应用语言学的基本理论一、本文概述Overview of this article《应用语言学的基本理论》是一篇旨在深入探讨应用语言学核心理论及其在实践中的应用的文章。
应用语言学作为语言学的一个重要分支，主要关注语言在各种实际环境中的应用，如教育、社会交际、商务、媒体、法律等。
本文将概述应用语言学的基本概念、发展历程，以及其核心理论和主要研究领域，以期为读者提供一个全面而深入的理解框架。
The Basic Theory of Applied Linguistics is an article aimed at delving into the core theories of applied linguistics and their practical applications. Applied linguistics, as an important branch of linguistics, mainly focuses on the application of language in various practical environments, such as education, social communication, business, media, law, etc. This article will outline the basic concepts, development process, core theories, and main research areas of applied linguistics, in order to provide readers with a comprehensiveand in-depth understanding framework.我们将首先界定应用语言学的定义和范围，明确其与纯理论语言学的区别和联系。
接着，我们将回顾应用语言学的发展历程，从其起源到现代的发展动态，以揭示其理论和实践的演变轨迹。
第二部分专业词汇中英文对照AAccept error 错误地接受，不该接受而接受Acceptance sampling 接收抽样Accommodation 顺应（对待冲突的策略）Accuracy and effective control systems 准确性和有效控制系统Achievement-oriented leader 成就导向型领导者Acid-test ratios 速动比率Acquisition 兼并，购入，收购Active listening 积极倾听Activities 活动Activity-based accounting (ABC) 基于活动的会计核算Adhocracy 专家委员会式的组织，有机式组织Adjourning 解体Advertisement 广告Affective component of an attitude态度的情感成分Affiliation and groups 归属和群体Affirmative action programs 确认行动计划Age Discrimination in Employment Act 反就业年龄歧视法案Agreeableness 随和Agriculture 农业Americans with Disabilities Act (ADA)美国人对待残疾法案Analytic decision-making style 分析型决策制定风格Anthropology courses 人类学教程（课程）Application form 申请表Arab leaders 阿拉伯籍领导者Ascribed status 归因性地位，从属性地位Assertiveness 专断，肯定Assessing environment 环境评估Assessor-developers 评估者——开发者Assumed similarity 假定相似性Attentional processes 注意过程Attitudes 态度Attractiveness 吸引力Attribute sampling 属性抽样Attribution theory 归因理论Audits 审计Australia 澳大利亚Authority 职权，权威Autocratic style of leadership 专制型领导Automation and repetitive task 自动化和重复性工作Autonomy 自主性，自主权Availability heuristic 只利用现有信息决策的取巧途径，以易代难倾向Avoidance 回避BBackground investigation 背景调查Bargaining 讨价还价，争价，谈判Bargaining strategies 争价策略，谈判策略Bargaining zone 讨价还价区，争价区，谈判区Barriers 障碍Basic corrective action 彻底纠错行动Behavioral component of an attitude态度的行为成分Behavioral decision-making style 行为型决策制定风格Behavioral science theorists 行为科学理论家Behavioral symptoms 行为表征Behavioral theories of leadership 领导的行为理论Behaviorally anchored rating scales (BARS)行为定位评分法Benchmarkng 标杆瞄准，基准化Benefits 福利，效益，收益Big-five model 决定性五因素模型Biographical data 生平数据Blue-collar workers 蓝领工人Body language 身体语言Borderless organization 无界组织（内部）Boss 上司，老板Boundaryless organization 无边界组织Bounded rationality 有限理性Brainstorming 头脑风暴法Break-even analysis 盈亏平衡分析Budget 预算Bureaucracy 官僚行政组织Bureaucratic control 行政控制Business Insight 商业眼光，商业洞察力Business plan 商业计划CCalm waters metaphor “风平浪静”观Canada 加拿大Career 职业生涯Center for creative leadership in North Carolina 北卡罗莱纳创造型领导中心Centrality and power 中央和权力Centralization 集权化，集权Certainty 确定性Chain of command 指挥链Change 变革Change agent 变革推动者Change process 变革过程Channel 渠道Chaos 混乱，混沌Chaotic change 混乱的变化Characteristics 特征，特点Charismatic leadership 魅力型领导Charismatic leadership theory 魅力型领导理论Chile 智利China 中国Civil Rights Act 民权法案Clan control 家族控制Classical approach 经典观念，经典学派Client\servers 客户/服务器Closed system 封闭系统Coach 教练Code of ethics 道德规范Coercion and reducing resistance to change 强制以减少变革的阻力Coercive power 强制权力，强制权Cognitive component of an attitude态度的认知成分Cognitive dissonance 认知失调Cohesiveness and productivity 内聚力与生产率Collaboration 合作Collective bargaining agreement 集体谈判协议Collectivism 集体主义College courses 大学课程，大学教程Colombia 哥伦比亚Combination strategy 组合战略Commitment 承诺，义务Communication 沟通Communication apprehension 沟通疑虑Communication process 沟通过程Communications and diversity 沟通和多样性Comparison referent 对比指标Compensation administration 薪酬管理Compensation and benefits 薪酬和福利Competencies 技能，专长，能力，胜任特征Competency-based compensation 基于能力的报酬Competitive advantage 竞争优势Competitive intelligence 竞争对手情报（收集）Competitive strategy 竞争战略Compressed workweek 压缩工作周Compromise 妥协Computer-aided design (CAD) 计算机辅助设计Computer monitoring 计算机监控Conceptual competencies 概念技能，抽象能力Concluder-producers 推论者——生产者Concurrent control 并行控制，同期控制Conditional maintenance 条件维护Conflict 冲突Conflict management 冲突管理Conflict reduction 冲突减少Conflict-handling style 冲突处理风格Conforming and group decision-making 一致与群体决策Conformity 一致性Conscientiousness 正直Consideration 关心Consistency 一贯性Constitution 宪法，法律Consultation 顾问，咨询Contemporary theories of motivation 当代激励理论Contingency approach 权变观念，权变学派Contingency variables 权变变量Contingent work force 应急工Contingent workers 临时工Continuous improvements 持续改进，不断改进Continuous improvement methods持续改进方法Contract workers 合同工Control 控制Control process 控制过程Controller-inspectors 控制者——检查者Controlling 控制（职能）Cooperativeness 合作Cooptation/manipulation and reducing resistance to change 增选/操纵以减少变革的阻力Core competency 核心专长Core employees 核心员工Corporate stars 企业明星Corrective action and effective control systems 纠错行动和有效控制系统Cost control 成本控制Cost-benefit analysis 成本效益分析Cost-center approach 成本中心法Cost-leadership strategy 成本领先战略Counseling employees 员工咨询Country-club management 乡村俱乐部型管理Court cases 法庭案件Cover letters 自荐信Creativity 创造力Creator-innovators 创造者——创新者Credibility 信度Critical incidents 关键事件Critical path 关键路径Criticism of planning 对计划的批评Cross-functional work team 跨职能型工作团队Cultural differences and motivation 文化差异和动机Cultural environment 文化氛围，文化环境Culture 文化Culture and personality 文化与个性Current ratio 流动比率Curriculums 课程Custom manufacturing 定制生产Customer departmentalization 按顾客划分部门Customer service 顾客服务Cyberspeak 电脑语言DData 数据Debt-to-assets ratio 资产负债率Decentralization 分权化，分权Decision criteria 决策准则Decision implementation 决策实施Decision-making aids and techniques 决策制定辅助技术Decision-making process 决策制定过程Decision trees 决策树Decisional roles 决策角色Decisions 决策Decline career stage 职业生涯衰退阶段Decoding 解码Decruitment 解聘Delegating style 授权风格Delegation 授权Democratic style of leadership 民主型领导Denmark 丹麦Departmentalization 部门划分Depression 不景气，沮丧Designs 设计Deterrence-based trust 基于威慑的信任Developing a Management Skill 发展管理技能Development 发展Devil’s advocate吹毛求疵者Differences 差异，不同Differentiation strategy 差异化战略Dimensions 维度Direct costs 直接成本Directional plans 指导性计划Directive decision-making style 指导型决策制定风格Directive leader 指导型领导Discipline 纪律Discretion 谨慎，决策Disseminator role 传播者角色Distribution technology 销售（分配）技术Distinctive competency 独特专长Distributive bargaining 零和分配争价（结局）Disturbance-handler role 故障排除者角色Diversity 多样化Division of labor 劳动分工Division of work 专业化Divisional structure 事业部型结构Downsizing 缩小规模Dress codes 着装规范Driving forces 驱动力Dysfunctional conflict 功能失调的冲突Dysfunctional side of controls 控制的功能失调方面Ee-commerce 电子商务Economic order quantity model (EOQ)经济定货批量模型Economics 经济学Economy 经济Economy and effective control systems 经济性和有效控制系统Education/communication and reducing resistance to change 教育/沟通以减少变革的阻力Effectiveness 效果Efficiency 效率Effort-performance linkage 努力--绩效的关系Electronic meeting 电子会议Elements 要素，元素E-mail 电子邮件Emotional stability 情绪稳定Emotion intelligence (EI) 情商Emotions and effective communication 情绪和有效沟通Empathy 心领神会Employee assistance programs (EAPs)员工帮助计划Employee benefits 员工福利Employee counseling 员工咨询Employee development 员工发展Employee leasing 员工租用Employee monitoring 员工监督Employee oriented 员工导向的Employee referrals 员工推荐Employee stock ownership plans (ESOPs)员工持股计划Employee training 员工培训Employee-oriented 面向员工的Employment planning 雇佣计划Empowering 赋权Empowerment and leadership 赋权和领导Empowerment skills 赋权技能Encoding 编码End-users 终用户，终端用户Entrepreneur role 企业家角色Entrepreneurial spirit 企业家精神，创业精神Entrepreneurs 企业家，创业家Entrepreneurship 创业Environment 环境Environment affecting structure 环境影响结构Environmental scanning 环境扫描Environmental sensitivity and charismatic leadership 环境敏感性和魅力型领导Epirit de corps 团结精神Equal Pay Act 平等工资法案Equity theory 公平理论Escalation of commitment 过度承诺Establishment 建立Esteem needs 尊重需要Ethics 道德Ethnocentric view 以自我为中心的观点Europe 欧洲Events 事件Exceptions and effective control systems 例外和有效控制系统Expectancy theory 期望理论Expert power 专家权力，专长权Expert systems 专家系统Exploration （职业发展的）探索期Explorer-promoters 探索者——促进者Extinction 消除Extroversion 外向FFacilitation/support and reducing resistance to change 促进/支持以减少变革的阻力Fair labor standards 公平劳动标准Family and Medical Leave Act 家庭和医疗假期法案Family-friendly benefits 家庭福利Fayol’s 14法约尔14项管理原则Feedback 反馈Feedback control 反馈控制Feedforward control 前馈控制Fiedler contingency model 菲德勒权变模型Figurehead 挂名首脑Filtering and effective communication 过滤和有效沟通Financial control 财务控制Finland 芬兰First-line manager 基层管理者，一线管理者Fixed-internal recording systems 定期定货系统Fixed-point recording system 定点定货系统Flexibility 灵活性Flexible manufacturing systems 柔性制造系统Flextime 弹性工作时间Focus strategy 集中化战略Forces for change 变革动力Forcing 强制Forecasting pro 预测者Forecasting techniques 预测技术Forecasts 预测Forensic Accountant Newsletter 会计论坛Forming 形成France 法国Franchising 特许Functional conflict 职能冲突Functional departmentalization 按职能划分部门Functional structure 职能型结构Functional teams 职能型团队Fundamental attribution error 基本归因错误GGender differences in leadership 领导中的性别差异Gender issues in the communication 沟通过程中的性别问题Gantt Chart 甘特图General administrative theorists 一般行政管理理论家General administrative theory 一般行政管理理论Generic strategies 通用战略，一般战略Geographic departmentalization 按地区划分部门Getting into an organization 加入一个组织Global village 地球村Goal achievement and groups 目标成就和群体Good work performance 良好的工作环境Grand strategies 总体战略Grapevine 小道消息Graphic rating scales 评分表法Group 群体，小组Group behavior 群体行为Group cohesiveness 群体内聚力Group decision making 群体决策Group order ranking 分组排序法Groups and work design 群体和工作设计Groupthink 趋同思维Groupware 组件Growth strategy 增长战略HHalo effect 晕轮效应Hawthorne Studies 霍桑实验Healthy work environment 健康的工作环境Heuristics 取巧途径，倾向Hierarchy of needs theory 需要（求）层次理论Historical roots of contemporary management practices 当代管理实践的历史根源How to win friends and influence people (Carnegie) 如何赢得朋友和影响他人（卡耐基）Humanities/social science courses affecting management practices 人类学/社会科学课程对管理实践的影响Holland’s Typology and Occupations 霍兰德拓扑结构和职业Horizontal structure 横向结构，水平结构Human competencies 人际技能，人际能力Human relations view of conflict 冲突的人际关系观点Human resource approach 人力资源观念，人力资源学派Human resource inventory report 人力资源储备报告Human resource management(HRM)人力资源管理Hungary 匈牙利Hygiene factors 保健因素IIceberg metaphor 冰山比喻Identification-based trust 基于认同的信任Ill-structured problems 非结构化问题Image 形象Immediate corrective action 立即纠错行动Immigration Reform and Control Act 移民改革和控制法案Impersonality 非人性Impoverished management 贫乏型管理Impression management 印象管理Improvement 改善Incentives 刺激，激励Incremental budget 增量预算Incubation and innovation 孵化与创新India 印度Independent contractors 独立的立约者，独立签约人Indirect costs 间接成本Individual ranking approach 个人排序法Individuals into team players 个人变为团队成员Individualism 个人主义Industrial Revolution 产业革命Information control systems 信息控制系统Information technology 信息技术Informational power 信息力量Informational roles 信息角色Initiating structure 定规结构Initiative 初创，原创Innovation 创新Integrative bargaining 共赢争价（结局）Integrity 正直Intelligence 情报，智力Interactionist view of conflict 冲突的相互作用观点Intergroup development 团际发展，组际发展Internal audit 内部审计Internal forces 内部力量Internal search 内部搜寻International management 国际管理International Organization for Standardization 国际标准化组织International symbol 国际通用符号Internet 因特网Internships 见习，实习Interpersonal communication 人际沟通Interpersonal demands 人际需求Interpersonal roles 人际角色Interpersonal skills 人际技能Interview 面试，访谈Intrapreneurs 内企业家，内部创业者Inventory ordering systems 库存定货系统Inventory turnover ratios 库存周转率Ireland 爱尔兰ISO 9000 series ISO 9000 系列JJapan 日本Jargon 技术用语Job analysis 职务分析，工作分析Job characteristics model (JCM) 职务特征模型，工作特征模型Job description 职务描述，工作描述Job involvement 工作投入Job morphing 职务形态，工作形态Job rotation 职务轮换，工作转换Job satisfaction 工作满意感Job sharing 职务分担，工作分担（分享）Job specification 职务说明，工作说明Jobs and personality 职务与个性，工作与个性Jobs 工作Just-in-time (JIT) inventory systems 准时制库存系统KKaizen 改善Kanban 看板Karoshi 劳累过度而猝死Knowledge-based trust 基于知识的信任Knowledge workers 知识工人Korea 韩国LLabor-management relations and teams 劳资关系与团队Laissez-faire style of leadership 自由放任型领导Language 语言Language and effective communication 语言和有效沟通Late career 职业后期Lateral thinking 横向考虑，横向思维Layoff-survivor sickness 裁员幸存者心态Layoffs 裁员Leader-member relations 领导者成员关系Leader-participation model 领导者参与模型Leaders 领导者Leadership 领导Leading 领导（职能）Learning 学习Least-preferred co-worker (LPC) questionnaire 最难共事者问卷Legislation 合法，法律Legitimate power 合法权力，合法权Leverage ratios 财务杠杆比率Liaison roles 联络者角色Liaisons with external constituencies 外部客户联络者Like-me effect （在想象别人时，认为别人）与自己相象的效果Line authority 直线职权Linear programming 线性规划Links of suppliers 供应商联系Linkers 联系者Liquidity ratio 流动比率Load chart 负荷图Locus of control 控制中心Long-term plans 长期计划Loyalty 忠心，忠诚MMachiavellianism 马基雅维里主义Maintenance control 维护控制Management 管理Management-by-objectives (MBO)目标管理Management-by-walking around走动管理Management competencies 管理能力Management functions 管理职能Management information systems (MIS) 管理信息系统Management process 管理过程，管理职能Management rights 管理权力Management roles 管理角色Management skills 管理技能Managerial grid 管理方格Managers 管理者，经理Mandatory Retirement Act 强制退休法案Market control 市场控制Marketplace putting importance on managers 市场机制决定了管理者的重要性Matrix structure 矩阵结构Mature teams 成熟团队Maximax/maximin choices 优中选优/劣中选优Measuring 度量，衡量Measuring performance 衡量业绩Mechanistic organization 机械式组织Mentors 导师，教练Merger 合并，并入Message 消息Mexico 墨西哥Midcareer 职业中期Mideast 中东Middle-manager 中层管理者Middle-of-the-road management 中庸之道型管理Minimum wage employees and motivation 最低工资员工和激励Minority domination and group decision making 少数人支配（控制）和群体决策制定Mission statement 使命陈述Monitor role 监督角色Monitoring 监督Morphing 形态Moscow 莫斯科Motivating potential score (MPS) 激励潜力得分Motivation 动机Motivation-hygiene theory 激励保健理论Motivators 激励因素Motor reproduction process 机械再现过程，动力复制过程Multinational corporations (MNCs)多国公司Multiperson comparison 多人比较法Multiple criteria and effective control systems 多重标准和有效控制系统Myers-Briggs Type Indicator (MBTI)迈耶—布里格斯类型指标NNational borders 国界National cultural differences 民族文化差异National Labor Relations Act 全国劳动力关系法案National Labor Relations Board 全国劳动力关系委员会Need 需要Need for achievement (nAch) 成就需要Need for affiliation (nAff) 归属需要Need for power (nPow) 权力需要Negative feedback 负反馈Negative reinforcement 负强化Negotiation 谈判Negotiator role 谈判者角色Netherlands 荷兰Network organization 网络组织Networking 网络化Neural network 神经网络New Deal 新政New Zealand 新西兰Noise 噪声Nominal group technique 名义群体（决策）技术Nonprogrammed decisions 非程序化决策Nonverbal cues 非语言暗示Norming 规范Norms 规范Not-for-profit vs. Profit organizations 非赢利性与赢利性组织OObjectives 目标Observation 观察Obsolescence 过时Occupational Safety and Health Act (OSHA) 职业安全和健康法案On-the-job training methods 在职培训方法Openness to experience 公开经历Open system 开放系统Operant conditioning 操作性条件反射，操作制约Operating ratios 经营比率Operations control 作业控制Operations management 作业管理Operations research (OR) 运筹学Operations technology 作业技术Operatives 操作者Opportunities 机会Oral communication 口头交流Oral reports 口头报告Order in Fayol's principles of management法约尔管理原则的顺序Orders 命令Organic organization 有机式组织Organization behavior (OB) 组织行为Organization culture 组织文化Organization design 组织设计Organization development (OD) 组织发展Organization size and structure 组织规模与结构Organizational performance and planning 组织绩效与计划Organizing 组织（职能）Orientation 导向，定向Outsourcing 业务外包PPaired comparison approach 两两比较法，配对比较法Pakistan 巴基斯坦Parochialism 狭隘观念Participating style 参与风格Participation and reducing resistance to change 参与以减少变革的阻力Participative leader 参与型领导者Part-time employees 兼职员工Path-goal theory 路径目标理论Pay-for-performance 业绩工资（制）Payoff matrices 工资矩阵Perception 知觉Performance appraisals methods 绩效评估方法Performance evaluations 绩效评估Performance management systems 绩效管理系统Performance-reward linkage 绩效—报酬的关系Performance-simulation tests 绩效模拟测试Performing 执行Personal differences and conflicts 个人差异和冲突Personal factors leading to stress 导致压力的个人因素Personality 个性Personalized service 个性化服务Philippines 菲律宾共和国Philosophy courses 哲学教程（课程）Physical examination 身体检查Physiological needs 生理需要Physiological symptoms 生理表征Plan 计划Plan-do-check-act (PDCA) cycle 计划执行核查行动圈Planning 计划（职能）Policy 政策Political competencies 政治交往能力Political science studies 政治科学研究Political skills 政治技能Polygraph Protection Act 测谎器（使用）保护法案Portugal 葡萄牙Position power 职位权力Positive expectation 正期望，肯定的期望Positive feedback 正反馈Positive reinforcement 正强化Power 权力Power distance 权力差距Pregnancy Discrimination Act （反）孕期歧视法案Presentation skills 表现技能Preventive maintenance 预防维护Principles of management 管理原则Principles of Scientific Management 科学管理原则Privacy Act 隐私权法案Private employment agencies 私人就业代理Problem 问题Problem-solving teams 解决问题团队，问题解决型团队Procedure 程序Process 过程，流程Process approach 过程观念，过程学派Process consultation 过程咨询Process control 过程控制Process departmentalization 按流程划分部门Process value analysis 过程（流程）价值分析Product departmentalization 按产品划分部门Product distribution 产品分配Production-oriented 面向生产的Productivity 生产率Profit-margin-on-revenues ratios 边际销售利润率Profitability ratios 盈利性比率Program evaluation and review technique (PERT) 计划评审技术PERT network PERT 网络Programmed decisions 程序化决策Project management 项目管理Psychological needs 心理需要Psychological symptoms 心理表征Psychology courses 心理学教程（课程）Public employment agencies 公共就业代理机构Public speaking 公开演讲Punishment 惩罚Purchasing costs 采购成本Pygmalion effect 自我实现效应QQualities of employees 员工的能力Qualitative forecasting 定性预测Quality circles 质量小组Quality control 质量控制Quality of life 生活的质量，追求质量的生活观念Quantitative approach 定量方法Quantitative forecasting 定量预测Quantity of life 生活的数量，追求物质的生活观念Queuing theory 排队论RRange of variation （允许）差异范围Ratio analyses 比率分析Rational 理性的，合理的Rational decision making 理性决策Rationality 理性，合理性Readiness 意愿Realistic job preview (RJP) 真实的工作预览Reasonable criteria and effective control systems 合理的标准和有效控制系统Receiver 接收者Recruiting sources 招聘来源Recruitment 招聘Reducing stress 减少压力Reengineering 再造Referent 参量Referent power 参考权力，感召权Referrals 推荐Reinforcement 强化Reject error 错误地拒绝，不该拒绝而拒绝Reliability 可靠性，可靠度Remedial maintenance 补救维护Remuneration 报酬Repetitive tasks 重复性任务Representative heuristic 只依据自己熟悉的事物判断与决策的取巧途径，以偏盖全倾向Resistance to change 变革抵制力量，变革障碍Resource allocator role 资源分配角色Responsibility 职责，责任Restraining forces 约束力Resume preparation 简历准备Retention processes 保持过程Retrenchment strategy 收缩战略Return-on-investment ratios 投资收益率Revenue forecasting 收入预测Reward power 奖赏权力，奖赏权Reward systems 奖励机制Rights view of ethics 道德的权利观Rightsizing 规模调整Risk 风险Robotics 机器人学Role 角色Routineness of task technology 作业技术的常规性Rule 准则，规则Russia 俄罗斯SSafety and health 安全和健康Safety needs 安全需要Salaries 工资Sampling techniques 抽样技术Satisfaction-dissatisfaction continuum 满意—不满意连续体Scalar Chain 等级链Scanning 扫描Scenario 情境Scheduling 进度计划Scheduling devices 计划工具Scheduling options 进度计划可选方案School placements 学校分配Scientific management 科学管理Security and groups 安全和群体Selection process 选择过程Selective perception 选择性知觉，选择性感受Selectivity 选择Self-actualization needs 自我实现需要Self-awareness 自我意识Self-confidence and charismatic leadership 自信和魅力型领导Self-esteem 自尊Self-fulfilling prophesy 自我实现Self-interest concept 利己主义观念Self-managed work teams 自我管理型工作团队Self-management 自我管理Self-monitoring 自我监控Self-motivation 自我激励Self-serving bias 自我服务偏见，完全靠自己成功的偏见Selling style 推销风格Sensitivity to differences 差异敏感性Service organization 服务型组织Sexual harassment 性骚扰Shaping behavior 行为塑造Short-term plans 短期计划Shortcuts 捷径Similarity 相似性，类似Simple structure 简单结构Simulation exercise 模拟练习Singapore 新加坡Single-use plans 一次性计划Situational approach 情境观念，情境学派Situational leadership 情境领导Six sigma 六σ（一种管理理念）Size and structure 规模与结构Size of a group 群体规模Size of the organization 组织规模Skill variety 技能多样性Skills 技能Slack time 松弛时间，富余时间Small business 小企业Social events shaping management approaches 社会事件推动管理学派的发展，社会事件形成管理方法Social information processing (SIP) model 社会信息处理模型Social learning theory 社会学习理论Social loafing 滥竽充数现象Social needs 社会需要Social obligation 社会义务Social responsibility 社会责任Social responsiveness 社会响应Social security 社会安全Social skills 社会技能Sociology studies 社会学研究Software 软件South Africa 南非Span of control 管理幅度Specific plans 具体计划Spokesperson role 发言人角色Stability of tenure of personnel 人员任期的稳定性Stability strategy 稳定战略Staff authority 参谋职权Staffing 人员配备Stages 阶段Stakeholders 利害相关者，利益相关者Standing plan 常用性计划，长期使用计划Status 地位Stereotyping 墨守陈规，因循守旧Storming 震荡Strategic alliances 战略联盟Strategic human resource planning (SHRP)战略人力资源计划Strategic human resource management process 战略人力资源管理过程Strategic management process 战略管理过程Strategic placement and effective control systems 战略地位和有效控制系统Strategic plans 战略计划Strategy and structure 战略与结构Strengths 优势Stress 压力Stressors 压力因素Structure 结构Stuck-in-the-middle strategy 中间战略Styles 风格Subordination of individual interests to the general interest 个人利益服从集体利益Supervision 监督Supervisor 监督者Supply chain management 供应链管理Supportive leader 支持型领导Survey feedback 调查反馈Sweden 瑞典Switzerland 瑞士SWOT analysis SWOT分析Symptoms of stress 压力表征Systems approach 系统观念，系统学派TTactical plans 战术计划Task complexity 任务复杂性Task demands 任务要求Task identity 任务同一性Task management 任务管理Task significance 任务重要性Task structure 任务结构Team building 团队建设Team 团队Team-based structure 基于团队的结构Team management 团队管理Technical competencies 技术专长，业务技能Technical employees 技术员工Techniques 技术Technological forecasting 技术预测Technology 技术Technology transfer 技术转让Telecommuting 电子化“通勤”Telling style 指示风格Temporary employees 临时员工Temporary help services 临时辅助服务Ten Commandments 十诫Theory of justice view of ethics 道德公正观理论Theory X X 理论Theory Y Y 理论Therbligs 基本动作元素Threats 威胁Three-needs theory 三种需要理论360-degree appraisal 360 评估Thruster-organizers 推进者——组织者Timeliness and effective control systems 及时和有效控制系统Time management 时间管理Time-interest-earned ratio 已获利息倍数Titles 头衔Top managers 高层管理者Total assets turnover ratio 总资产周转率Total quality management 全面质量管理Traditional view of conflict 冲突的传统观点Training methods 培训方法Trait theories of leadership 领导的特质理论Traits 性格，特质Transactional leaders 事务型领导Transformation process 变革过程，转换过程Transformational leaders 变革型领导Transnational corporations (TNCs)跨国公司Troubleshooters 麻烦解决者Trust 信任Type A personality type A型个性Type B personality type B型个性Types of control 控制类型Types of plans 计划类型UUncertainty 不确定性Uncertainty avoidance 不确定性规避Understandability and effective control systems 可理解性和有效控制系统Understudy assignment 实习，见习Unified commitment 一致的承诺Uniformity 一致Unions 工会Unity of command 统一指挥Universal applicability of management activities 管理活动的普遍适用性Upholder-maintainers 支持者——维护者Utilitarian view of ethics 道德功利主义观，功利的道德观VValidity 效度Variability 可变性Variable sampling 随机抽样Venezuela 委内瑞拉Verbal intonation 语调Vestibule training 仿真培训Video conference 视频会议，电视会议Vietnam 越南Views 观点Violence 暴力Virtual team 虚拟团队Virtual workplace 虚拟工作环境Visible 明显的，可见的Visionary leadership 富于远见的领导WWeakness 劣势Wealth of nations (Smith) 国富论（史密斯）Well-structured problems 结构化问题Wellness programs 福利计划White water rapids metaphor “急流险滩”观Withholding information 保留信息，截留信息Work design 工作设计Work environment 工作环境Work force diversity 工作人员多样性Work group 工作群体Work process engineering 工作流工程Work schedule options 工作进度可选方案，工作进度备选方案Work specialization 工作专业化，劳动分工Work teams 工作团队Worker Adjustment and Retraining Notification Act 工人调整与再培训通知法案Workflow automation 工作流自动化Workshop 研讨培训班Written communication 书面交流Written essays 书面总结，论文Written tests 书面测试ZZero-based budgeting (ZBB) 零基预算Zero-sum conditions 零和条件，零和约束。
消除种族歧视人人平等作文英文回答：Racism is a prevalent issue that has plagued societies for centuries. It is a system of oppression that treats individuals differently based on their race or ethnicity. This can manifest in various forms, from overt discrimination to more subtle and insidious microaggressions.The belief in racial superiority is deeply ingrained in many cultures, often justified through pseudoscientific theories and historical narratives. However, there is no scientific basis for dividing humanity into distinct races. Race is a social construct that has been used to justify exploitation, oppression, and violence.The consequences of racism are profound. It limits opportunities for individuals and communities of color, leading to disparities in education, employment, housing,and healthcare. It perpetuates a climate of fear, distrust, and division.Addressing racism requires a multifaceted approach. Education is crucial to challenge racist stereotypes and promote understanding. Laws and policies must be enacted to prevent and punish discrimination. Social movements and advocacy groups play a vital role in raising awareness, organizing resistance, and demanding change.Ultimately, the goal is to create an equitable society where everyone has equal rights and opportunities, regardless of their race. This will require a profoundshift in attitudes, behaviors, and institutions.中文回答：种族主义是一个困扰社会几个世纪的普遍问题。
心理理论名词解释1. 古典条件化 (Classical Conditioning)：心理学家巴甫洛夫提出的一种学习方式，它通过将一个自然反射性的刺激与一个无条件刺激（如食物）同时出现，使得这个自然反射性的刺激能够激发出类似于无条件刺激的反应。
2. 操作性条件化 (Operant Conditioning)：美国心理学家斯金纳提出的一种学习方式，它通过对行为的后果进行反馈，来增加或减少这个行为的出现频率。
如果行为得到了奖励，则可能增加该行为的频率；而如果行为受到惩罚，则可能减少该行为的频率。
3. 认知失调理论 (Cognitive Dissonance Theory)：美国心理学家费斯汀格提出的理论，认为当个体的行为与其内部认知、价值观或信念不一致时，就会产生一种认知失调的状态，并会通过改变行为或改变认知来减轻这种不一致的感觉。
4. 社会认知理论 (Social Cognitive Theory)：加拿大心理学家班杜拉提出的理论，主张个体的行为是通过观察和模仿他人来学习的，而不仅仅是通过奖励和惩罚。
这个理论强调了观察学习、模型行为和自我反馈等过程对行为塑造的重要性。
5. 需求层次理论 (Hierarchy of Needs Theory)：美国心理学家马斯洛提出的理论，认为人类的需求可以按照一定的层次结构进行分类。
从低到高包括生理需求、安全需求、社交需求、尊重需求和自我实现需求。
这个理论强调不同层次的需求会影响个体的行为和动机。
6. 心理结构理论 (Psychodynamic Theory)：奥地利心理学家弗洛伊德提出的理论，主张人的心理活动受到潜意识的影响。
这个理论将人的心理结构分为意识（已经意识到的心理活动）、前意识（可能被意识到的心理活动）和潜意识（无法意识到，但对行为产生影响的心理活动）三个层次。
7. 自尊需要(Self-esteem Needs)：根据马斯洛的需求层次理论，自尊需要指的是个体希望被他人尊重、认可和赞赏的需求。
