1、How do you interpret the following definition of linguistics: linguistics is the scientific study of language.It is a scientific studies because it is based on the systematic investigation of linguistic data, conducted with reference to some general theory of language structure. In order to discover the nature and rules of the underlying language system, what the linguist has to do first is to collect and observe language facts, which are found to display some similarities, and generalizations are made about them; then he formulates some hypotheses about the language structure. But the hypotheses, thus formed have to be checked repeatedly against the observed facts to fully prove their validity.In linguistics, as in any other discipline, data and theory stand in a dialectical complementation; that is, a theory without the support of data can hardly claim validity, and data without being explained by some theory remain a muddled mass of things.2、The design/defining features of human language Charles Hockett1 Arbitrariness----No logical motivated or intrinsic connection between sounds and meanings.----- No natural and inevitable link between the sound and the meaning Exception: Onomatopoeic words and Some compound words.2 Productivity/creativityWe can speak an endless number of sentences with a limited vocabulary and one sentence can expand into endless theoretically possible sentences in the way of recurringException: and bee dancing is used only to indicate food sources, which is the only kind of message that can be sent through the dancing.3 Duality▪Lower level----sounds meaningless▪Higher level----meaning larger units of meaningException: the grouping of the three sounds/k/,/a:/,and/p/ can mean either a kind of fishcrap, or a public place for rest and amusementpark.4 DisplacementDisplacement means that human languages enable their users to symbolize objects, events and concepts which are not present in time and space at the moment of communication.Exception: Yesterday which book did you read5 Cultural transmissionLanguage can transmit Culture which the language contains.Exception；an English speaker and a Chinese speaker are both able to use a language, but they are not mutually intelligible. This shows that language is culturally transmitted.3、word formation1CompoundIt refers to those words that consist of more than one lexical morpheme, or the way to join two separate words to produce a single form. icecream, sunrise, paperbag2 DerivationIt refers to the formation of new words by adding affixes to other words or morphemes.Unconscious, national, nationalize3 BlendingIt refers to the form of compounding, in which two words are blended by joining the initial part of the first word and the final part of the second word, or by joining the initial parts of the two words.Smoke + fog = smog 烟雾4 Abbreviation1cutting the final part or with a slightvariation advertisement-----ad2 cutting the initial part aeroplane -----plane3 cutting both the initial and final parts accordingly refrigerator ---- fridge5 AcronymIIt is made up from the first letters of the name of an organization, which has a heavily modified headword. WB : World BankAcronymIIThis process is also widely used in shortening extremely long words of word groups in science, technology and other special fields. VAT : value added tax 增殖税6 Back- formationIt refers to an abnormal type of word-formation where a shorter word is derived by deleting an imagined affix from a longer form already in the languageEditor ------edit7 BorrowingLatin: cancer, page, .that is . for example etc. et ceteraChinese: taji, chow mein, kung-fuJapanese: JudoFrench, German, Italian, Spanish8 InventionSince economic activities are the most important and dynamic in human life, many new lexical items come directly from the consumer items, their producers or their brand names such as Kodak, Coke, nylon, and others to cope with the Invention of new entities.4. XP rulerule: specifier + head + complement2. XP rule: SpecifierX’X’à Xcomplement3. XP rule :Specifier X Complement4. XP rule:Spec Mod X Complement ModComplement: in grammar that part of the sentence which follows the verb and which thus completes the sentence.Features:Ø one or more complements are permittedØ eg. A story about a sentimental girl with purple umbrella …Ø words that can take CP are not verbs alone. As, Ns and Ps can all take CPØ. take it; poor as a chuch mouse;the man with hat;right near the fireplaceØ A certain lexical item requires a certain type of complement.Ø. come to school; go to bed; look through itModifier: is used to specify optionally expressible properties of heads.Modifier position in EnglishModifier Position exampleAP Precedes the head a very careful girlPP Follows the head open with careAdvP Precedes or follows thehead read carefully; carefully read5. 请从Behaviorism 的角度来举例说明其意义：Behaviorists attempted to define the meaning of a language form as the “situation in which the speaker utters it and the response it calls forth in the hearer.”S__Tang Wanyi_____r--------s______Vicky______RWhen Tang Wanyi sees an apple and wants to have it, she has a physical stimulus, represented by the capital letters, which gives rise to a verbal responser to Vicky. For instance, she might say to Vicky ”I’m thirsty”. What she says results in a verbal stimulus to Vicky represented by the small letter S. This stimulus, in its turn, leads to a non-verbal response from Vicky, such as picking the apple for her.6. synonymy同义现象Synonymy refers to the sameness or close similarity of meaning. Words that are close in meaning are called synonyms1 Dialectal synonyms---- synonyms used in different regional dialects 地区方言autumn - fall, biscuit - cracker, petrol – gasoline 地方2 Stylistic synonyms----synonyms differing in style,文体风格上不同kid, child, offspring; start, begin, commence;3 Synonyms that differ in their emotive or evaluative meaningexamples in Mandarin情感上和评价判断上的不同合作者/同谋；结果/下场；鼓励/…；领袖/…；赞扬/…团结4 Collocational synonyms搭配意义上的不同A group of people; a herd of wolves; a swarm of bees5 Semantically different synonyms语义不同surprise/astonish; finish/complete7、locutionary act, illocutionary act,perlocutionary actFor example,“It is cold in here.”Its locutionary act is the saying of it with its literal meaning “the weather is clod in here” ;Its illocutionary act can be a request of the hearer “to shut the window” ;Its perlocutionary act is the effect brought about; it can be “the hearer’s shutting the window or his refusal to comply with the request”.作业本You have left the door wide open① the locutionary act performed by the speaker is his utterance of all the words ”you”, ”have”, ”door”, ”open”, etc. thus expressing what the words literally mean② the illocutionary act performed by the speaker is that by making such an utterance he has expressed his intention of speaking. . asking someone to close the door.③ The perlocutionary act refers to the effect result of the utterance. It can be “the hearer clos e the door or refuse to comply with the request.8、Four maxims of CP IThe maxim of quality----Do not say what you believe to be false.----Do not say that for which you lack adequate evidence.The maxim of quantity----Make your contribution as informative as required for the current purpose of the exchange.----Do not make your contribution more informative than is required. The maxim of relation----Be relevant make your contribution relevant.The maxim of manner----Avoid obscurity of expression.----Avoid ambiguity.----Be brief.----Be orderly.先判断在分析,先判断是不是relation从literal meaning是不是同一个主题Conversational implicature会话含义,言外之意；会话含意In real communication, however, speakers do not always observe these maxims strictly. These maxims can be violated for various reasons. When any of the maxims is violated, . both the speaker and the hearer are aware of the violation, our language becomes indirect, then conversational implicature arises.填空,definition 判断选择Phonetics: the study of sounds used in linguistic communication led to establishment of phoneticsPhonology: how sounds are put together and used to convey meaning in communication.Morphology: is concerned with the internal organization of words. It studies the minimal units of meaning morphemes and word-formation processesSyntax: the study of how word combine to form sentences and the rules which govern the formation of sentences.Semantics: it examines how meaning is encoded in language. It is concerned with 1meanings of the words. 2 levels of language below the word and above itPragmatics: the study of the use of language in communication, particularly the relationships between sentences and the contexts and situation in which they are used.Sociolinguistics: the study of all these social aspects of language and its relation with society form the core of the branchPsycholinguistics: relates the study of language to psychology. It aims to answer such questions as how the human mind works when we use language, how…. , how…Articulatory phonetics发音语音学----from the speakers’ point of view, “how speakers produce speech sounds”--------speakingAcoustic phonetics声学语音学；----from the physical way or means by which sounds are transmitted from one to another.-------soundingAuditory phonetics听觉语音学----from the hearers’ point of view, “how sounds are perceived”--------listeningClassification of consonants---- English consonants may be classified according to two dimensions: ▪The manner of articulation▪The place of articulationBroad transcription ---- used in dictionary and textbook for general purpose, without diacritics, . clear l , pitNarrow transcription ---- used by phonetician for careful study, with diacritics, . dark l , aspirated pSemantics----the study of language meaning.Meaning is central to the study of communication.Naming theory’s Limitations1 Applicable to nouns only.2 There are nouns which denote things that do not exist in the real world.3 There are nouns that do not refer to physical objects but abstract notions.Conclusion on semantic triangleThe symbol or form refers to the linguistic elements words and phrases; The referent refers to the object in the world of experience; Thought or reference refers to concept.Relations:The symbol or a word signifies things by virtue of the concept associated with the form of the word in the minds of the speaker; and the concept looked at from this point of view is the meaning of the word.7. Antonymy反义现象Antonymy: refers to the oppositeness of meaning.1. Gradable antonyms----there are often intermediate forms between the two members of a pair. Old-young, hot-cold, tall-short2. Complementary antonyms----the denial of one member of the pair implies the assertion of the other. Alive-dead, male-female, …3. Relational opposites----exhibits the reversal of the relationship between the two itemsHusband-wife, father-son, doctor-patient, buy-sell, employer-employee, give-receive…8. Homonymy同形异义Homonymy---- the phenomenon that words having different meanings have the same form, . different words are identical in sound or spelling, or in both.Homophone ---- when two words are identical in sound, rain-reign, night/knight, …Homogragh ---- when two words are identical in spelling. tearn.-tearv., leadn.-leadv., …Complete homonym---- when two words are identical in both sound and spelling, ballE,F, bank, watch, scale, fast, …Polysemy----the same one word may have more than one meaning.▪“table” may mean:▪1. A piece of furniture▪2. All the people seated at a table▪ food that is put on a table▪4. A thin flat piece of stone, metal wood, etc.▪5. Orderly arrangement of facts, figures, etc.……X entails Y蕴含关系▪X: John married a blond heiress.▪Y: John married a blond.▪X: Marry has been to Beijing.▪Y: Marry has been to China.▪Entailment is a relation of inclusion. If X entails Y, then the meaning of X is included in Y.▪If X is true, Y is necessarily true; if X is false, Y may be true or false.X presupposes Y预射关系▪X: His bike needs repairing.▪Y: He has a bike.▪Paul has given up smoking.▪Paul once smoked.▪If X is true, Y must be true; If X is false, Y is still true.The Relatedness between Language and SocietyThere are many indications of the inter-relationship between language and society.1. Language is often used to establish and maintain social relationships2. The use of language is in part determined by the user’s social background. social class, age, sex, education level, etc.3. Language, especially the structure of its lexicon, reflects both the physical and the social environments of a society. “snow” for Eskimo4. As a social phenomenon language is closely related to the structure of the society in which it is used, the evaluation of a linguistic form is entirely social the postvocalic r .Predication analysisIII1 The meaning of a sentence is not to be worked out by adding up all the meanings of its component words, “The dog bites the man” is semantically different from “The man bites the dog” though their components are exactly the same.2 There are two aspects to sentence meaning: grammatical meaning and semantic meaning, .Green clouds are sleeping furiously.Sincerity shook hands with the black apple.Whether a sentence is semantically meaningful is governed by rules called selectional restrictions.According to the number of arguments contained in a predication, we may classify the predications into the following types:One-place predication: smoke, grow, rise, run, …Two-place predication: like, love, sa ve, bite, beat,…Three-place predication: give, sent, promise, call, …No-place predication: It is hot.I like youtwo placeIt is hot no place…Performatives’Features Austin’s“I declare the meeting open.”1. first person, singular subject2. simple present tense3. indicative mood4. active voice5. performative verbs基本上所有的动词都是perfomativesSearle’s Classification of Speech Acts 1969判断出是那一种Assertives/representatives陈述---- Stating or describing, saying what the speaker believes to be true, .I think the film is moving.I’m certain I have never seen the man before.I solemnly swear that he had got it.…I think it is good.Directives指令---- Trying to get the hearer to do something, .I order you to leave right now.Open the window, please.Your money or your life…Sit down, please.Commissives承诺---- Committing the speaker himself to some future course of action, such as promise or a threat. .I will bring you the book tomorrow without fail.If you do not stop fighting, I’ll call the polic e.I promise to come.Expressives表达----Expressing the speaker’s psychological statefeeling and attitudes about something,such as an aplology, a complaint, to thank someone, to congratulate someone. .I’m sorry for being late.I apologize for the sufferings that the war has caused to your people.…You are so wonderfulDeclarations宣告----Bringing about an immediate change in the existing state or affairs, now appoint you chairman of the committee.You are fired.I now declare the meeting open.…I now pronounce you man and wife.Note: All the acts that belong to the same category share the same purpose but differ in their strength or force, .1I guess / am sure / swear he is the murderer..2In order to get someone open the door, we can choose one from a variety of the forms in below:Could you open the door, pleaseCan you open the doorDo you mind opening the doorOpen the doorThe door pleaseLanguage changeperiods1 449—1100: Old EnglishBeginning: English-speaking Anglo-Saxon and Jutes invaded into the British IslesThe End: “Norman Conquest” : the arrival of Norman French invadersGlæs; guma; gat----glass ---man ---goat“Beowulf”---England 8century poem,brave warrior2 1100—1500 Middle EnglishBeginning: “Norman Conquest” : the arrival of Norman French invadersThe End:“European Renaissance Movement”Latin and French“The Canterbury Tales”----Geoffrey Chaucer 1345-14003 1500—the present Modern EnglishBeginning: “European Renaissance Movement”The End: the presentDiphthongs appears: ai, au, ei, eu, ou, oiBecause of pressing industry overspreading, the spelling forms are determined/less changes.Regional dialectReason: This differentiation is accounted for the lack of communication in the old days when travel was difficult.Female Speech’s Features1. Women are usually more status-conscious than men in theEnglish-speaking world; therefore, their speech closely approaches the standard variety than the speech of men.2. The female speakers tend to have a wider range in their intonation.3. Female speech is, on the whole, less assertive and thus sounds to be more polite than male speech.Register: a Speech Variety used by a particular group of people, usually sharing the same occupation . doctors, lawyers or the same interests . stamp collectors, baseball fans.In a broader sense, according to Halliday, “language varies as its function varies; it differs in different situations.” The type of language which is selected as appropriate to the type of situation is a register.Halliday further distinguishes three social variables that determine the register:▪field of discourse,▪tenor of discourse,▪mode of discourseField of discourse: what is going on: to the area of operation of the language activity. It is concerned with the purpose why and subject matter about what of communication. It can be either technical or non-technical.Tenor of discourse:the role of relationship in the situation in question: who are the participants in the communication and in what relationship they stand to each other. customer-shop-assistant, teacher-student, etc.Mode of discourse:the means of communication. It is concerned with how communication is carried out. oral, written, on the line…Standard Variety:=standard dialect=standard language:the variety of a language which has the highest Status in a community of nation and which is usually based on the speech and writing of educated native speakers of the language.The standard variety is a superimposed, socially prestigious dialect of a language. It is the language employed by the government and the judiciary system, used by the mass media, and taught in educational institutions, including school settings where the language is taught as a foreign or second language.Edward Sapir and Benjamin Whorf, proclaimed that the structure of the language people habitually use influences the ways they think and behave, . different languages offer people different ways of expressing the world around, they think and speak differently, this is also known as linguistic relativity.Sapir and Whorf believe that language filters people’s perception and the way they categorize experiences. This interdependence of language and thought is now known as Sapir-Whorf Hypothesis.文化影响语言,语言影响文化The inadequacy of behaviorist view1. What they imitate must be based on what the children have already known instead of what is “available” in the environment.2. They imitate words selectively and according to their own understandings of the sounds or patterns.3. how children acquire complex language system.Language acquisition device: LAD the capacity to acquire one’s First language, when this capacity is pictured as a sort of mechanism or apparatus.Universal Grammar: a theory which claims to account for the grammatical competence of every adult no matter what language he or she speaks. 了解一下UGprototype原型It claims that every speaker knows a set of principles which apply to all languages and also a set of Parameters that can vary from one language to another, but only within certain limits.According to UG theory, acquiring a language means applying the principles of UG grammar to a particular language, . English, French or German, and learning which value is appropriate for each parameter.Motherese’s Features1. shorter utterances than speech to other adults2. grammatically simple utterances3. few abstract or difficult words, with a lot of repetition4. clearer pronunciation, sometimes with exaggerated Intonation patterns CommentBehaviorists view sounds reasonable in explaining the routine aspects;The innatist accounts most plausible in explaining children’s acquiring complex system;And the interactionist description convincing in understanding how children learn and use the language appropriately from their environment.Critical Period Hypothesis CPH---- Eric Lenneberg argues that the LAD, like other biological functions, works successfully only when it is stimulated at the right time ---- a specific and limited time period for language acquisition.The strong version of CPH suggests that children must acquire their first language by puberty or they will never be able to learn from subsequent exposure.The weak version holds that language learning will be more difficult and incomplete after puberty. Support in Victor’s and Genie’s casesVocabulary development1 Under-extension 外延缩小2 Over-extension外延延伸3 Prototype theoryGrammatical development1 Telegraphic speech 22 Sentences of three main elementsContrastive analysis CAthe comparison of the linguistic systems of two languages, for example the sound system or the grammatical system. Contrastive analysis was developed and practiced in the 1950s and 1960s, as an application of Structural Linguistics to language teaching, and is based on the following assumptions1. The main difficulties in learning a new language are caused by interference from the first language. language transfer2. These difficulties can be predicted by contrastive analysis.materials can make use of contrastive analysis to reduce the effects of interference1970s, it declined and was replaced by Error Analysis▪Language transfer：the effect of one language on the learning of another. Two types of language transfer may occur.▪“I am here since Monday.”▪“ I have been here since Monday.”▪Because of the transfer of the French pattern▪Je suis ici depuis lundi▪Negative transfer,负向转移 also known as interference, is the use of a native language pattern or rule which leads to an Error orinappropriate form in the Target Language. For example, a Frenchlearner of English may produce the incorrect sentence ▪“table, transport,restaurant, surprise”▪Positive transfer,正向转移 is transfer which makes learning easier, and may occur when both the native language and the target languagehave the same form. For example, both French and English have theword ‘table’, which can have the same meaning in both languages.Interlingual errorsInterlingual errors mainly result from cross-linguistic interference at different levels such as phonological, lexical, grammatical or discoursal etc. For examples,a. Substitution of t for W and d for T: threeàtree, thisàdis.b. Shortening of long vowels: sheepàship, meetàmitIntralingual errorsThe intralingual errors mainly from faulty or partial learning of the target language, independent of the native language.▪Two types of errors have been well exploited:overgeneralization & cross-associationTrue or False1. In an exciting argument, the speakers could express themselves fluently2. In an exciting argument, the speakers have grammatical expressions all the time3. After your listening others’ speech, could you repeat it totally4. About pre-school children who can not read but can speak, do you think they can identify the noun and verb in speaking “an apple” is a thing; “run” is an action5. And also about pre-school children who can not read but can speak, do you think they can define the term “noun”三、pairPrescriptive vs DescriptiveHe love that picture. We see a film yesterday.Prescriptive ----lay down rules for “correct” linguistic behavior in using languagetradition grammar“Give me that cup.” “ Could you bring me that cup”“ Cup”Descriptive ---- describe/analyze linguistic facts observed or language people actually use modern linguisticsSynchronic vs diachronicA Grammar of Modern GreekThe Structure of Shakespear’s EnglishSynchronic study---- description of a language at some point of timeLangue vs parole F. de SaussureLangue ---- the abstract linguistic system shared by all members of the speech community.Parole ---- the realization of langue in actual use.Saussure takes a sociological view of language and his notion of langue is a matter of social conventions.Langue is the lexical, grammatical, and phonological constitution of a language to be implanted in the native speaker’s mind or brain in childhood as the collective product of the speech community envisaged as a supra-individual entity in its own right. In speaking his language thespeaker could only operate or perform within this langue; what he actually uttered was parole, and the only individual control he could exercise was when to speak and about what to speak.The aim to distinguish them is to abstract langue from parole. The reason to distinguish them is that parole is simply a mass oflinguistic facts, too varied and confusing for systematic investigation.Langue Parole 1.abstract concrete 2all the members in actual use 3 linguistic competence of the speaker actual phenomena or data oflinguistics utterance4 not accessible5 social individual6 essential accidentalconclusion S ocial bond constitutes languageActive use of speakingCompetence and performance ChomskyCompetence ---- the i deal user’s knowledge of the rules of his language Performance ---- the actual realization of this knowledge in linguistic communicationChomsky looks at language from a psychological point of view and to him competence is a property of the mind of each individual.distribution2. Phonemic contrast;pair.Complementary distribution----allophones of the same phoneme are in complementary distribution. They do not distinguish meaning. They occur in different phonetic contexts. They never occur in the same context.Phonemic contrast----similar sounds, meanwhile can be used to distinguish the two phonemes, they are said to form a phonemic contrast.Minimal pair----two words in a language which differ from each other by only one distinctive sound one Phoneme and which also differ in meaning.Derivational morpheme & inflectional morphemekindness; international; friendlyroot & affix----- Derivational morphemesfriendlytalks; talking; talked; boy’s; applesstem & affix----- Inflectional morphemesfriendsLexical meaning---basic notion of meaningsense: a dog: a domestic canine mammal, occurring in many breeds that show a great variety in size and form.Reference: the dog. a particular dog, we all know which one it is.vs. SemanticsPragmatics Semantics 1Study of the language in use The study of meaning 2Concerning the context Intrinsic, inherent 3More indeterminate, sth extra More constant 4Related to the context Inherent side of meaning 5Pragmatics = meaning – semanticsContext---- occurs before and/or after a word, a phrase or even a longer utterance or a text. The context often helps in understanding the particular meaning of the word, phrase, etcTypes:1. context of situation: Do you prepare enoughof culture: Jane Eyremeaning vs. utterance meaningSentence meaning utterance meaning1 Abstract and context-independent meaning concrete and context-dependentmeaning2 literal meaning of a sentence i ntended meaning of a speaker3 What does X mean What did you mean by X。
