科技英语特点及翻译标准CONTENTSCHAPTER ONE INTRODUCTION (1)1.1Demands of The New World (1)1.2English For Science and Technology (2)CHAPTER TWO FEATURES OF ENGLISH FOR SCIENCEAND TECHNOLOGY (2)2.1Definition of EST (2)2.2Lexical Features of EST (3)2.2.1Classification of EST lexicon (3)2.2.2Word formation in EST lexicon (6)2.3Syntax Features of EST (8)2.3.1Frequent use of the simple present tense (9)2.3.2Predominance use of the passive voice (9)2.3.3Extensive use of long sentences (11)2.3.4Normalization of EST (12)CHAPTER THREE CRITERIA OF ESTTRANSLATION (14)3.1Criteria of Translation (14)3.2Criteria of EST Translation (15)3.2.1Faithfulness (16)3.2.2Preciseness (17)3.2.3Conventionalization (18)3.2.4Conformity to the age (19)CHAPTER FOUR CONCLUSION (20)BIBLIOGRAPHY (22)CHAPTER ONE INTRODUCTION1.1 Demands of the New World…Knowledge explosion? and …information explosion? aretwo popular terms prevailing in the world today. Whether a country can acquire valuable knowledge and the latest information would doubtlessly matter greatly to its advance of science and technology and development of economy. (周方珠，2002：295).Over the last 50 years science and technology have developed rapidly all over the world. This expansion has been accompanied by an ever-increasing use of English in every area of scientific study. A UNESCO study(1957) estimated that something between 1 and 2 million scientific and technical articles，reports，patents and books were published annually，but about half of them were in English.Enormous and unprecedented expansion in scientific and economic activities created a world eagerly demanding for an international language, which fells to English.Since the middle of last century, an increasing number of the former colonies have gained independence. After achievements of political independence, they are aware that have to maintain and develop their independence with economic development. Thus the emerging third world began to plunge into their new program to develop their own economy, especially science and technology. The needs to introduce advanced science and technology from developed countriesmake it more important to learn English as a working tool.1.2 English for Science and TechnologyEnglish for science and technology took it first appearance in the 1950s when science and technology developed rapidly. As a significant international language, English was widely used in technical writings in exchange with scientific ideas. Generally speaking, it involved all written and spoken materials, and in thisthesis, only written EST texts are touched.As a communicative style to exchange information, EST demands that the writers should state matter-of-fact descriptions with concise words, and they should avoid using meaningless words to have messages rendered accurately and efficiently. To sum up, EST put emphasis on descriptions of objectivity, judgment of facts or the reasoning of logical definitions. Therefore, EST embodies accuracy, logicality and objectivity, different from literary English that tends to seek elegant style or carry strong personal emotions or inclinations of the authors.CHAPTER TWO FEATURES OF ENGLISH FORSCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY2.1 Definition of ESTEnglish for science and technology（EST）is a functional varying style. It is a scientific and technological register formed by scientists and technicians to meet the needs of scientific communication. It is a language used by scientists and technicians in a special situation. From the register?s viewpoint, EST is the register of science and technology for modern English.The development of EST has something to do with the changing requirement of English learning and Halliday?s work on register analysis. Many British linguists are aware that EST presents linguistic varieties with its own characteristic features. Some typical sentence patterns and a large number of technical terms and semi- technical words make EST different to a very wide extent from ordinary English.2.2Lexical Features of ESTEvery field of study has its own specific vocabulary, but most people would agree that specific vocabulary of science and technology is particular large, obscure and splintered. Words arethe basic elements of language. Apparently, it is of vital importance to grasp the main lexical features of EST. Thus, this chapter is devoted to a brief exploration of EST lexicon.2.2.1Classification of EST lexiconV ocabulary is a most important feature of scientific writings. According to Peter Newmark, …Technical translation is primarily distinguished from other forms of translation by terminology, although terminology usually only makes up about 5-10% of a text? (Newmark, 2001:151).Since science and technology developed rapidly, more and more technical terms are formed and a large number of general words have adopted new meanings referred to technique, which makes the lexicon of EST distinguished from other texts in the first instance. A good mastery of it will benefit us a lot in the translation of EST texts.EST vocabulary would usually be divided into three categories: technical words, semi-technical words, and non-technical words.●Technical wordsTechnical words refer to words that can exactly explain definite concepts in specific field of science and technology. Words in this category seem to be a little difficult to understand in that they are not often used in general English texts and ask for special knowledge in that field for correct understanding. For example:electron 电子nuclear fission 原子核裂变metrology计量学matrass卵形瓶Photopolymer光聚合版sunspot 太阳黑子neutron中子pistil 雄蕊●semi-technical wordsSemi-technical terms are used more frequently. There are many words whose use is not only confined to scientific and technical contexts and which are an essential part of technical English. They can be found in both everyday English and EST texts. Their meanings related to science are quite different from general ones, which may be relevant. Here are a few examples: forwarding technology:转发技术test tube:试管imaging system:(印刷)成像系统carrier:电信公司，载波base:(计算机)基值；（无线电）基极force:（物）transmission:（无线电）发射；（医学）遗传；（物理）透射non-technical wordsSome words are not technical in a strict sense, but tend to occur Particularly frequently in technical English, such as functional words, auxiliary verbs, pronouns, numerals, etc, which constitutes eighty-five percent of EST lexicon. They seem to fit well into the precise, impersonal and formal English of scientists and engineers.EST word general wordconvert changemaximum greatestmaximize/minimize make as big/small as possibleidentical similarappreciable a lot ofWords in left column are just corresponds with the features of EST style,which is concise, precise and formal while those in right are more preferred to.2.2.2 Word formation in EST lexiconMany scientific and technical words are formed by means of word formation according to the basic rules of word formation.In terms of formation, English may be classified into three categories: single words, compound and phrases (e.g. anti-armored-fight-vehicle-missile). A brief introduction is given as follows:●AcronymAcronyms are formed with the initial letters, which are extensively used in scientific and technical English. They are very convenient to employ this brief form, For example:WTO—World Wide Trade Organization世界贸易组织DBMS—DataBase Management SystemBASIC—Beginner?s All-purpose Symbolic Instruction Code 初学者通用符号指令代码TOEFL—T est Of English as a Foreign Language作为外语的英语考试（托福）laser—light amplification by stimulated emission of radiation 激光radar—radio detecting and ranging 雷达●AffixationAffixation is an important means of creating new English words with prefix and suffix, which are treated as inseparable elements of the words being coined. Here are some examples: mini- 小型；微型sub- 在...下;亚；半minicomputer 微型计算机subzero 零下的minicam 小型照相机subsystem 子系统minicab 微型出租汽车subclinical 亚临床型的-ity electricity 电学-er propeller 螺旋桨●CompoundingCompounding is the way of combining at least two words to form a new one. (刘宓庆，1998:376)EST words created by compounding always appear with three forms:(1)with a hyphenobject-oriented 面向对象的plug-and-play 即插即用(2)without a hyphengreenhouse温室online在线(3)two or more words forming a word combinationaircraft carrier 航空母舰time-consuming operation 耗时操作●BlendingBlending is regarded as a variant of compounding, which omitted the latter part of the first word and clipping off the first part of the second word(刘宓庆，1998:377). Please observe the following examples：telex←teleprinter+exchange电传code c←coder+decoder编码译码器compuser←computer+user 计算机用户syscall←system+call 系统调用psywar←psychological + warfare心理战Blended words are found more often in EST texts than others. In this way, words of EST could be made shorter, and the sentences composed of these words could be made more concise.Proper NounsSome English technical terms are borrowed from proper nouns, such as names of person, places, organizations, trade marks, etc. For example, the word ‘Haier’actually originates from a trademark，‘Kuru? derives fr om a place in eastern New Guinea; And the capital of USA Washington is named after the first US president.2.4Syntax Features of ESTA sentence is a basic linguistic unit of a text, which can be treated as an independent element to perform the communicative function. The features are said to reflect thescientists' need for communication and exchanging ideas. To achieve objective, exact and concise statements, EST sentences need to be expressed in well-organized and logical structures. EST texts differ from general English in the use of simple present tense, passive voice, word orderand sentence construction. Let us discuss a few features in the coming paragraphs.2.3.1 Frequent use of the simple present tenseIt is well known that there are sixteen tenses in English. The simple present tense is frequently used in expressing the timeless general statement(无时间性的一般叙述)，such as natural phenomenon, natural law, definition theorem, formula and so on(周方珠，2005：302). Since EST texts often contain information about truths or facts with no specific time reference, the present tense is commonly used in EST texts. There are mainly three circumstances to use the simple present tense in EST texts. Please observe the following examples:a.to describe a process(1) A scientist observes carefully, applies logical thought to hisobservations and tries to find relationships in datab.to state a scientific theory or facts(2) Sound travels through the air in waves.(3) Newton found that all masses attract one other.c.to describe habitual actions(4)Altering current is usually supplied to people's houses at 50 cycles persecond.2.3.2 Predominance use of the passive voiceIt is universally known that English is different from Chinese.Thepassive voice is quite often used in English while active voice is generally found in Chinese. It is assumed that one-third of the verbs in EST writings are in the passive voice. Since scientists are more interested in action and facts than the actors, many references to people are unnecessary and sometimes confusing, which in most cases are omitted. The using of passive voice achieves clearer meaning and more concise in structure and inclines to convey a passage impersonal and objective. What is more, it allows scientists to introduce the most important information at the very beginning. For example:(5) The results of the research are to be published soon.(6) Natural rubber is obtained from rubber trees as a white, milky liquidknown as latex. This is treated with acid and dried, before beingdispatched to countries all over the world.(7) The temperature of the liquid is raised by the application of heat.(8) The growth was affected by radiation.Anther pattern of passive model commonly found in EST texts is the …it?construction:is well knownis usually considerIt + should be made clear thathas been reportedcan be assumedWhile in instructions, warnings and notices, passive models areparticularly common. This type of passive construction maysuggest the formality of EST style.The passive voice is extremely useful and sometimes even regarded as mandatory in expressing objective ideas in EST, such as scientific or technical reports, where the actor is not the most important element and the concepts or principles being conveyed are of absolute importance. And in order to achieve objectivity, the passive voice is accordingly extensively used in EST texts.2.3.3 Extensive use of long sentencesScientific writings are usually put in long-sentence structure in a hope for precise and logical expression. Definitions, theorems, laws, concepts or the techniques may have in EST texts must be expressed accurately. Thus the use of modifier, qualifier or additional elements, verbal-infinitive phrases, prepositional phrases, adjectival phrases and compound nominal structure are quite frequently applied to simplification of long sentences. Here are some example sentences:(9)A robot a man so subtle that he seems to be not one but the incarnationof a winged angle, who can fly up to the skyscraper and hand in person the milk bottles to users, really a superman come into being on the earth —Robot.(10) Plastic is made from water which is a natural resource inexhaustibleand available everywhere, coal which can be minded through automaticand mechanical processes at least cost and lime which can be obtained from the calcinations of limestone widely present in nature.…(11) High melting point metals, carbides,oxides andnitrides are melted with a plasma-arc torch by coating objects with molten droplets carried in a jet of inert gas passed through the torch.(Mc Graw-Hill.1992,vol.6:p129)In example (9), the segregating constitutions range from the appositive …a man?as an inception to another appositive …a superman?as a terminus with …so…that? clause and …who? clause straggling between them; Though example (10) contains several clauses, the structures are clear and is easy to understand. Participle phrases employed in example (11) make the sentence quite concise and clear.2.3.4 Normalization of ESTNominalization is systematically correspondent to a clausal predication, which includes a head noun morphologically related to a corresponding verb. EST should adopt a concise or direct way of writing, containing objective thoughts, precise contents, and plenty of information or facts. Many modifications and restrictions are required to elaborate these concepts or ideas and the meaning of a noun phrase consisting of more than one word is usually complicated. In this way, nominalization is widely adopted. Nominalization is regarded as an important way to make sentence impersonal and compact, and is probably evolved at the very beginning in scientific andtechnical text, where it plays a dual role: to establish hierarchies of technical terms and to have an argument step by step, using complicated passages "packaged" in nominal form as Themes (Halliday, 1994:353).Thus nominalization is frequently used in EST texts. Look at the following examples:(12)The development of the rocket makes it possible for man to enterspace.(13)Archimedes first discovered the principle of displacement of water bysolid bodies.(14)Knowledge of the forces on the gear makes possible the determinationof its size.Rather than: If we know the force on the gear we can determine its size.(15) Discharge of contents of the tank is affected by a pump.Rather than: The contents of the tank are discharged by a pump.…The development of the rocket? and …for man to enter space? in example (12) are noun phrase, which make the sentence much more concise and logical. And in example (13), the noun phrase …the principle of displacement of water by solid bodies? not only simplifies the appositive sentence but also stresses the fact of displacement.Therefore, it is easy to conclude that nominalization leads to abstractness and inclusiveness and conciseness.CHAPTERTHREE CRITERIA OF EST TRANSLATION3.1 Criteria of TranslationAs is well known, translation is a complex and frustration task, which is regarded as a practical linguistic activity aiming at the inter-lingual communication. Translation criteria serve as the core of translation theory and the principle judging translation quality.Translation criterion is the mirror to reflect to what degree people's study of translation has been conducted. Obviously, translation criteria not only guide translating work but also develop translation theories. To be a qualified translator, one needs, above all, to be familiar with history and development oftranslation criteria.In China, whenever people discuss the principles of translation, they mention the three-character principle“信达雅”(faithfulness, expressiveness and elegance ) formulated by Yan Fu.Qu Qiubai said, …Tr anslation calls for the absolute correctness and pure Chinese vernacular, thus introducing the language of new culture to the reading public.?(刘重德，1991：21)According to Lin Yutang, there are no ready-made rules to follow in translating but only technical problems which are needed to be discussed. One technical problem is the criteria for judging translation, which he considers to be …faithfulness?(忠)，…expressiveness?(顺) and …beautifulness?(美).Lu Xun, who agrees to "faithfulness" and "expressiveness" to such an extreme that he emphasizes he would rather be faithful to the original than be fluent in translation.In foreign studies, a lot of representative discussion has been devoted to how to produce an acceptable translation as well.In western world, the earliest and the most influential person on discussion of translation principles is Alexander Fraser Tytler. Tytler puts forward the following three principles:(1) The translation should give a complete transcript of the ideas of the original work.(2) The style and manner of writing should be of the same character as that of the original.(3) The translation should have all the ease of the original composition.Eugene A. Nida makes another influential translationcriterion by his translation equivalence. According to Newmark, a faithful translation attempts to reproduce the precise contextual meaning of the original within the constraints of the TL grammatical structures.3.2 Criteria of EST TranslationIn the past years there has been neglect in the research of criteria of science and technology translation. It seems that there is no further understanding in this issue than the school of “faithfulness ,expressiveness,elegance”,or the school of “loyalty ,smoothness”, both of which remain too general and impractical. The following paper attempts to present four principles to constitute interconnected dimensions of criteria of science and technology translation.3.2.1 FaithfulnessBy faithfulness in EST translation it refers to that the message of SL is correctly expressed in TL, it does not require that the grammar and sentence structure in SL should be the same as those in TL. …Faithfulness? in EST is, to some degree, not the same one involved in literary translation. Literary translation touches upon not only semantic equivalence, but also structures, rhetoric and positive and negative expressions. It is more complicated than EST translation in the principle of faithfulness. Here are some examples: (16) Velocity changes if either the speed or the direction changes.误：假如力的人小或方向改变了.速度跟着要变化。
