do they want to be able to interact in English? For those inclined to maintain the dichotomy between learning and acquisition, and who argue that our primary focus is learners, CLT still has relevance. It is timely to review an early definition of CLT. According to Richards and Rodgers, in Guangwei Hu, CLT is basically about promoting learning.(2)DisadvantagesThe style also is potential limited to certain types of student. For instance, it might benefit field-independent students rather than field- dependent students, extroverts rather than introverts, and less academic students rather than academic students. The CLT is not appropriate to students with an interest in language structure or a desire for personal liberation.ConclusionCLT is an innovation in language teaching. It emerged as a new teaching method in Britain in the 1970s and became popular since than. It views language as a vehicle for communication. It recognizes as its aim the teaching of communicative competence, which includes grammatical competence, sociolinguistic competence, discourse competence and strategic competence. Communicative activities play an important role in developing communicative competence and are an important part in communicative classrooms. In communicative classrooms, the teacher's role is facilitator and co-communicator while students become communicators. The communicative teaching procedure has no fixed format and can vary with local needs. Teachers can use CLT flexibly according to their teaching context. With theknowledge of CLT and a better understanding of CLT principles, teachers are likely to succeed in education.Reference(1)Allright, R 1981. Language leaning through communicative practice. In K. Johnson.& K. Morrow (Eds.), Communication in the Classroom. London: Longman.(2)Berns, Margie S. 1990. Contexts of Competence: Social andCultural Consideration inCommunicative Language Teaching. New York: Plenum Press.(3)Hymes, D. 1972. On Communicative Competence. [M]. Harmondsworth: Penguin.(4)Hymes, D. 1979. On Communicative Competence: The Communicative Approach to Language Teaching. Eds. C. J. Bnimfit&K Johnson. Oxfor3: Oxford University Press(5)Cai, Kun(蔡坤). 2002.交际教学法的理论、实践与思考，[J] 广西师范大学学报(1)。

优秀英语作文范文《The Difficulty of Learning Chinese》500字The Difficulty of Learning ChineseLearning Chinese is frustratingly difficult for many students around the world. There are several reasons why Chinese is so difficult, but chief among them are its complicated writing system and vast vocabulary.Firstly, the writing system of Chinese is very unique, unlike any other language in the world. The writing consists mainly of characters, which require memorization of hundreds or thousands of individual symbols in order to effectively write and comprehend the language. Furthermore, these characters are all composed of a combination of strokes rendered from top to bottom and left to right, which further complicate the language. For students who have no prior knowledge of Chinese, learning the writing system is a daunting task that can take up a great deal of time.Secondly, Chinese is one of the largest languages on Earth, with an immense amount of words to learn. Students must become familiar with the different tones, pronunciation, and semantic aspects of the language in order to accurately speak it. Moreover, Chinese contains many unfamiliar homophones and homographs, providing even more difficulty to those attempting to master it.Despite these difficulties, learning Chinese is possible with enough dedication and effort. All students must do is to focus on building a strong foundation, gradually increasing their knowledge until they understand more complex aspects of the language. Additionally, students should practice their writing and speaking as much aspossible in order to build fluency. With hard work and effective study strategies, anyone can successfully learn Chinese.In conclusion, Chinese is a difficult language to learn, due to its complex writing system and extensive vocabulary. However, with consistent effort and strong determination, individuals can overcome these hurdles and eventually become proficient in the language.。