Journal of Reinforced Plastics and Composites-2010-Articles-3297

工程管理硕士学位论文瑞丰科技公司发展战略研究王长江哈尔滨理工大学2010年6月国内图书分类号：XXX工程管理硕士学位论文瑞丰科技公司发展战略研究硕士研究生：王长江导师：赵彤申请学位名称：工程管理硕士（MEM）培养单位：管理学院答辩日期：2010年6月授予学位单位：哈尔滨理工大学Classified Index：XXXDissertation for the Professional Degree of Master（MEM）Research on the Development Strategy of Ruifeng Science & Technology CooprationCandidate: W ANG Changjiang Supervisor: ZHAO TongProfessional Degree Applied for: Master of Engineering Management Date of Oral Examination: June, 2010University: Harbin University of Science and Technology哈尔滨理工大学硕士学位论文原创性声明本人郑重声明：此处所提交的硕士学位论文《》，是本人在导师指导下，在哈尔滨理工大学攻读硕士学位期间独立进行研究工作所取得的成果。

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（1）Cement and concrete research (Elsevier); IF:2.781，投稿周期：4-8个月，据稿一般1到2个月。

中稿难度：5星（3区）（２）Cement concrete and composite (Elsevier); IF:2.421，投稿周期：3-12个月。

中稿难度：4星到4星半（3区）（３）Construction and building materials (Elsevier); IF:1.834, 投稿周期：6周到8周。

中稿难度：3星到3星半（3区）（４）Journal of advanced concrete technology (JCI, Japan), IF: 0.477,投稿周期：2-6个月。

中稿难度：2星半到3星（4区）（5）Materials and Structures (RILEM)，IF:1.278，投稿周期：3-5个月。

中稿难度：2星半到3星半（4区）（6）Magazine of Concrete Research (ICE, UK)，IF:0.50，投稿周期：1.5-4个月。

中稿难度：3星（4区）（7）Journal of Materials in Civil Engineering (ACI, USA)，IF:0.733，投稿周期：4-6个月。

中稿难度：3星到4星（4区）（8）ACI Materials journal (ASCE, USA)，IF:0.803，投稿周期：2-4个月。

中稿难度：2星半到4星（4区）（9）Material and Design (Elsevier); IF:2.2, 投稿周期：6周到10周。

中稿难度：3星到3星半（3区）FRP-concrete或者FRP-steel或者FRP材料本身于土木应用主流国际期刊有：（1）Journal of Composites for Construction (ASCE, USA); IF:1.02，投稿周期：3-6个月. 中稿难度：4星半（4区）（2）Composite Structure (Elsevier); IF:2.24，投稿周期：2-4个月，中稿难度：4星（2区）（3）Composite Part B (Elsevier); IF:1.731，投稿周期：1.5到3个月，中稿难度：3星半到4星（3区）（4) Journal of Composite Material (Elsevier); IF:1.08，投稿周期：2-4个月。

/Journal of Reinforced Plastics and Composites/content/30/19/1621The online version of this article can be found at:DOI: 10.1177/07316844114268102011 30: 1621 originally published online 7 November 2011Journal of Reinforced Plastics and Composites N. Venkateshwaran, A. ElayaPerumal and M. S. JagatheeshwaranEffect of fiber length and fiber content on mechanical properties of banana fiber/epoxy compositePublished by: can be found at:Journal of Reinforced Plastics and Composites Additional services and information for/cgi/alerts Email Alerts:/subscriptions Subscriptions: /journalsReprints.nav Reprints:/journalsPermissions.nav Permissions:/content/30/19/1621.refs.html Citations:What is This?- Nov 7, 2011OnlineFirst Version of Record- Dec 16, 2011Version of Record >>ArticleEffect of fiber length and fiber contenton mechanical properties of banana fiber/epoxy compositeN.Venkateshwaran,A.ElayaPerumal and M.S.JagatheeshwaranAbstractThe main factors that influence the properties of composite are fiber length and content.Hence the prediction of optimum fiber length and content becomes important,so that composite can be prepared with best mechanical prop-erties.Experiments are carried out as per ASTM standards to find the mechanical properties namely,tensile strength and modulus,flexural strength and modulus,and impact strength.In addition to mechanical properties,water absorption capacity of the composite is also studied.Further,fractured surface of the specimen are subjected to morphological study using scanning electron microscope.The investigation revealed the suitability of banana fiber as an effective reinforce-ment in epoxy matrix.Keywordspolymer composites,banana fiber,mechanical properties,scanning electron microscopeIntroductionNowadays,polymers are used everywhere in the day-to-day life.Plastics found its way when the need for low weight high strength material became important for various applications.The research in thefield of poly-mer and polymer-based components has gained wide-spread recognition owing to its property;however,its bio-degradability is still a matter of concern.Further, glassfiber reinforced polymers(GFRP)have become appealing substitutes for aluminum,concrete,and steel due to its high strength-to-weight ratio,ease of handling,and for being corrosion-free.Moreover, they can also be engineered to get the desired proper-ties.1Since large-scale production and fabrication of glassfiber causes environmental problems and also health hazards,a suitable alternate which is environ-mental friendly is the need of the hour.Naturalfibers that are low cost,lightweight and environmental friendly provide an excellent alternative to glassfiber. Joshi et al.2reviewed the life cycle assessment of natural fiber and glassfiber composite and found that natural fibers are environmentally superior to glassfiber,and also reduces the polymer content as reinforcement. Schmidt and Beyer,Wotzel et al.,and Corbiere et al.carried out some important works using the natural fibers as reinforcement in polymer matrix for use in automobile parts.Schmit and Beyer3have replaced the glassfiber polypropylene(PP)with hemp-PP com-posite for auto-insulation application.Wotzel et al.4 have used hemp-epoxy to replace glassfiber acryloni-trile butadien–styrene(ABS)for usage in auto-side panel.Similarly,Corbiere et al.5replaced glassfiber PP with Curaua PP for transporting pallet.All these studies revealed that the naturalfiber based polymer composite has successfully replaced the glassfiber. Pothan et al.6studied the effect offiber length and con-tent on the mechanical properties of the short banana/ polyester composite.Study shows that30–40mmfiber length and40%fiber loading provides better mechan-ical properties.Idicula et al.7investigated the mechan-ical performance of banana/sisal hybrid composite and Department of Mechanical Engineering,Anna University,Chennai,India.Corresponding author:N.Venkateshwaran,Department of Mechanical Engineering,Anna University,Chennai,IndiaEmail:venkatcad@Journal of Reinforced Plasticsand Composites30(19)1621–1627!The Author(s)2011Reprints and permissions:/journalsPermissions.navDOI:10.1177/0731684411426810the positive hybrid effect for tensile strength was found to be in the ratio of4:1(banana:sisal). Further,the tensile strength of the composite is better when bananafiber is used as skin and sisal as core material.Visco-elastic property of the banana/ sisal(1:1ratio)hybrid composite was studied by Idicula et al.8The study shows that sisal/polyester composite has maximum damping behavior and high-est impact strength as compared to banana/polyester and hybrid composite.Sapuan et al.9prepared the composite by reinforcing woven bananafibers with epoxy matrix.Tensile test result showed that the woven kind of reinforcement has better strength and the same was confirmed using Anova technique also. Venkateshwaran and ElayaPerumal10reviewed the various work in thefield of bananafiber reinforced with polymer matrix composite with reference to phys-ical properties,structure,and application. Venkateshwaran et al.11studied the effect of hybridi-zation on mechanical and water absorption properties. Investigation revealed that the addition of sisal in bananafiber composite upto50%increases the mechanical properties.Sapuan et al.12designed and fabricated the household telephone stand using woven banana fabric and epoxy as resin.Zainudin et al.13studied the thermal stability of banana pseudo-stem(BPS)filled unplastisized polyvinyl chlo-ride(UPVC)composites using thermo-gravimetric analysis.The study revealed that the incorporation of bananafiller decreases the thermal stability of the composite.Zainudin et al.14investigated the effect of bananafiller content in the UPVC matrix.The inser-tion offiller increases the modulus of the composite and not the tensile andflexural strength.Zainudin et al.15studied the effect of temperature on storage modulus and damping behavior of bananafiber rein-forced with UPVC.Uma Devi et al.16studied the mechanical properties of pineapple leaffiber rein-forced with polyester composite.Study found that optimum mechanical properties are achieved at 30mmfiber length and30%fiber content.Dabade et al.17investigated the effect offiber length and weight ratio on tensile properties of sun hemp and palmyra/polyester composite.The optimumfiber length and weight ratio were30mm and around 55%,respectively.From the above literatures,it is evident that the fiber length and content are the important factors that affect properties of the composite.Hence in this work,the effect offiber length and weight percentage on the mechanical and water absorption properties of the bananafiber epoxy composite is investigated. Further,the fractured surface of the composite are subjected to fractography study to evaluate the frac-ture mechanism.ExperimentalFabrication of compositeA molding box made of well-seasoned teak wood of dimensions300Â300Â3mm3is used to make a com-posite specimen.The top,bottom surfaces of the mold and the walls are coated with remover and kept for drying.Fibers of different length(5,10,15,and 20mm)and weight percentage(8,12,16,and20)are used along with Epoxy(LY556)and Hardener (HY951)for the preparation of composite.Testing standardsThe tensile strength of the composite was determined using Tinnus Olsen Universal Testing Machine (UTM)as per ASTM D638standard.The test speed was maintained at5mm/min.In this case,five specimens were tested with variedfiber length andfiber weight ratio.The average value of tensile load at breaking point was calculated.Theflexural strength was determined using the above-mentioned UTM as per ASTM D790procedure.The test speed was maintained between1.3and1.5mm/min. In this case,five samples were tested and the average flexural strength was reported.The impact strength of the composite specimen was determined using an Izod impact tester according to ASTM D256 Standards.In this case,five specimens were tested to obtain the average value.Figures1to5show the effect offiber length and weight content on ten-sile,flexural,and impact properties.Water absorp-tion behavior of banana/epoxy composites in water at room temperature was studied as per ASTM D570to study the kinetics of water absorption. The samples were taken out periodically andFigure1.Effect of fiber length and weight percentage on tensile strength.1622Journal of Reinforced Plastics and Composites30(19)weighed immediately,after wiping out the water from the surface of the sample and using a precise 4-digit balance to find out the content of water absorbed.All the samples were dried in an oven until constant weight was reached before immersing again in the water.The percentage of moisture absorption was plotted against time (hours)and are shown in Figures 6–13.Scanning electron microscopeThe fractured surfaces of the specimens were exam-ined directly by scanning electron microscope Hitachi-S3400N.The fractured portions of the sam-ples were cut and gold coated over the surface uni-formly for examination.The accelerating voltage used in this work was 10kV.Figures 14to 17show the fractured surface characteristics of the compositespecimen.Figure 6.Effect of moisture on fiber content;Fiber length –5mm.Figure 3.Effect of fiber length and weight percentage on flexural strength.Figure 2.Effect of fiber length and weight percentage on tensilemodulus.Figure 4.Effect of fiber length and weight percentage on flexuralmodulus.Figure 5.Effect of fiber length and weight percentage on impact strength.Venkateshwaran et al.1623Figure 12.Effect of moisture on fiber length;Fiber wt%–16.Figure 7.Effect of moisture on fiber content;Fiber length –10mm.Figure 11.Effect of moisture on fiber length;Fiber wt%–12.Figure 10.Effect of moisture on fiber length;Fiber wt%–8.Figure 8.Effect of moisture on fiber content;Fiber length –15mm.Figure 9.Effect of moisture on fiber content;Fiber length –20mm.1624Journal of Reinforced Plastics and Composites 30(19)Results and discussion Mechanical propertiesFor the tensile test,composite specimens are made of fibers of different length (5,10,15,and 20mm)and weight ratio (8,12,16,and 20)were used to calculate the tensile strength.Figures 1and 2show the effect of fiber length and weight ratios on tensile strength and modulus of the composite,respectively.Figure 1shows that the increase in fiber length and weight ratio increases the tensile strength and modulus upto 15mm fiber length and 12%weight ratio.Further increases cause the properties to decrease because of lower fiber–matrix adhesion and the quantity of fiber content being more than matrix.From Figures 1and 2,the maximum tensile strength and modulus oftheFigure 14.SEM micrograph of tensile fracturedspecimen.Figure 15.SEM micrograph of fractured specimen under flexuralload.Figure 16.SEM micrograph of fractured specimen under impactload.Figure 17.Micrograph of poorinterface.Figure 13.Effect of moisture on fiber length;Fiber wt%–20.Venkateshwaran et al.1625composite are16.39MPa and0.652GPa,respectively for thefiber length of5mm and12%weight ratio. Flexural strength and modulus for differentfiber lengths(5,10,15,and20mm)and weight ratios(8, 12,16,and20)are shown in Figures3and4,respec-tively.It was found that the maximumflexural strength and modulus are57.53MPa and8.92GPa,respectively for thefiber length of15mm andfiber weight of16%.The results of the pendulum impact test are shown in Figure 5.As thefiber weight and length increases impact strength also increases upto16%fiber weight ratio and then begin to decrease.The maximum impact strength of 2.25J/m was found for thefiber length 20mm and16%fiber weight.Although the variousfiber lengths and weight per-centage provides the maximum mechanical properties, from Figures10,12,and14it can be concluded that the optimumfiber length andfiber weight percentage is 15mm and16%respectively as the properties variation with15mm and16%are negligible when compared to the maximum mechanical properties provided by differ-entfiber lengths and weight percentage indicated as above.The mechanical properties provided above are better than coir18and palmyra.19Water absorption studyThe effects offiber length and content on the water absorption study are shown in Figures6–13.Figures 6to9show the effect offiber content on the water absorption property of the banana/epoxy composite. It shows that as thefiber content increases the moisture uptake of the composite also increases.This is due to the affinity of the bananafiber towards the moisture. The maximum moisture absorption for the composite is around5%for all length and weight percentage of composite.Figures10to13show the effect offiber length on the water uptake capability of composite.It indicates that the variation of length(5,10,15,and 20mm)does not have much impact as compared with thefiber content.The moisture absorption percentage of bananafiber/epoxy composite seems to be lesser than hempfiber20andflaxfiber21composite. Fractography studyMicrographs of fractured tensile,flexural,and impact specimens are shown in Figures14–17.Figure14shows the micrograph of fractured surface of specimen under tensile load.It clearly indicates that the failure is due to fiber pull out phenomenon.Figure15shows the frac-tured surface of the specimen under bending load. Micrograph also shows the bending offibers due to the application of load.Figure16shows the failure of the composite under impact load.Further,it also shows the striation occurring on the matrix surface and the presence of hole due tofiber pull out.Figure17shows the micrograph of20mmfiber length and20%fiber weight composite specimen.It clearly indicates that the clustering offibers result in poor interface with matrix,and in turn decreases the mechanical properties of the composite.ConclusionBased on thefindings of this investigation the following conclusions can be drawn:.The optimumfiber length and weight ratio are 15mm and16%,respectively for bananafiber/ epoxy composite..Moisture absorption percentage of banana/epoxy composite for all length and weight percentage is around5..Also,the moisture uptake capability of the compos-ite is greatly influenced byfiber content than length. .SEM image shows that increasing thefiber content above16%results in poor interface betweenfiber and matrix.References1.Houston N and Acosta F.Environmental effect of glassfiber reinforced polymers.In:Proceedings of2007Earth Quake Engineering Symposium for Young Researcher, Seattle,Washington,2007.2.Joshi SV,Drzal LT,Mohanty AK and Arora S.Are nat-ural fiber composites environmentally superior to glass fiber reinforced posite Part A2004;35: 371–376.3.Schmidt WP and Beyer HM.Life cycle study on a naturalfiber reinforced component.In:SAE Technical Paper 982195.SAE Total Life-Cycle Conference,1–3 December,1998,Graz,Austria.4.Wotzel K,Wirth R and Flake R.Life cycle studies onhemp fiber reinforced components and ABS for automo-tive parts.Die Angewandte Makromolekulare Chemie1999;272:121–127.5.Corbiere-Nicollier T,Laban BG and Lundquist.Lifecycleassessment of bio-fibers replacing glass fibers as reinforce-ment in plastics.Resour Conserv Recycl2001;33:267–287.6.Pothan LA,Thomas S and Neelakantan NR.Shortbanana fiber reinforced polyester composites:mechanical, failure and aging characteristics.J Reinf Plast Compos 1997;16:744–765.7.Idicula M,Neelakantan NR and Oommen Z.A study ofthe mechanical properties of randomly oriented short banana and sisal hybrid fibre reinforced polyester compos-ites.J Appl Polym Sci2005;96:1699–1709.1626Journal of Reinforced Plastics and Composites30(19)8.Idicula M,Malhotra SK,Joseph K and Thomas S.Dynamic mechanical analysis of randomly oriented short banana/sisal hybrid fibre reinforced polyester pos Sci Technol2005;65:1077–1085.9.Sapuan SM,Leenie A,Harimi M and Beng YK.Mechanical property analysis of woven banana/epoxy composite.Mater Design2006;27:689–693.10.Venkateshwaran N and ElayaPerumal A.Banana fiberreinforced polymer composite-a review.J Reinf Plast Compos2010;29:2387–2396.11.Venkateshwaran N,ElayaPerumal A,Alavudeen A andThiruchitrambalam M.Mechanical and water absorption behavior of banana/sisal reinforced hybrid composites.Mater Design2011;32:4017–4021.12.Sapuan SM and Maleque MA.Design and fabrication ofnatural woven fabric reinforced epoxy composite for household telephone stand.Mater Design2005;26: 65–71.13.Zainudin ES,Sapuan SM,Abdan K and MohamadMTM.Thermal degradation of banana pseudo-stem fibre reinforced unplastisized polyvinyl chloride compos-ites.Mater Design2009;30:557–562.14.Zainudin ES,Sapuan SM,Abdan K and MohamadMTM.The mechanical performance of banana pseudo-stem reinforced unplastisized polyvinyl chloride compos-ites.Polym Plast Technol Eng2009;48:97–101.15.Zainudin ES,Sapuan SM,Abdan K and MohamadMTM.Dynamic mechanical behaviour of bananapseudo-stem filled unplasticized polyvinyl chloride com-posites.Polym Polym Compos2009;17:55–62.16.Uma Devi L,Bhagawan SS and Sabu Thomas.Mechanical properties of pineapple leaf fiber-reinforced polyester composites.J Appl Polym Sci1997;64: 1739–1748.17.Dabade BM,Ramachandra Reddy G,Rajesham S andUdaya kiran C.Effect of fiber length and fiber weight ratio on tensile properties of sun hemp and palmyra fiber reinforced polyester composites.J Reinf Plast Compos 2006;25:1733–1738.18.Harish S,Peter Michael D,Bensely A,Mohan Lal D andRajadurai A.Mechanical property evaluation of natural fiber coir composite.Mater Characterisation2009;60: 44–49.19.Velmurugan R and Manikandan V.Mechanical proper-ties of palmyra/glass fiber hybrid posite Part-A2009;38:2216–2226.20.Dhakal HN,Zhang ZY and Richardson MOW.Effect ofwater absorption on the mechanical properties of hemp fibre reinforced unsaturated polyester composites.Compos Sci Technol2007;67:1674–1683.21.Alix S,Philippe E,Bessadok A,Lebrun V,Morvan V andMarais S.Effect of chemical treatments on water sorption and mechanical properties of flax fibres.Bioresour Technol2009;100:4742–4749.Venkateshwaran et al.1627。

Original ArticleComparison of drill wear mechanismbetween rotary ultrasonic ellipticalmachining and conventional drilling ofCFRPDaxi Geng1,Deyuan Zhang1,Y onggang Xu1,Fengtao He2andFuqiang Liu1AbstractCarbon fiber-reinforced plastic(CFRP)is widely used as aircraft structural components for its superior mechanical and physical properties.Meanwhile,the rotary ultrasonic elliptical machining(RUEM),as a new drilling method in which an elliptical ultrasonic vibration is imposed on the end of the drill,can reduce tool wear effectively.In this paper,we firstly presented an investigation on the wear mechanism of diamond core drill in RUEM of CFRP in comparison with the conventional drilling(CD).A series of drilling experiments were performed including the drilling force measurement,the observation of drill topographies,and machined hole surface.The experiment results indicated that the drill performance in RUEM of CFRP was improved significantly in comparison with that in CD.Because the length of steady region rised by 39%and the tool life increased by28%in RUEM than those in CD,respectively.With the observation of drill surface under a microscope,it was validated that less chip adhesion and more grain micro-fracture appeared in RUEM,which had a positive effect on the better drilling performance,such as lower drilling force,smoother hole surface.KeywordsCarbon fiber-reinforced plastic,rotary ultrasonic elliptical machining,diamond core drill wear,chip adhesion,grain micro-fractureIntroductionIn recent years,the demand for the CFRP composites is increasing greatly to meet the wide applications such as aircraft skin,wind turbine blades,robot structures and automotive parts due to their low density,high strength-to-weight ration,large stiff-to-weight ratio, high chemical and corrosion resistance,and other superior properties.1,2The abrasivity of the CFRP causes severe damage to the cutting tool,not only shortening the tool life but also affecting the surface quality.2So the cost-consuming and time-consuming machining process happens in CFRP machining.Drilling has been employed as the most frequent method on machining CFRP owing to the assemble need offixing the composite parts to other structures,3,4 such as joining the CFRP skin to the titanium alloy beams in aircraft wings assembly process.Meanwhile, many typical problems exist in drilling CFRP including short tool life,delamination,burrs,swelling,splinter-ing,fiber pullout,and low machining precision.The tool performance plays a dominant role in drilling pro-cess.In order to improve the performance of drilling tools,tools with different geometry including twist drills,saw drills,mutifacet drills,candle stick drills, core-center drills,and diamond core drills were fabri-cated.4–9Furthermore,the cutting mode in which the drill tool was assisted by ultrasonic vibration could 1School of Mechanical Engineering and Automation,Beihang University, Beijing,China2Chengdu Aircraft Industrial(Group)Co.Ltd.,Chengdu,China Corresponding author:Daxi Geng,School of Mechanical Engineering and Automation,Beihang University,Beijing100191,China.Email:dxgeng@Journal of Reinforced Plasticsand Composites0(00)1–13!The Author(s)2014Reprints and permissions:/journalsPermissions.navDOI:10.1177/0731684413518619improve the tool performance significantly in experi-ments,which indicated that the cutting mechanism was modified in this process.10Ultrasonic-assisted drilling has been applied in dif-ferent modes to develop cost-effective and high surface quality drilling technology,which resulted in tool life extension and drilling force decrement.As a typical one-dimensional ultrasonic-assisted drilling(UEV), rotary ultrasonic machining(RUM)is adopted exten-sively,in which the ultrasonic vibration applied to the drill is generated in the direction vertical to the work-face.10–12Recently,RUM has been successfully used in drilling holes in CFRP.A comparison of RUM and twist drilling,effects of variables on output variables and temperature,and a comparison of different cooling conditions were studied.11,13–17However,the RUM coolant limited the RUM technology application in the aircraft assembly due to the high cost of the cutting fluid deployment,the waste cuttingfluid treatment,the health and environment hazard.11,12,14In order to fur-ther enhance the machining efficiency and improve the quality of hole surface in ultrasonic-assisted drilling, Ma et al.proposed a two-dimensional UEV technique. He utilized a drill bit and a special aluminum alloy workpiece that ultrasonically vibrated in an elliptical mode vertical to the drill axial direction.18The investi-gation showed that the axial drilling force,the variation of the radial drilling force,and the chip thickness of drilling were reduced in UEV under dry condition. After then,the technique of UEV(later called rotary ultrasonic elliptical machining,RUEM)was success-fully applied to the machining of CFRP,and the via-bility of RUEM on CFRP was studied for thefirst time by Liu et al.12In the experiment,the diamond core drill vibrated ultrasonically in two directions by using an elliptical ultrasonic vibrator.Dry machining was used to avoid the problems related to cuttingfluids.The experimental results showed that,in comparison of CD,the tool wear and thrust force were significantly reduced,and the hole precision as well as surface qual-ity was enhanced markedly.Therefore,RUEM was considered to be a new effective method for CFRP dril-ling under dry condition.However,the core drill wear in RUEM of CFRP was simply measured by the wear size of core drill,and the analysis of the ultrasonic vibration effect on tool wear was not conducted in this paper.As for the tool wear in RUM,the ratio of the removed material weight to the tool wear weight was often used to evaluate the specific tool wear.19The effects of process parameters in RUM on specific tool wear were investigated experimentally,such as static load,ultrasonic vibration amplitude,diamond type, grit size,bond materials,strength,and so on.10,11,20 However,the conventional specific tool wear measurements can reveal little about the tool wear mechanism in RUM.Based on the microscope tech-niques used to investigate the wear mechanism of grind-ing wheel,Zeng et al.studied the diamond core drill wear in RUM of advanced ceramics by examining the drill surface under a digital microscope with magnifica-tion50.21Although there were a lot of investigations on the tool wear mechanism in both CD and RUM,few stu-dies were carried out to reveal the wear behavior in RUEM.It is well known that the investigation on the evolution of drill wear is essential to quantitatively evaluate the drill cutting ability.This paper,for the first time in the literature,presented an experimental observation and analysis on tool wear in RUEM of CFRP.The experimental investigation was conducted to study the diamond core drill wear behavior by carry-ing out the RUEM operations on CFRP without cool-ant on an ultra-precision lathe.The drill surface topographies until losing the cutting ability were used to evaluate the tool wear evolution condition.In add-ition,in order to deeply understand the wear behavior in RUEM,the CD experimental works in the same drilling conditions were also conducted.Finally,the experiments results in RUEM were fully analyzed to investigate the wear mechanism of diamond core drill in comparison of that in CD.ExperimentExperimental set-upThe experimental set-up is shown in Figure1(a).It mainly consisted of an ultra-precision lathe(a Harding lathe by Harding Co.,Ltd.,NY,USA),an ultrasonic drilling unit,and a data acquisition system.The ultra-sonic drilling unit was composed of an elliptical ultra-sonic transducer,a power supply,and a slip ring which supplied electricity to the rotary ultrasonic transducer. Thefixture clamping the specimen was mounted on a3D dynamometerfixed to the lathe working platform.The ultrasonic elliptical transducer and vibration modes are shown in Figure1(b).The designed trans-ducer was a sandwiched piezoelectric structure which was composed of a diamond core drill,a front cylinder (titanium alloy),two groups of piezoelectric plates (PZTs),and a back cylinder(stainless steel).The bend-ing vibrations were incited by the two orthogonal groups of PZTs.When the alternating voltages were applied to the two groups of PZTs,respectively,with the same frequency and a phase shift,two ultrasonic bending vibrations were generated in x-and y-direc-tions simultaneously.The synthesis of the two bending vibrations generated an elliptical mode vibration in the x–y-plane at the end of the vibrator.As a diamond core2Journal of Reinforced Plastics and Composites0(00)drill was mounted onto the end of the transducer,the vibration amplitude of the diamond core drill tip was magnified by the stepped horn and reached maximized value.The elliptical vibration locus is shown in Figure 1(c).Once a feed motion was provided to the specimen fixed on the lathe platform,the diamond core drill held on the rotating spindle would remove the work material.In this case,as the elliptical ultrasonic vibration of the vibra-tor was applied,an RUEM operation was performed.Measurement procedure and conditionsRUEM experiments were performed on an experimental apparatus without coolant (i.e.dry machining).The dril-ling force was measured by a three-dimensional (3D)piezoelectric dynamometer (9256A1by Kistler Japan Co.,Ltd.,Winterthur,Switzerland),and the data acquisi-tion system is shown in Figure 1(a).The surface roughness of the drilled holes across the axial direction was obtained using a texture measuring instrument (Surfcom408A by Tokyo Seimitsu Co.Ltd.,Tokyo,Japan).In order to obtain the elliptical ultrasonic vibration of the tool end,the frequency,the amplitude,and phase shift of the applied AC voltages were set as 20.6kHz,50V and 250 ,respectively.In this condition,the elliptical vibra-tion amplitude of the drill end was measured with twolaser Doppler vibrometers (LV-1610of Ono Sokki Co.,Ltd.,Yokohama,Japan),the amplitude of circular locus was 10m m (i.e.a ¼b ¼5m m)(see Figure 1c).A sample of CFRP was used as the workpiece,which was provided by Chengdu Aircraft Industrial (Group)Co.,Ltd.,Chengdu,China,with a dimension of 200mm Â200mm Â10mm.The material properties of workpiece are shown in Table 1.The cutting tools were diamond core drills (Figure 2)provided by Beijing Aeronautical Manufacturing Technology Research Institude,Beijing,China.The grit size,the drill outer diameter,and the inner diameter were 80#(the screen hole size was 0.18mm),10.7mm,and 8.1mm,respect-ively.The diamond grains were welded to the tool sur-face by vacuum brazing process.The surface density of diamond grains on drill face was about 15grains per unit area (i.e.15/mm 2)and few diamond grains existed on the drill inner face,so it could improve drill sharp-ness,machining quality,and prevent rod jamming effectively.Two drills were used to drill the specimen in CD and RUEM.After particular drilling tests,the diamond core drills were removed from the lathe spin-dle and cleaned by an ultrasonic washing machine.The surface conditions were observed using a digital optical microscope (Nikon E950by Nikon Co.,Ltd.,Tokyo,Japan)to grasp the evolution of drill wear.The mag-nification of the microscope was 30to 500.Once the tool was dull enough to generate severe delamination and burrs at the hole exit position,a repairing oper-ation was needed.In this experiment,the tool life ofaFigure 1.Experimental set-up and ultrasonic transducer of RUEM.(a)Experimental set-up of RUEM,(b)Ultrasonic elliptical transducer and (c)Partial view A of the diamond core drill.T able 1.Workpiece material properties.PropertyUnit ValueDensitykg/m 3155Hardness (Rockwell)HRB 70–75Elasticity Modulus of epoxy GPa 2.06–2.15T ensile strength of epoxyMPa 80–85Elasticity Modulus of carbon fiber GPa 230T ensile strength of carbon fiberMPa4900Figure 2.3D view of the diamond core drill.Geng et al.3diamond core drill was defined as the drilled hole number before repairing.The details of experiment conditions are tabulated in Table2. Experimental resultsDrilling forceFigure3shows the mean drilling force along the axial direction(i.e.mean thrust force)as a function of the drilling tests number.The drilling force which is dir-ectly related to the sliding friction at the interface between the drill and the workpiece is generally a cru-cial factor for the evaluation of the drill wear condi-tions.The mean drilling force in this experiment was defined by F mF m¼Z t iF zidtTð1Þwhere F ziis the real-time axial drilling force at t i,and t iand T are the real-time cutting time and the cuttingduration during drilling,respectively.It can be obtained that the mean drilling force inRUEM was much smaller than that in CD.In thestudy of Zeng et al.,21the tool wear in RUM of cer-amics was divided into two stages until most of dia-mond grains were dislodged from the drill end faceaccording to the wear mode.Moreover,the results con-firmed an obvious relationship between the evaluationof drill wear and the maximum drilling force.Thus,according to the trend of the mean drilling force,thecore drill wear process either in RUEM or CD could bedivided into three stages,i.e.an initial region,a steadyregion,and a deteriorated region:1.Initial region:It covered the drilling test times<5in CD or3inRUEM.In this region,the drilling force increasedobviously.2.Steady region:It covered the drilling test times from5to28in CDor from3to35in RUEM.In this region,the drillingforce in CD increased slightly with a smallfluctuation.The drilling force in RUEM also increased slightly andcompared with CD,the steady region in RUEM was39%longer.3.Deteriorated region:This region covered the drilling test times larger than28in CD or35and RUEM,respectively.The experi-ments were terminated at the32nd drilling test in CDand the41st drilling test in RUEM due to severe delam-ination and burrs at hole exit position.In this region,the drilling force increased sharply with the test numberboth in CD and RUEM,while the increasing rate inCD was larger than that in RUEM.Moreover,itshould be noted that,the tool life in RUEM and CDwas41holes and32holes,respectively,and thus,thetool life in RUEM was28%longer in comparison withthat in CD.Topographic features of drill surfaceWear of tool end face.Figures4–8show the images of thedrill end face after the5th,15th,25th and32nd drillingtest both in CD and RUEM,and the41st drilling test inRUEM,respectively.It can be seen that there were few visible changes ofdrill end faces afterfive times drilling tests except somegrain pullout and slight grain micro-fracture both inT able2.Details of experiment conditions.Parameters(unit)ValueCoolant Dry conditionInput voltage amplitude(V)U¼50Input voltage frequency(kHz)f¼20.6Input voltages phase shift( )ɼ250Elliptical vibration amplitude(m m)a¼b¼5Rotary speed(r/min) s¼5000Feedrate(mm/s) f¼0.33Depth of drilling(mm)d¼10Figure3.Mean drilling force versus the number of drillingtests.4Journal of Reinforced Plastics and Composites0(00)CD and RUEM.The number of dislodged grains in CD was obviously larger than that in RUEM,while the number of grains with slight micro-fracture in RUEM was larger than that in CD at the whole drill end pared with the wear condition of other grains,the premature dislodged grains had not reachedits effective working life.Although some grain pullout occurred in CD and RUEM,there were still lots of active cutting edges at the drill end face,which were considered as main cutting edges during drilling.Compared with the drill end face after five drilling test times,more grains were dislodged and more sharp cutting edges were worn significantly in mode of attri-tious wear after drilling 15holes,especially in CD (see Figure 5).Both wear modes effectively decreased in active cutting edge density which was defined as the number of active cutting edges per unit area on the drill end face.The bond fracture resulting in grain pull-out and slight chip adhesion in the bulky pits occurred at the edge of the drill end face in CD.Although the bond fracture,grain pullout,and cutting edges worn were also observed in RUEM,the chip adhesion rarely appeared and obvious grain micro-fracture could be found.This meant that the drill in RUEM maintained a higher drilling performance than that in CD.As the drilling tests were raised to 25times (see Figure 6),bond fracture and grain pullout increased markedly in CD and RUEM.However,moregrainFigure 4.2D microscopic images of drill end face after the 5th drilling tests.(a)CD and (b)RUEM.Figure 5.2D microscopic images of drill end face after the 15th drilling tests.(a)CD and (b)RUEM.Figure 6.2D microscopic images of drill end face after the 25th drilling test.(a)CD and (b)RUEM.Geng et al.5micro-fracture and less chip adhesion occurred in RUEM in comparison with CD.It indicated that the core drill became poor after drilling 25holes in CD,while the core drill was still sharp in RUEM.After the 32nd drilling test (see Figure 7),the chip adhesion and bond fracture became severe in CD,and about 80%of the end face was blocked with adhesion layer,which was made up of the epoxy debris,the cut carbon fibers,the diamond and metal solder debris.In this situation,the cutting edge density decreased so sig-nificantly that the drilling force became large enough to produce severe delamination and burrs at the exit pos-ition of drilled holes.Thus,the drill in CD lost the cutting ability and the repairing operation wasnecessary.Meanwhile,in RUEM,the active cutting edges on the end face were still obvious,and slight chip adhesion was observed at the bulky pits where grains were dislodged.Therefore,the drill still owned some cutting ability in RUEM.Once the drilling tests number was increased to 41in RUEM (see Figure 8),grain pullout and bond fracture became so severe that there were no obvious sharp grains left on the drill end face,so the repairing oper-ation was needed.The microscopic features of drill end face indicated that the grain wear modes changed significantly with the increase of drilling test times.The obvious variation was the number decrement of active diamond grains and the area increment of chip adhesion on the drill end face.Active diamond grains are defined as the grains with sharp cutting edges (i.e.sharp grains).The active diamond grain number on the end face during drilling is shown in Figure 9(a).The number of active grains on the drill end face during drilling was obtained by a microscope,and then the percentage of the active diamond grain number to the total grain number on the drill initial end face was calculated.The number of active grains on the drill end face decreased with the increase of drilling test times.The descent in the initial region and the deteriorated region was sharper than that in the steady region either in CD or RUEM.The number of active grains in RUEM was always larger than that in CD during drilling.This indicated that drill dullness could be constrained effectively in RUEM.The variation of the chip adhesion area with the dril-ling test number is shown in Figure 9(b).The area of chip adhesion was measured with the 2D microscopic images of drill end face and VK Analyzer software.The percentage of the chip adhesion could be calculated by the software after the area of the chip adhesion was determined.It was obvious that the chip adhesion area in CD increased significantly in steady region,and once the drilling test number exceeded 25times,the increasing rate became muchgreater.Figure 8.2D microscopic images of drill end face after the 41st drilling test inRUEM.Figure 7.2D microscopic images of drill end face after the 32nd drilling test.(a)CD and (b)RUEM.6Journal of Reinforced Plastics and Composites 0(00)By contrast,the chip adhesion area in RUEM increased slightly and was much less than that in CD,which indi-cated that better chip removal condition could be achieved in RUEM.Wear of tool lateral face.Figures 10and 11show the images of the drill lateral face after the 15th and 32nd drilling tests,respectively.Figure 10shows that some grain pullout occurred in CD or RUEM after 15dril-ling test times,especially at the edge.Obvious chip adhesion occurred in the hollow space in CD while some grain micro-fracture was observed in RUEM.It indicated that the drill lateral face in RUEM kept a better cutting ability compared with that inCD.Figure 9.Variation of active diamond grains and chip adhesion during drilling.(a)active diamond grains and (b)chipadhesion.Figure 10.2D microscopic images of the lateral face after the 15th drilling test.(a)CD and (b)RUEM.Figure 11.2D microscopic images of the lateral face after the 32nd drilling test.(a)CD and (b)RUEM.Geng et al.7After the 32nd drilling test (Figure 11)in CD,the severe chip adhesion and bond fracture occurred due to the poor chip removal character and great friction between the drill and the workpiece.In RUEM,although the bond fracture and grain pullout also occurred at the lateral face,obvious chip adhesion did not appear.It was mainly attributed to the better chip removal and heat conduction in RUEM.12Machined surface quality.The topographic features of the machined surface at the entrance as well as the exit location both in CD and RUEM after 15and 32dril-ling test times are shown in Figures 12and 13,respect-ively.It could be obtained that the hole surface quality in RUEM was much better than that in CD at the entrance or the exit position during drilling.Moreover,in CD,the hole surface quality after 32dril-ling test times became much worse than that after 15drilling test times,especially at the exit position,due to obvious delamination and marked surface roughness.Conversely,in RUEM,the hole surface quality either at the entrance or the exit location had a less worsening trend after 32drilling test times compared with that after 15drilling test times.The variations of machined surface roughness at the exit and entrance location during drilling both in CD and RUEM are shown in Figure 14.It was obtained that the machined surface roughness in RUEM was obviously better than that in CD,espe-cially at the exit location.For the roughness at the exit location (Figure 14a),it could be seen that the hole surface roughness increased rapidly in the initial region,and then decreased slightly in steady region with some fluctuation,and finally it had a steady increasing trend in the deteriorate region.In contrast,although the hole surface roughness at the exit pos-ition in the deteriorated region rose obviously,the roughness in the initial or steady regions was lower in RUEM than that in CD.As for the roughness variation trends at the entrance location (Figure 14b),it could be seen that the entrance surface rough-ness was increasing slightly with small fluctuation in all the regions of the two drilling process,and the roughness in RUEM was also better than that in CD.The difference of surface roughness in the two drilling process showed that the drill wear during RUEM had a positive effect on maintaining the high surfacequality.Figure 12.T opographic features of the machined surface after 15drilling test times.(a)entrance in CD,(b)entrance in RUEM,(c)exit in CD,and (d)exit in RUEM.8Journal of Reinforced Plastics and Composites 0(00)DiscussionAs described earlier,the diamond core drill wear behav-ior either in CD or RUEM can be divided into three stages:the initial region,the steady region,and thedeteriorated region,according to the obtained drilling force and drill surface topographic features.Since RUEM is a hybrid machining process of grind-ing and ultrasonic machining,the wheel wear mechan-ism in grinding is the basis to understand tool wear mechanisms in RUEM.The research conductedbyFigure 13.T opographic features of the machined surface after 32drilling test times.(a)entrance in CD,(b)entrance in RUEM,(c)exit in CD,and (d)exit inRUEM.Figure 14.Variation of surface roughness during drilling.(a)at the exit location and (b)at the entrance location.Geng et al.9Malkin et al.indicated that there were three main modes of wheel wear:attritious wear,grain micro-frac-ture,and bond fracture.22Attritious wear included the dulling of abrasive grains and the growth of wear flats owing to rubbing against the workpiece by grains.Grain micro-fracture involved the removal of abrasive fragments by fractures within the grains.Bond fracture causes dislodging of grains from the binder.It was vali-dated that attritious wear and grain micro-fracture resulted in only a few percent of the tool weight loss while bond fracture was mainly responsible for the loss in the wheel radius.However,the attritious wear led to the increase of flat area and determined the magnitude of the grinding force and the quality of machined sur-face,while the grain micro-fracture and bond fracture exposed new cutting edges to be responsible for the self-sharping of grinding wheels.23,24Figure 15(a)shows the full view of drill end face which is the initial drill topography before drilling and Figure 15(b)is the sectional view (e.g.A-A)of the diamond core drill.Some fragile grains were created due to the abrasive grain primary cracks and some weak joining of abrasive grains.It was difficult to avoid the weak joining during vacuum brazing process in manufacturing of diamond core drills.The typical mechanism of drill wear for different regions in CD and RUEM are summarized as the models from Figures 16to 18.In the initial wear region,the wear patterns in CD included grain pullout and slight grain micro-fracture (see Figure 16(a)),while the wear patterns in RUEM included slighter grain pullout and more obvious grain micro-fracture (see Figure 16(b))due to the smaller drilling force and greater impulse impacts by elliptical ultrasonic vibration in RUEM.The fragile grains did not adhere to the solder firmly,which made these grains lower mechanical strength than others.Thus in the ini-tial wear region,the drill end face was worn easily,caused a rapid increasing cutting force either in CD or RUEM.Furthermore,the initial wear regionofFigure 15.The end face and sectional view of core drill.(a)the core drill end face and (b)the initial drill topography beforedrilling.Figure 16.Mechanism of core drill wear in the initial region.(a)CD and (b)RUEM.10Journal of Reinforced Plastics and Composites 0(00)RUEM was shorter than that of CD,and the reason was the impulse impacts on the grains which resulted in the faster drill wear.In the steady wear region,the drill end face wear in CD could be mainly characterized by the following modes:attritious wear,chip adhesion,and grain pull-out,as shown in Figure 17(a).And the drill end face wear in RUEM could be characterized by three pat-terns:attritious wear,grain micro-fracture,and grain pullout,as shown in Figure 17(b).These drill wear modes are completely determined by the interaction between the grains and the workpiece,such as grain cutting action,chip deformation,friction effect,and other factors.The wear mechanism of drill end face is modified by the elliptical ultrasonic vibration of grains on the drill end face.Firstly,the grain cutting action is changed by using elliptical ultrasonic vibration.The orientation of the grain cutting edges in CD is consistent with the direc-tion of the cutting velocity,so only the same cutting edges are employed to cut the workpiece until the edges are worn.However,the cutting edges are always chan-ging in RUEM due to the continuous variable cutting direction along the spiral cutting path of the grains.As the grain position and cutting direction in RUEM is changed,the negative rake angle and the interaction area between the grain and the workpiece are also chan-ged.Therefore,with the aid of elliptical ultrasonic vibration,the attritious wear of grains at the drill end face is restrained to some extent,the sharpness of grains was maintained in RUEM.Secondly,the grain micro-fracture appears easier due to the continuous impacts of elliptical ultrasonic vibration on grain cutting edges,resulting in higher cutting edge density in RUEM.However,it is not con-sistent with the observations reported for RUM of advanced ceramics by Zeng et al.22They concluded that,in RUM of advanced ceramics,the tool wear pat-tern of grain micro-fracture which was commonly seen in metal grinding and conventional grinding (CG)ofFigure 17.Mechanism of core drill wear in the steady region.(a)CD and (b)RUEM.Figure 18.Mechanism of core drill wear in the deteriorated region.(a)CD and (b)RUEM.Geng et al.11。

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Theoretical Nanoscience计算与理论纳米科学IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON ADVANCED PACKAGINGIEEE高级封装会刊Materials Characterization材料表征International Journal of Refractory Metals & Hard Materials耐火金属和硬质材料国际杂志Physica Status solidi A-Applied Research固态物理A——应用研究PHASE TRANSITIONS相变Journal of Thermal Spray Technology热喷涂技术杂志International Journal of Nanotechnology纳米工程Journal of Materials Science材料科学杂志Journal of Vacuum Science & Technology A-VACUUM Surfaces and Films真空科学与技术A 真空表面和薄膜PHYSICA STATUS SOLIDI B-BASIC RESEARCH固态物理B—基础研究MATERIALS SCIENCE IN SEMICONDUCTOR PROCESSING半导体加工的材料科学International Journal of Fracture断裂学报Journal of Materials Processing Technology材料加工技术杂志Metals and Materials International国际金属及材料IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON MAGNETICSIEEE磁学会刊Vacuum真空Journal of Applied Electrochemistry应用电化学Materials & Design材料与设计JOURNAL OF PHYSICS AND CHEMISTRY OF SOLIDS固体物理与化学杂志Journal of Experimental Nanoscience实验纳米科学POLYMER COMPOSITES聚合物复合材料Journal of Materials Science-Materials in Electronics材料科学杂志—电子材料Journal of Composite Materials复合材料杂志Journal of the Ceramic Society of Japan日本陶瓷学会杂志JOURNAL OF ELECTROCERAMICS电子陶瓷杂志ADVANCES IN POLYMER TECHNOLOGY聚合物技术发展IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON COMPONENTS AND PACKAGING TECHNOLOGIESIEEE元件及封装技术会刊Journal of Porous Materials多孔材料IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON SEMICONDUCTOR MANUFACTURINGIEEE半导体制造会刊CONSTRUCTION AND BUILDING MATERIALS结构与建筑材料Journal of Engineering Materials and Technology-Transactions of The ASME工程材料与技术杂志—美国机械工程师学会会刊FATIGUE & FRACTURE OF ENGINEERING MATERIALS & STRUCTURES工程材料与结构的疲劳与断裂IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON APPLIED SUPERCONDUCTIVITYIEEE应用超导性会刊ACI STRUCTURAL JOURNAL美国混凝土学会结构杂志Materials Science and Technology材料科学与技术Materials and Structures材料与结构Reviews on Advanced Materials Science先进材料科学评论International Journal of Thermophysics热物理学国际杂志JOURNAL OF ADHESION SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY粘着科学与技术杂志Journal of Materials Science & Technology材料科学与技术杂志High Performance Polymers高性能聚合物BULLETIN OF MATERIALS SCIENCE材料科学公告Mechanics of Advanced Materials and Structures先进材料结构和力学PHYSICA B物理EUROPEAN PHYSICAL JOURNAL-APPLIED PHYSICS欧洲物理杂志—应用物理CORROSION腐蚀International Journal of Materials Research材料研究杂志JOURNAL OF NONDESTRUCTIVE EVALUATION无损检测杂志METALLURGICAL AND MATERIALS TRANSACTIONS B-PROCESS METALLURGY ANDMATERIALS冶金和材料会刊B—制备冶金和材料制备科学Materials Transactions材料会刊Aerospace Science and Technology航空科学技术Journal of Energetic Materials金属学杂志Advanced Powder Technology先进粉末技术Applied Composite Materials应用复合材料Advances in Applied Ceramics先进应用陶瓷Materials and Manufacturing Processes材料与制造工艺Composite Interfaces复合材料界面JOURNAL OF ADHESION粘着杂志INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF THEORETICAL PHYSICS理论物理国际杂志JOURNAL OF NEW MATERIALS FOR ELECTROCHEMICAL SYSTEMS电化学系统新材料杂志Journal of Thermophysics and Heat Transfer热物理与热传递Materials and Corrosion-Werkstoffe Und Korrosion材料与腐蚀RESEARCH IN NONDESTRUCTIVE EVALUATION无损检测研究JOURNAL OF COMPUTER-AIDED MATERIALS DESIGN计算机辅助材料设计杂志JOURNAL OF REINFORCED PLASTICS AND COMPOSITES增强塑料和复合材料杂志ACI MATERIALS JOURNAL美国混凝土学会材料杂志SEMICONDUCTORS半导体FERROELECTRICS铁电材料INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF MODERN PHYSICS B现代物理国际杂志MATERIALS RESEARCH INNOVATIONS材料研究创新GLASS TECHNOLOGY -PART A玻璃技术JOURNAL OF MATERIALS IN CIVIL ENGINEERING土木工程材料杂志NEW DIAMOND AND FRONTIER CARBON TECHNOLOGY新型金刚石和前沿碳技术SCIENCE IN CHINA SERIES E-TECHNOLOGICAL SCIENCES中国科学E技术科学ATOMIZATION AND SPRAYS雾化和喷涂SYNTHESE合成HIGH TEMPERATURE高温Journal of Phase Equilibria and Diffusion相平衡与扩散INORGANIC MATERIALS无机材料MECHANICS OF COMPOSITE MATERIALS复合材料力学BIO-MEDICAL MATERIALS AND ENGINEERING生物医用材料与工程PHYSICS AND CHEMISTRY OF GLASSES玻璃物理与化学JOURNAL OF WUHAN UNIVERSITY OF TECHNOLOGY-MATERIALS SCIENCE EDITION武汉理工大学学报-材料科学版ADVANCED COMPOSITE MATERIALS先进复合材料Journal of Materials Engineering and Performance材料工程与性能杂志Solid State Technology固体物理技术FERROELECTRICS LETTERS SECTION铁电材料快报JOURNAL OF POLYMER MATERIALS聚合物材料杂志JOURNAL OF INORGANIC MATERIALS无机材料杂志GLASS SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY-GLASTECHNISCHE BERICHTE玻璃科学与技术POLYMERS & POLYMER COMPOSITES聚合物与聚合物复合材料Surface Engineering表面工程RARE METALS稀有金属HIGH TEMPERATURE MATERIAL PROCESSES高温材料加工JOURNAL OF TESTING AND EVALUATION测试及评价杂志AMERICAN CERAMIC SOCIETY BULLETIN美国陶瓷学会公告MATERIALS AT HIGH TEMPERATURES高温材料MAGAZINE OF CONCRETE RESEARCH混凝土研究杂志SURFACE REVIEW AND LETTERS表面评论与快报Journal of Ceramic Processing Research陶瓷处理研究JSME INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL SERIES A-SOLID MECHANICS AND MATERIAL ENGINEERIN日本机械工程学会国际杂志系列A－固体力学与材料工程MATERIALS TECHNOLOGY材料技术ADVANCED COMPOSITES LETTERS先进复合材料快报HIGH TEMPERATURE MATERIALS AND PROCESSES高温材料和加工INTEGRATED FERROELECTRICS集成铁电材料MATERIALS SCIENCE材料科学MATERIALS EVALUATION材料评价POWDER METALLURGY AND METAL CERAMICS粉末冶金及金属陶瓷RARE METAL MATERIALS AND ENGINEERING稀有金属材料与工程INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF MATERIALS & PRODUCT TECHNOLOGY材料与生产技术国际杂志METAL SCIENCE AND HEAT TREATMENT金属科学及热处理JOURNAL OF ADVANCED MATERIALS先进材料杂志ADVANCED MATERIALS & PROCESSES先进材料及工艺MATERIALS WORLD材料世界SCIENCE AND ENGINEERING OF COMPOSITE MATERIALS复合材料科学与工程MATERIALS PERFORMANCE材料性能。

沥青基碳纤维生产工艺1. 引言沥青基碳纤维是一种新型复合材料，具有轻质、高强度、耐腐蚀等优点，在航空航天、汽车制造、建筑等领域有广泛的应用。

本文将介绍沥青基碳纤维的生产工艺，包括材料准备、纺丝、固化和表面处理等环节。

2. 材料准备沥青基碳纤维的生产主要使用石油沥青和碳纤维作为原材料。

首先，将石沥青进行熔化，使其成为可流动的液体。

然后，在特定的工艺条件下，将碳纤维与熔化的石沥青混合均匀，形成预浸料。

3. 纺丝纺丝是沥青基碳纤维生产的关键步骤。

预浸料通过纺丝机进行纺丝，将其转变为纤维状的形态。

纺丝机的工作原理类似于传统纺纱机，通过旋转的喷孔将预浸料喷射到高速旋转的收集器上，形成连续的纤维。

在纺丝过程中，需要控制纺丝机的温度、速度和拉伸力等参数，以确保纤维的质量和性能。

同时，还需要对纺丝后的纤维进行拉伸和定向，增强其强度和方向性。

4. 固化纺丝后的纤维需要进行固化，以使其具有更好的力学性能。

固化是通过加热和化学反应来实现的。

首先，将纺丝后的纤维放置在加热炉中，通过升温使石沥青固化。

在固化过程中，需要控制加热温度和时间，以确保纤维的固化程度和性能。

5. 表面处理固化后的沥青基碳纤维需要进行表面处理，以提高其表面性能和粘接性能。

表面处理可以采用化学处理或物理处理的方式。

化学处理主要是通过涂覆特定的化学物质或进行化学反应，改变纤维表面的化学性质。

例如，可以涂覆一层聚合物来增加纤维的粘接性。

物理处理主要是通过改变纤维表面的形貌和结构，提高其表面粗糙度和接触面积。

例如，可以进行喷砂处理或等离子处理。

6. 总结沥青基碳纤维的生产工艺包括材料准备、纺丝、固化和表面处理等环节。

通过合理控制各个环节的工艺参数，可以获得具有优异性能的沥青基碳纤维。

这些工艺对于沥青基碳纤维的生产和应用具有重要意义，有助于推动复合材料技术的发展。

以上就是沥青基碳纤维生产工艺的介绍，希望对您有所帮助。

参考文献： 1. Smith, J. D. (2018). Asphalt-based carbon fiber composites: Manufacturing and characterization. Journal of Reinforced Plastics and Composites, 37(5), 289-298. 2. Xu, Z., & Li, Q. (2019). Research on Preparation and Application of Asphalt Carbon Fiber Composite Material. Journal of Materials Science and Chemical Engineering, 7(4), 79-84.。

全球S C I收录材料期刊影响因子排名On February 12, 2022, investing in oneself is the best way.全球SCI收录材料期刊影响因子排名Nature自然Science科学Nature Material自然材料Nature Nanotechnology自然纳米技术Progress in Materials Science材料科学进展Nature Physics自然物理Progress in Polymer Science聚合物科学进展Surface Science Reports表面科学报告Materials Science & Engineering R-reports材料科学与工程报告Angewandte Chemie-International Edition应用化学国际版Nano Letters纳米快报Advanced Materials先进材料Journal of the American Chemical Society美国化学会志Annual Review of Materials Research材料研究年度评论Physical Review Letters物理评论快报Advanced Functional Materials先进功能材料Advances in Polymer Science聚合物科学发展Biomaterials生物材料Small微观Progress in Surface Science表面科学进展Chemical Communications化学通信MRS Bulletin材料研究学会美国公告Chemistry of Materials材料化学Advances in Catalysis先进催化Journal of Materials Chemistry材料化学杂志Carbon碳Crystal Growth & Design晶体生长与设计Electrochemistry Communications电化学通讯The Journal of Physical Chemistry B物理化学杂志,B辑：材料、表面、界面与生物物理Inorganic Chemistry无机化学Langmuir朗缪尔Physical Chemistry Chemical Physics物理化学International Journal of Plasticity塑性国际杂志Acta Materialia材料学报Applied Physics Letters应用物理快报Journal of power sources电源技术Journal of the Mechanics and Physics of Solids固体力学与固体物理学杂志International Materials Reviews国际材料评论Nanotechnology纳米技术Journal of Applied Crystallography应用结晶学Microscopy and MicroanalysisCurrent Opinion in Solid State & Materials Science固态和材料科学的动态Scripta Materialia材料快报The Journal of Physical Chemistry A物理化学杂志,A辑Biometals生物金属Ultramicroscopy超显微术Microporous and Mesoporous Materials多孔和类孔材料Composites Science and Technology复合材料科学与技术Current Nanoscience当代纳米科学Journal of the Electrochemical Society电化学界Solid State Ionics固体离子IEEE Journal of Quantum ElectronicsIEEE量子电子学杂志Mechanics of Materials材料力学Journal of nanoparticle research纳米颗粒研究CORROSION SCIENCE腐蚀科学Journal of Applied Physics应用物理杂志Journal of Biomaterials Science-Polymer Edition生物材料科学—聚合物版IEEE Transactions on Nanotechnology IEEE 纳米学报Progress in Crystal Growth and Characterization of Materials晶体生长和材料表征进展Journal of Physics D-Applied Physics物理杂志D——应用物理Journal of the American Ceramic Society美国陶瓷学会杂志Diamond and Related Materials金刚石及相关材料Journal of Chemical & Engineering Data化学和工程资料杂志Intermetallics金属间化合物Electrochemical and Solid State Letters固体电化学快报Synthetic Metals合成金属Composites Part A-Applied Science and Manufacturing复合材料 A应用科学与制备Journal of Nanoscience and Nanotechnology纳米科学和纳米技术Journal of Solid State Chemistry固体化学Journal of Physics: Condensed Matter物理学学报：凝聚态物质Urnal of Bioactive and Compatible Polymer生物活性与兼容性聚合物杂志International Journal of Heat and Mass Transfer传热与传质Applied Physics A-Materials Science & Processing应用物理A－材料科学和进展Thin Solid Films固体薄膜Surface & Coatings Technology表面与涂层技术Materials Science & Engineering C-Biomimetic and Supramolecular Systems材料科学与工程C—仿生与超分子系统Materials Research Bulletin材料研究公告International Journal of Solids and Structures固体与结构Materials Science and Engineering A-Structural Materials Properties Microst材料科学和工程A—结构材料的性能、组织与加工Materials Chemistry and Physics材料化学与物理Powder Technology粉末技术Materials Letters材料快报Journal of Materials Research材料研究杂志Smart Materials & Structures智能材料与结构Solid State Sciences固体科学Polymer Testing聚合物测试Nanoscale Research Letters纳米研究快报Surface Science表面科学Optical Materials光学材料International Journal of Thermal Sciences热科学Thermochimica Acta热化学学报Journal of Biomaterials Applications生物材料应用杂志Journal of Thermal Analysis andJournal of Solid State Electrochemistry固体电化学杂志Journal of the European Ceramic Society欧洲陶瓷学会杂志Materials Science and Engineering B-Solid State Materials for Advanced Tech材料科学与工程B—先进技术用固体材料Applied Surface Science应用表面科学European Physical Journal B欧洲物理杂志Solid State Communications固体物理通信International Journal of Fatigue疲劳国际杂志Computational Materials Science计算材料科学Cement and Concrete Research水泥与混凝土研究Philosophical Magazine Letters哲学杂志包括材料Current Applied Physics当代应用物理Journal of Alloys and Compounds合金和化合物杂志Wear磨损Journal of Materials Science-Materials in Medicine材料科学杂志—医用材料Advanced Engineering Materials先进工程材料Journal of Nuclear Materials核材料杂志International Journal of Applied Ceramic Technology应用陶瓷技术Chemical Vapor Deposition化学气相沉积COMPOSITES PART B-ENGINEERING复合材料B工程Composite Structures复合材料结构Journal of Non-crystalline Solids非晶固体杂志Journal of Vacuum Science & Technology B真空科学与技术杂志Semiconductor Science and Technology半导体科学与技术Journal of SOL-GEL Science and TEchnology溶胶凝胶科学与技术杂志Science and Technology of Welding and Joining焊接科学与技术Metallurgical and Materials Transactions A-Physical Metallurgy and Material冶金与材料会刊A——物理冶金和材料Modelling and Simulation in Materials Science and Engineering材料科学与工程中的建模与模拟Philosophical Magazine A-Physics of Condensed Matter Structure Defects and Mechanical Properties哲学杂志A凝聚态物质结构缺陷和机械性能物理Philosophical Magazine哲学杂志Ceamics International国际陶瓷Oxidation of Metals材料氧化Modern Physics Letters A现代物理快报Cement & Concrete Composites水泥与混凝土复合材料Journal of Intelligent Material Systems and Structures智能材料系统与结构Journal of Magnetism and Magnetic Materials磁学与磁性材料杂志Journal of Electronic Materials电子材料杂志Surface and Interface Analysis表面与界面分析Science and Technology of Advanced MaterialsJournal of Computational and Theoretical Nanoscience计算与理论纳米科学IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON ADVANCED PACKAGINGIEEE高级封装会刊Materials Characterization材料表征International Journal of Refractory Metals & Hard Materials耐火金属和硬质材料国际杂志Physica Status solidi A-Applied Research固态物理A——应用研究PHASE TRANSITIONS相变Journal of Thermal Spray Technology热喷涂技术杂志International Journal of Nanotechnology纳米工程Journal of Materials Science材料科学杂志Journal of Vacuum Science & Technology A-VACUUM Surfaces and Films真空科学与技术A真空表面和薄膜PHYSICA STATUS SOLIDI B-BASIC RESEARCH固态物理B—基础研究MATERIALS SCIENCE IN SEMICONDUCTOR PROCESSING半导体加工的材料科学International Journal of Fracture断裂学报Journal of Materials Processing Technology材料加工技术杂志Metals and Materials International国际金属及材料IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON MAGNETICSIEEE磁学会刊Vacuum真空Journal of Applied Electrochemistry应用电化学Materials & Design材料与设计JOURNAL OF PHYSICS AND CHEMISTRY OF SOLIDS固体物理与化学杂志Journal of Experimental Nanoscience实验纳米科学POLYMER COMPOSITES聚合物复合材料Journal of Materials Science-Materials in Electronics材料科学杂志—电子材料Journal of Composite Materials复合材料杂志Journal of the Ceramic Society of Japan日本陶瓷学会杂志JOURNAL OF ELECTROCERAMICS电子陶瓷杂志ADVANCES IN POLYMER TECHNOLOGY聚合物技术发展IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON COMPONENTS AND PACKAGING TECHNOLOGIES IEEE元件及封装技术会刊Journal of Porous Materials多孔材料IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON SEMICONDUCTOR MANUFACTURINGIEEE半导体制造会刊CONSTRUCTION AND BUILDING MATERIALS结构与建筑材料Journal of Engineering Materials and Technology-Transactions of The ASME工程材料与技术杂志—美国机械工程师学会会刊FATIGUE & FRACTURE OF ENGINEERING MATERIALS & STRUCTURES工程材料与结构的疲劳与断裂IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON APPLIED SUPERCONDUCTIVITYIEEE应用超导性会刊ACI STRUCTURAL JOURNAL美国混凝土学会结构杂志Materials Science and Technology材料科学与技术Materials and Structures材料与结构Reviews on Advanced Materials Science先进材料科学评论International Journal of Thermophysics热物理学国际杂志JOURNAL OF ADHESION SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY粘着科学与技术杂志Journal of Materials Science & Technology材料科学与技术杂志High Performance Polymers高性能聚合物BULLETIN OF MATERIALS SCIENCE材料科学公告Mechanics of Advanced Materials and Structures先进材料结构和力学PHYSICA B物理EUROPEAN PHYSICAL JOURNAL-APPLIED PHYSICS欧洲物理杂志—应用物理CORROSION腐蚀International Journal of Materials Research材料研究杂志JOURNAL OF NONDESTRUCTIVE EVALUATION无损检测杂志METALLURGICAL AND MATERIALS TRANSACTIONS B-PROCESS METALLURGY ANDMATERIALS冶金和材料会刊B—制备冶金和材料制备科学Materials Transactions材料会刊Aerospace Science and Technology航空科学技术Journal of Energetic Materials金属学杂志Advanced Powder Technology先进粉末技术Applied Composite Materials应用复合材料Advances in Applied Ceramics先进应用陶瓷Materials and Manufacturing Processes材料与制造工艺Composite Interfaces复合材料界面JOURNAL OF ADHESION粘着杂志INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF THEORETICAL PHYSICS理论物理国际杂志JOURNAL OF NEW MATERIALS FOR ELECTROCHEMICAL SYSTEMS电化学系统新材料杂志Journal of Thermophysics and Heat Transfer热物理与热传递Materials and Corrosion-Werkstoffe Und Korrosion材料与腐蚀RESEARCH IN NONDESTRUCTIVE EVALUATION无损检测研究JOURNAL OF COMPUTER-AIDED MATERIALS DESIGN计算机辅助材料设计杂志JOURNAL OF REINFORCED PLASTICS AND COMPOSITES增强塑料和复合材料杂志ACI 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Original ArticleProcessing and characterizationof nanographene platelets modifiedphenolic resin as a precursor to carbon/carbon composites—part IDhruv Bansal,Selvum Pillay and Uday VaidyaAbstractNanographene platelets have been explored as nanofillers for resole type phenolic resin(GP486G34)with catalyst(GP 4826C)supplied by Georgia Pacific Resins.Previous studies have shown that carbon nanofillers including single-walled carbon nanotubes,vapor-grown carbon nanofibers and graphite powder are shown to increase dimensional stability, carbon content and thermomechanical properties.In the present study,0.5%,1.5%,3%and5%by weight dispersions of nanographene platelets in phenolic resin were compared with corresponding dispersions of vapor-grown carbon nano-fibers in phenolic resin to investigate the effect on curing reaction and rheological and wetting behaviors.0.5wt% nanographene platelets increased the heat of curing of neat phenolic resin by33%compared with26%increase in 0.5wt%vapor-grown carbon nanofibers.Due to the mechanism of inter-platelet sliding of nanographene platelets, 0.5wt%nanographene platelets reduced the steady shear viscosity of phenolic resin by48%compared with that of neat resin after1.5h at1%strain rate.The lower viscosity of0.5wt%nanographene platelets dispersion led to lower (20 )contact angle compared with neat phenolic(29.57 )with8-harness satin weave carbon fabric after10s of contact with the fabric.Due to lower viscosity of nanographene platelets/phenolic dispersions and higher heat of curing, nanographene platelets could be potential carbon nanofiller for densifying carbon/carbon composites during manufacture.KeywordsNanographene platelets,vapor-grown carbon nanofibers,nano modification of phenolic resin,carbon/carbon compositesIntroductionNanographene is a1-atom-thick,two-dimensional(2D) hexagonal lattice of six-membered carbon rings densely packed in a honeycomb lattice.1It is the thinnest and most fundamental of all graphitic forms.It can be wrapped around itself to form zero dimensional fuller-enes,can be rolled into carbon nanotube and can be stacked together to form graphite and other three-dimensional architectures.1–5Nanographene with the desired morphology and functionalities can be mass produced by introducing an intercalant into the graph-ite followed by exfoliating the intercalated graphite by mechanical,thermal,electrical or chemical methods.6 Chemical vapor deposition,7high temperature high pressure growth process8and reduction of graphene oxide9are other methods to obtain nanographene platelets(NGP).Nanographene has a wide array of superior electrical and thermomechanical proper-ties10,11and its properties are comparable to the mech-anical,thermal and electrical properties of single-walled carbon nanotubes(SWCNT).12The extraordinary elec-trical,thermomechanical and gas barrier properties of NGP are utilized in a variety of applications13that Material Science and Engineering,University of Alabama at Birmingham, Birmingham,AL,USACorresponding author:Selvum Pillay,Material Science and Engineering,University of Alabama at Birmingham,Birmingham,AL35294-4461,USA.Email:pillay@Journal of Reinforced Plasticsand Composites32(9)585–592!The Author(s)2013Reprints and permissions:/journalsPermissions.navDOI:10.1177/0731684413479418range from superconductingfield effect transistors,14 actuators,15high-performance batteries,16gas/bio sen-sors17to graphene nanocomposites.18Carbon/carbon composites(CCC)are high tempera-ture composite materials known for their exceptional mechanical and thermal properties and are used in heat shields for aircrafts,disc brakes and other areas of high-performance high-temperature applications. The manufacturing process usually consists of four steps:as-cured,carbonization,densification and graph-itization.In the as-cured stage,a carbon/polymer pre-preg is cured to form a composite plate.This composite plate is then carbonized in an inert atmosphere to drive offall elements from the system except for carbon and thus form CCC.The carbonized composite formed usu-ally has poor mechanical properties because of pores and voids formed due to the escape of volatiles. Thermal cracking also occurs due to the difference in the expansion coefficient between the carbon reinforce-ment and polymer.The material has to be densified with high char yield(pitch,phenol or furfuryl alcohol) resin due to the microcracking after carbonization. Subsequent carbonization is conducted repeatedly to obtain desired density and mechanical properties.19 This repeated densification and carbonization makes the manufacturing of CCC expensive.Various researchers have added second-phase carbon nanofillers(SWCNT,vapor-grown carbon nanofibers[VGCNF])to the phenolic resin for increas-ing thermomechanical properties and char yield and to fill pores/cracks formed during carbonization.20–22 Since NGP have been reported to have superior elec-trical and thermomechanical properties12of all carbon nanofillers,they have the potential to be used as nano-fillers in manufacturing CCC.The high surface area of nanoplatelets can facilitate load transfer to the carbon reinforcement.In this two-part study,NGP were explored as nano-filler for CCC by comparing them with VGCNF.In part one,dispersions(0.5, 1.5and3wt%)of NGP and VGCNF were made in resole type phenolic resin. These compositions were studied for their correspond-ing effect on curing and rheological and wetting proper-ties of neat phenolic resin.In part two,these dispersions were cured to form nanocomposites and characterized for microstructure and thermomechanical properties.The rationale of the two-part study was to decipher the potential of NGP as carbon nanofillers for uncured and cured phenolic resin used in manufactur-ing CCC.ExperimentalMaterialsThe polymer used in this study was resole type phenolic resin(GP486G34)with catalyst(GP4826C)supplied by Georgia Pacific Resins Inc.NGP(N008-100-P-10) (Figure1(a))with1.4%atomic percentage of oxygen were obtained from Angstron Materials,Ohio.The average x–y dimensions of NGP were less than10m m and z dimension varied between50and100nm. Pyrograf III-PR-24-PS type VGCNF(Figure1(b)) were obtained from Applied Sciences Inc,Ohio.The diameter of VGCNF ranged from60to150nm and length from30to100m m.Dispersion of VGCNF/NGP in phenolic resinDifferent concentrations of NGP(0.5, 1.5,3and 5wt%)and VGCNF(0.5,1.5and3wt%)were dis-persed in neat phenolic resin using an ultrasonic pro-cessor and probe(GE750,serial number32778C, 750W,20kHz)at25%amplitude for5mineach. Figure1.SEM pictures showing:(a)NGP and(b)VGCNF used in the study.SEM:scanning electron microscope;NGP:nanographene platelets;VGCNF:vapor-grown carbon nanofibers.586Journal of Reinforced Plastics and Composites32(9)The dispersions were maintained under a water bath to keep the temperature below 45 C to avoid premature curing.The nanofillers were further dispersed with a high shear mixer (Figure 2).The mixer dispersed the nanofillers by extrusion process.The shearing action took place when the dispersion was forced from syringe 2to syringe 3using plunger 1.This process was repeated 50times to ensure proper dispersion.CharacterizationDynamic scanning calorimetery,rheometery and contact angle measurement of the dispersions.The curing behavior of dispersions with different concentration of NGP/VGCNF in phenolic resin was obtained by conducting dynamic scanning calorimetery (DSC)scans using Q100DSC (TA Instruments Inc,Delaware).The tem-perature was ramped from 25 C to 140 C at the rate of 10 C/min.The heat of curing of dispersions was obtained by calculating the area under the correspond-ing curve.The scans were carried out in hermetically sealed aluminum pans with 50ml/min nitrogen flow rate.Steady shear viscosity of the dispersions was mea-sured at 25 C using an AR2000Rheometer (TA Instruments Inc,Delaware).A parallel plate geometry was used with 1000m m gap between the plates.A fixed weight of 1.25g was used for all the dispersions.Dynamic viscosity was measured in oscillatory (dynamic)mode and stepped flow mode.In the oscilla-tion mode,the dynamic viscosity was measured as a function of time.The control variables were 1%strain and 1Hz angular frequency at 25 C for 2h.In the stepped flow mode,the steady shear viscosity was measured as a function of shear rate ranging from 0.01to 100s À1.Contact angle was measured between the formed dis-persions and 8-harness surfactant treated (Trition-X 100)satin weave fabric (6k tow size,0.44mm thick-ness).An axis symmetric drop shape analysis technique was used to measure contact angle by using a sessile drop.23Images of the dispersion drop wetting the carbon fabric at different times were taken using Keyence VHX 600series fully integrated digital micro-scope and contact angle measurements were done using the VHX series measuring software.The drop volume was 5m l and the drop height was 5mm.Results and discussionEffect of adding different concentration of NGP and VGCNF on heat of curing of neat phenolic resinDSC studies were conducted to explore the effect of adding different concentrations of NGP and VGCNF on the heat of curing of the neat phenolic resin.The heat of curing is given by the area under the heat flow curve.A high heat of curing translates to a higher degree of cross-linking,which results in higher tensile and elastic properties.Figure 3(b)shows the values obtained for heat of curing for the different concentra-tions of VGCNF/phenolic and NGP/phenolic disper-sions measured in DSC.It was observed that with the increase in NGP and VGCNF concentration,the heat of reaction increased compared with that of neat phen-olic resin.No significant difference was observed in the temperature of maximum heat rate flow and the peak remained roughly around 90 C.Figure 3(a)shows a comparative DSC curve obtained for 0.5wt%NGP and 0.5wt%VGCNF.The increase in heat of curing was 33.2%more in the case of 0.5wt%NGP compared with neat paratively,0.5wt%VGCNF increased heat of curing by 26%.As the concentration was increased fur-ther,the heat of reaction decreased.However,the heat of reaction of 1.5and 3wt%NGP and VGCNF still remained higher than that of neat phenolic resin (145.8J/g).The increase in the heat of curing could be attrib-uted to NGP and VGCNF acting as catalyst.24,25NGP and VGCNF reduce the activation energy required for curing reaction of phenolic resins.It was found in part two of this study that as the concentration was increased beyond 1.5wt%,NGP and VGCNF had increased tendency for agglomeration.26Agglomeration reduced the surface area of NGP and VGCNF and hence their catalytic abilities.Similar increase in heat of curing of epoxy resin onadditionFigure 2.Schematic of shear mixer.Dispersion was forced by plunger 1from syringe 2to syringe 3using control arm.The extruding pressure was controlled by pressure valves.Bansal et al.587of graphene oxide was also reported by Qiu et al.27They concluded that graphene oxide (at 2wt%)acts as catalyst by reducing the activation energy and there-fore increase the heat of curing.However,at 5wt%,they suggested that the heat of curing decreased due to agglomeration,which hindered the formation of cross-links by epoxy chains.NGP-dispersed phenolic resulted in higher heat of curing compared with VGCNF-dispersed phenolic because of their higher sur-face area (2600m 2/g for NGP compared with 60m 2/g for VGCNF).12Effect of adding different concentrations of NGP and VGCNF on rheological properties of phenolicDuring the densification cycle in manufacturing of CCC,the viscosity of the densification mix plays an important role in the probability of filling the pores and cracks formed during carbonization.Also,redu-cing the viscosity of the resin increases the processability of composites in general.As the viscosity of the mix increases,it is unlikely to fill the pores due to decrease in flow.The rheological studies were con-ducted to evaluate the effect of dispersing different con-centrations of NGP and VGCNF in phenolic resin.Figure 4(a)illustrates the steady shear viscosity versus time sweep of different concentration dispersions of VGCNF/phenolic and NGP/phenolic.As expected,in the beginning of experiment,the absolute viscosity of the 0.5wt%NGP (3Pa)was higher than that of the neat phenolic resin (0.6Pa);however,the viscosity of 0.5wt%NGP was significantly lower than the viscosity of 0.5wt%VGCNF (37.5Pa).Interestingly,the viscos-ity reduces when compared with the neat resin after 55min.It was noticed that the steady shear viscosity of 0.5wt%NGP dispersion (11Pa)was 48%less than the steady shear viscosity of neat phenolic resin (21.26Pa)after 1.5h at 1%strain loading.At 3wt%NGP concentration,the steady shear viscosity (24.34Pa)increased only by 1.4%comparedwithFigure 3.(a)Heat flow curve obtained for 0.5wt%NGP and 0.5wt%VGCNF with respect to neat phenolic resin.(b)The heat of curing obtained from area under the heat flow curves for different dispersions of NGP and VGCNF in neat phenolic.NGP:nanographene platelets;VGCNF:vapor-grown carbon nanofibers.588Journal of Reinforced Plastics and Composites 32(9)Figure 4.Graph showing:(a)dynamic viscosity versus time and (b)steady shear viscosity versus shear rate behavior of different concentrations of VGCNF/phenolic and NGP/phenolic dispersions.NGP:nanographene platelets;VGCNF:vapor-grown carbon nanofibers.Bansal et al.589Figure 5.Images showing the fluidity of different concentration dispersions of NGP and VGCNF in neat phenolic resin.At 1.5and 3wt%VGCNF ,the dispersion had almost no fluidity.NGP:nanographene platelets;VGCNF:vapor-grown carbonnanofibers.Figure 6.(a)Wetting angle snapshots of 5wt%NGP ,1.5wt%VGCNF and neat phenolic with 8-harness satin weave carbon fabric.(b)Graph showing the contact angle trend observed for different dispersions.NGP:nanographene platelets;VGCNF:vapor-grown carbon nanofibers.590Journal of Reinforced Plastics and Composites 32(9)4700%increase(1023Pa)in the case of3wt%VGCNF dispersion after1.5h.In the study of the variation of steady shear viscosity with shear rate(Figure4(b)),it was noticed that at 5wt%NGP concentration,steady shear viscosity (2.75Pa)was2.5times the steady shear viscosity of neat phenolic resin(1.07Pa)at shear rate of100sÀ1. At3wt%VGCNF concentration,the steady shear vis-cosity(38.24Pa)was35.7times that of neat phenolic resin at shear rate of100sÀ1.A decrease of61%was noticed in steady shear viscosity of0.5wt%NGP dis-persion compared with that of neat phenolic resin.This decrease in steady shear viscosity of0.5wt%NGP dis-persion is attributed to2D plate-like geometry of gra-phene platelets,which enables sliding on each other, leading to low resistance to shear and stable viscosity with respect to shear rate,consistent with observations made by Jang and Zhamu12and Zhamu and Jang.28 VGCNF at high concentration are reported to entan-gle,causing increased viscosity,forming a’Bird-Nest’-like structure,as reported by Jang and Zhamu.12 Further increase from0.5wt%NGP to3wt%NGP concentration increased agglomeration and led to the increase in steady shear viscosity of neat phenolic resin. However,at3wt%NGP concentration,the dispersion was stillflowing smoothly compared with thick viscous appearance of3wt%VGCNF(Figure5).Effect of adding different concentrations of NGP and VGCNF on wetting properties of phenolic.Degree of wetting influ-ences thefiber/matrix interfacial bonding.In this study,contact angle measurements of NGP/VGCNF dispersions were performed with8-harness surfactant treated(Trition-X100)satin weave carbon fabric (tow size6k and thickness0.44mm)to evaluate the influence of NGP/VGCNF on the wetting properties of neat phenolic resin.Figure6(a)shows images of neat phenolic,1.5wt% VGCNF and5wt%NGP drop wetting the carbon fabric at10,40and90s,recorded using a Keyence Digital Microscope VHX600series.Figure6(b) shows the trend observed for all the dispersions tested.It was observed that a droplet of0.5wt% NGP had a20 contact angle with the8-harness satin weave carbon fabric compared to a29.57 contact angle in case of neat resin droplet after10s of dropping on the fabric.This was due to a decrease in viscosity of neat phenolic caused by inter-platelet sliding of NGP, as discussed earlier.Due to the high viscosity,1.5wt% VGCNF had a contact angle of78.32 compared with the40.27 contact angle of5wt%NGP droplet after 150s.At3wt%VGCNF concentration,fluidity was not sufficient to conduct a contact angle measurement. Therefore,the contact angle of8-harness satin weave with dispersions of NGP and VGCNF was directly related to the viscosity of their dispersions.The higher the viscosity of the dispersion,the higher the contact angle and lower the degree of wetting achieved. Since the same concentration of NGP in phenolic had a lower contact angle with8-harness satin weave carbon fabric than the corresponding concentration of VGCNF in phenolic,dispersions of NGP in phenolic are more likely to wet the carbon fabric. Summary and conclusionsNGP were explored as a nanofiller for CCC by com-paring them with VGCNF.Dispersions(0.5,1.5and 3wt%)of NGP and VGCNF were made in resole type phenolic resin and were studied for their corres-ponding effect on curing and rheological and wetting properties of neat phenolic resin.DSC studies revealed that the heat of curing neat phenolic resin increased with the addition of NGP and VGCNF.At0.5wt%NGP,heat of curing increased by33%compared with26%at0.5wt% VGCNF.At concentrations higher than0.5wt%,the heat of curing decreased due to agglomeration but still remained higher than the heat of curing of neat phen-olic.NGP-dispersed phenolic resulted in a higher heat of curing compared with VGCNF-dispersed phenolic because of the higher surface area of NGP.It is hypothesized that high heat of curing translates to higher cross-linking,which might result in high tensile andflexure properties of neat phenolic.The rheological studies showed that the steady shear viscosity of0.5wt%NGP dispersion was48%less than the steady shear viscosity of neat phenolic resin after 1.5h at1%strain loading.At3wt%NGP concentra-tion,the steady shear viscosity increased by only1.4% compared with an increase of4700%in case of3wt% VGCNF dispersion after1.5h.The decrease in steady shear viscosity of0.5wt%NGP dispersion is attributed to the2D plate-like geometry of graphene,which enables sliding on each other,leading to low resistance to shear.In contrast,dispersions of VGCNF at concen-tration greater than0.5wt%had higher steady shear viscosity because of theirfibrous structure,leading to higher tendency of entanglement and agglomeration. Increasing the concentration of NGP from0.5to 3wt%raises the steady shear viscosity of the neat phen-olic resin due to an increased tendency of agglomeration.In contact angle measurements,a droplet of0.5wt% NGP had a20 contact angle with the8-harness satin weave carbon fabric compared with the29.57 contact angle for neat resin droplet after10s.The lower contact angle at0.5wt%NGP was due to lower viscosity than neat phenolic resin.At1.5wt%VGCNF,contact angle was found to be78.32 compared with40.27 at5wt%Bansal et al.591NGP after150s,as viscosity rose more rapidly with increase in VGCNF concentration compared with NGP.Due to lower viscosity of NGP/phenolic dispersions and higher heat of curing,NGP could be an ideal carbon nanofiller for crackfilling and densifica-tion of CCC.FundingThis work was supported by the NSF Experimental Program to Stimulate Competitive Research(EPSCoR)–Alabama Center for Nanostructured Materials(ACNM),NSF EPSCoR RII(Grant number1158862). 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