下载文档原格式
Text APreparatory Work(1)Experiment: variable, hypothesis, stimulus, control groupSurvey Research: sampling, questionnaire, interview, close-ended questions, open-ended questions, code sheet, telephone surveyField Research: observation, participantAnalysis of Existing Data: content analysis, statistics(2)Hawthorne effect: The Hawthorne effect (also referred to as the observer effect) is a type of reactivity in which individuals modify or improve an aspect of their behavior in response to their awareness of being observed. The original research at the Hawthorne Works in Cicero, Illinois, on lighting changes and work structure changes such as working hours and break times were originally interpreted by Elton Mayo and others to mean that paying attention to overall worker needs would improve productivity. This interpretation was dubbed “the Hawthorne effect”.(3) (open)Teaching SuggestionYou can use the data banks of the two international organizations to check out the world or any particular country’s information in terms of GDP, population, territory area, human development index etc.The United Nations ( : data page: World Bank ( : can also use the website of the Statistical Bureau of China to check out any statistical information about China:ReadingI. Understanding the text1.Thesis: How Sociology Is Done (Research methods/techniques employed in(1)“common sense”:Common sense is a basic ability to perceive,understand, and jud ge things, which is shared by (“common to”) nearly all people and can reasonably be expected of nearly all people without any need for debate. However, many of the common sense beliefs are actually lacking in support from scientific evidences and therefore biased and prejudiced.(2)Ordinary people often define their reality and what they know throughauthoritative opinions, traditional beliefs, personal experience, and mysticism (superstition). The major differences between this kind of “common sense” view knowledge and the results/facts identified through scientific methods are: the former are not based on logical reasoning and hard evidences and therefore tend to be subjective and biased while the latter are just opposite.(3)The three major components of the scientific method are theory,operationalization, and observation. Theory provides the foundation for concepts so that statements about the relationship among variables can be created. Operationalization allows for the measurement of the variables so that they may be empirically examined. And observation involves the actual collection of data to test the hypothesis.forabout cause and effectand Could expose subjects to the possibility of harm Subjects often behave differently under scientific observation Laboratory experiments are often highly artificialII. Evaluation and exploration(1)An authority is a specialist in certain field of knowledge thereforean authority, specialized knowledge from an authority is closer to “truth”, b ut he is not a knowing-all figure, and he might also be biased in his attitude toward some issues. A tradition is a belief or behavior passed down within a group or society with symbolic meaning or special significance with origins in the past. They are followed by and considered right by certain group of people, but cannot applied to other groups who have their own tradition; and since they are formed and passed down from the past, they might not be applicable to the present world. Religions may contain symbolic stories, which are sometimes said by followers to be true, that have the side purpose of explaining the origin of life, the Universe, and other things.Traditionally, faith, in addition to reason, has been considered a source of religious beliefs. However, religious beliefs mostly lack in empirical or scientific proof. Personal experience is based on one’s real life and reality and therefor e closer to “reality”, but it is based on an individual’s encounter and perspective on reality,and cannot totally represent the common experience shared by a group of people. Mysticism is popularly known as becoming one with God or the Absolute, but may refer to any kind of ecstasy or altered state of consciousness which is given a religious or spiritual meaning. It may also refer to the attainment of insight in ultimate or hidden truths, and to human transformation supported by various practices and experiences. But it is based on religion or superstition, even farther away from being objective and scientific.(2)Since sociologists base their research and conclusion on empiricalstudy with scientific method, it is similar to the disciplines of natural science, but there are two factors that differentiate it from natural sciences. The object of study is human being who can be very complicated and change with time. Also the sociologists are also human beings who can be subjective or even biased in their study. In this sense, sociology is still not equal to natural science in objectivity. (3)The hypothesis of the Stanford prison experiment is that change ofroles or environment causes change of human behavior (effect). The independent variable is the two roles （prisoner and prison guard）assigned to the 24 students who are all randomly selected (sampling) from among the university students, and the dependent variable is their (change of) behavior.(4)First, experiments are often not possible because they would exposesubjects to the possibility of harm. For example, what if a researcher wanted to know whether people who were abused as children are more likely to abuse their children? Second, the subjects often behave differently when they are under scientific observation from the way they would in their normal environment. Third, laboratory experiments are often highly artificial. When researchers try to set up social situations in laboratories, they often must omit many of the factors that would influence the same behavior in a real-life situation, thus affecting the validity of the experiment result.(5)The merits of survey throug h the Internet are that it’s very quick(in terms of time)and efficient (in terms of cost), but the drawbacks are also obvious: not all citizens use the Internet (and therefore excluded from the sampling), and also not all netizens participate in the survey and therefore further affect the survey result.(6)The term often refers simply to the use of predictive analytics, userbehavior analytics, or certain other advanced data analytics methods that extract value from data, and seldom to a particular size of data set. Accuracy in big data may lead to more confident decision making, and better decisions can result in greater operational efficiency, cost reduction and reduced risk. Relational database management systems and desktop statistics and visualization packages often have difficulty handling big d ata. The work instead requires “massivelyparallel software running on tens, hundreds, or even thousands of servers”. Also, those who do not use the Internet are excluded from the analysis therefore affect the analysis and conclusion.(7)(This question is open for discussion and there’s no definite answer)The Internet companies are caught between the two sides: the government side who emphasize gathering monitoring information for public security or national security reason, and the netizens who defend their right of “privacy”. Laws should be made regarding the right and responsibility of each side.(8)(This question is open for discussion) How one feels about thesestatistical figures might be affected by the class, occupation, gender, region and age group (and other factors) an individual belongs to. And also, the official statistics might not be very accurate.(9)(This question is open for discussion) Obviously, mass media(newspapers, radio, TV, the Internet) are the major channel people get most of their information which is supposed to be true and real. But there are some factors that influence the so-called truth: ownership (private or public), editors’ stance, class background of the participants (in the Internet) can all influence the information we get from the mass media.Language EnhancementI. Words and phrases1.(1) C&D (2) A&C (3) C&E (4) B&C (5) B&D(6) D&F (7) B&D (8) C&E (9) A&C (10) C&E2.(1) in; as; of (2) beyond; in (3) by; to (4) into; in; of (5) to; on; of; for(6) of; for; on (7) In; between; with; of (8) to; of; upon (9) In; with (10) like; in; of3.(1) from scratch (2) appealed to (3) applied (4) apply (5) relies on (6) suffering from (7) guard against (8) died off (9) ran out of (10) contribute to4.(1) provide…for (2) appeals for (3) applies…to (4) draw from (5) employed in(6) participate in (7) refers…to(8) received…from(9) passes…from(10) exposes…toII. Sentences and discourse1.(1) The scientific method bases knowledge on direct and systematicobservation through logical systems.(2) Operationalization provides conditions to measure the variables which may be checked empirically.(3) Since religion is a system of beliefs and practices based on worshipping the holy, people easily tend to equate faith to facts or facts to faith.(4) The obvious advantage of using available data, be it government statistics or the result of other research studies – is the savings in time and money. Otherwise, you would need a lot of time and money spent on collecting the information from the very start.(5) The savings are tempting, but the potential error and distortion from the second-hand data mean that you might not get the “truth”.2.(1)Basing on his overall investigation of China’s current employmentsituation, this specialist refuted the view that the population profit has been used up.(2)Thanks to the application of valid and objective survey methods,sociology became an independent branch of social sciences in the 19th century, transcending philosophy and ordinary social theories. (3)The head of the Academy of Social Sciences asserted that the cut inresearch funding would have a great impact on its long-term stable development.(4)Due to its limited survey range and invalid unscientific sampling,the poll result of this organization has seriously distorted the reality.(5)The cause of the phenomenon that officials abuse their power is lackof check and balance.(6)He suspects that his rival is bluffing in the negotiation.(7)In conducting social investigation, the researcher may easily useindication to manipulate the respondents to get the desired answer.(8)Through the major internet media, this company has clarified itsstance to stay and develop its business in China.(9)Faced with continual questions from the reporters at the pressconference, the spokesman had to refer to the documents in his hand for answers.(10)It is believed by some people that the lazy and irresponsible post80s and 90s generation was largely associated with the fact that they were mostly the only kid in the family.3.内容分析法可以应用于任何形式的通信交流，是对社会物件的系统分析，其内容包括书籍、杂志、诗歌、报纸、歌曲、绘画、讲演、信函、法律以及与此有关的任何成分或收集物。
第五单元测评第一部分听力(共两节,满分30分)第一节(共5小题;每小题1.5分,满分7.5分)听下面5段对话。
每段对话后有一个小题,从题中所给的A、B、C三个选项中选出最佳选项。
听完每段对话后,你都有10秒钟的时间来回答有关小题和阅读下一小题。
每段对话仅读一遍。
1.What colour does the man prefer?A.Green.B.Pink.C.Yellow.M:No,I used to get to work by bus.But now,I ride my bike.I can get more ean get to work in the past?A.On foot.B.By bike.C.By bus.3.What is the man doing?A.Asking for help.B.Offering a suggestion.C.Making a complaint.4.How does the man suggest the woman go to the station?A.By bus.B.On foot.5.What day is today?A.Saturday.B.Thursday.C.Friday.第二节(共15小题;每小题1.5分,满分22.5分)听下面5段对话或独白。
每段对话或独白后有几个小题,从题中所给的A、B、C三个选项中选出最佳选项。
听每段对话或独白前,你将有时间阅读各个小题,每小题5秒钟;听完后,各小题将给出5秒钟的作答时间。
每段对话或独白读两遍。
听第6段材料,回答第6、7题。
6.How many lectures does the woman have on Monday?A.One.B.Two.C.Three.7.What will the woman probably do nee reading.C.Make a drawing.听第7段材料,回答第8、9题。
- 231 -校园英语 / 语言文化研究Mediation in Sociocultural Theory沈阳体育学院外语教研室/李艺Sociocultural theory is the fundamental work of notable psychologist Lev Vygotsky, who believed that parents, peers, and the culture at large were responsible for developing higher order functions. Based on Vygotsky ’s interpretation, mediation is one of the biggest constructs in terms of sociocultural theory. Mediation is the central concept of sociocultural theory. It is the auxiliary means that humans use to make connections with the social material world. Those auxiliary means are higher-level artifacts that serves a buffer to relate human and the world. Human ’s minds are mediated by producing, changing and using mediation during interaction with the world. The chart below illustrates how mediation ’s functions and how mediation relates human and the world.↗ physical artifacts Mediation ↘ symbolic artifactsHuman beings ---------------------------------------------------→ worldMediated mindThere are two major tools of mediation, as shown above, they are physical tools and symbolic tools.Physical tools are culturally constructed objects. They can be simply physical tools such as pen and paper, which help people to write down whatever they want to remember. Physical tools can also be complex projects such as computer, which human to deal with complicate problems such as mathematics and they van even help human to think smartly. Physical tools are auxiliary means that help people making connection with the world.According to Lantolf and Thorne, human have higher mental ability to produce higher level tools to mediate with the world in a more deficient way. for instance, in order to plant a tree, we need to dig a hole on the ground. People can simply use the hands to dig the hole. However, people choose to mediate the digging process by using a shove since it is more efficient and energy-saving. Animal, on the other hand, such as dogs, can only use their feet to dig the hole. Human can even use digging machine as the mediational mean to dig the hole in a more efficient way. thus, Lantolf and Thorne state that physical tools can be used by human to change the way we live in the world and therefore change our lives into a better condition.Besides physical artifacts, symbolic artifacts also play an important role in human ’s lives. symbolic artifacts include language, numbers, arts, music, mathematics, etc. similar to the function of physical artifacts, symbolic artifacts are alsoauxiliary means that people use to control and reorganize their activity in psychological level. For example, human use language to communicate and interact with individuals and the world. Language is used as a tool to think, to plan, and to have psychological activity. By using symbolic artifacts such as language and graphs, human process higher-mental function. For example, when spiders make a net, they naturally process it without any mental thinking activity. Human beings, on the other hand, according to Vygotsky, human have the ability to control their mental activity since we all have higher mental capacity. Therefore, human will make mental process to construct a building.Along with physical tools, symbolic tools enable human to change their life in a better way. Wertsch brings up “spin off ” function of mediation. Lantolf and Thorne consider that mediational means are historical. Culturally constructed objects and symbolic auxiliary means both pass through generation to generation through history. When human interact with social content, they not only are able to use mediational means to interact their relationship with the world, but also can adapt current objects into a more advanced way of usage. Based on repeated intense usage, human adapt their knowledge to improve current culturally constructed objects in a better condition.Overall, mediation plays a significant role in sociocultural theory. Human mind are mediated by mediations to make connections with the real world. Two major tools help human to have the ability to create new things and change the way they used to live. Since human ’s minds are highly-functional comparing with the animal, they are able to use mediation and reorganize the mediation to have more meaningful experiences. References ：[1]Lantolf,J.,&Thorne,S.L.Sociocultural Theory and the Genesis of Second Language Development.New York:Oxford University Press,2006.[2]James Lantolf.Sociocultural Theory and Second Language Learning.《Politics 》,2000.[3]J a m e s L a n to lf.I n tr a p e r s on a l C o mmu n i c a tio n a n d Internalization in the Second Language Classroom.《Vygotsky ’s theory of education in cultural context 》,Cambridge University Press,January 2003,349-370.Copyright©博看网 . All Rights Reserved.。
The importance of socio-intercultural competency With the gradual development of the economic globalization’s trend, exchanges between countries become more and more closer, and the shock or conflicts among countries is inevitable. It is very significant to master the intercultural communication competence so that we can exchange and cooperate people from different regions much better. The reasons responsible for it can be listed as follows. First, it can help us develop common sense and eliminate cultural centralism. For instance, both westerners and easterners like sports, so there is the Olympic games in the world every four years. Second, it is also vital to help us develop two-way communication, which means we can exchange our ideas, It is obvious that the environment in the world is worse than the past. Therefore, the united nations sets the world Environment organization to deal with the issues of environment. Every countries can take participate in it, and come up with their own ideas to do some donations. Third, the last but not least, it can do a great favor to make us know ourselves better. As a proverb goes , speech is a mirror of the soul; as a man speaks ,so is he. Only do we understand ourselves clearly, we can understand others fromthe bottom of our hearts.To speak frankly, socio-intercultural competency is playing a more and more important role in today’s world stage. It can help us develop common sense and eliminate cultural centralism. Besides, it can help us develop two-way communication. What’s more, it help us understand ourselves better. Therefore, hoping us all can pay attention to developing socio-intercultural competency.。
JOURNAL OF ETHNOLOGY 2014/01 总第21期第五卷96 A Study on the Issue of Population Aging amongEthnic Minorities in ChinaZHENG Changde(College of Economics,Southwestern University for Nationalities,Chengdu,Sichuan,610041)JOURNAL OF ETHNOLOGY ,VOL.5,NO.1,01-08,2014(CN51-1731/C,in Chinese)DOI:10.3969/j.issn.1674-9391.2014.01.01 Abstract :There are differences in the issue of population aging among China’s various ethnic groups.The aging process of some ethnic groups isvery fast,and the structure of their population ag⁃ing belongs to a typical aging model.Some ethnic groups’aging process is relatively slow,and the structure of their aging still belongs to a young model.Moreover,the rate of aging of various eth⁃nic groups in the same region is also different,e⁃ven the rates and trends of aging within one specif⁃ic ethnic group also differ.Hence,the situation of population aging among minorities in China is very complicated.Based on the data from three demographiccensuses conducted in 1990,2000and 2010,this article analyzes the differences of population aging among various ethnic groups.1.The Basic Situation of Population Aging a⁃mong Ethnic Minorities in ChinaAccording to the census,the population above age 60among minority populations was 6.29million in 1990.;It increased to 9.02million in 2010;and reached above 11.75million in 2010.The popula⁃tion above the age of 65among the minority popula⁃tion was 4.05million in 1990;5.87million in 1990;and reached 7.83million in 2010.According to typical international standards ofpopulation aging frameworks and statistics from the 2000census,China’s population has already be⁃come an aging population.Among the total popula⁃tion of that year,10.46%of the population was a⁃bove the age of 60;7.10%of the population was above the age of 65.Among the ethnic minority populations,8.57%of the population was above the age of 60,and 5.58%was above the age of65.Hence,the minority population had not yet become a typical aging population.However,in 2010,the rate of aging in the total minority popu⁃lation further increased,and it also became a typi⁃cal aging population.2.Ethnic Differences of Population Aging a⁃mong the MinoritiesThere are 55ethnic minorities in China,andthe rate of aging among these minorities differs from each other.From 2000to 2010,the rate ofpopulation aging of every ethnic minority was in⁃creasing.3.The Impact of Population Aging on the Minority People and their Local Socioeconomic De⁃velopmentAccording to data from the demographic cen⁃sus,the aging trends among China’s ethnic mi⁃nority population will continue,and their rate of population aging will increase further over a fairly long period of time into the future.Moreover,be⁃cause the socioeconomic development level is rela⁃tively low in China’s ethnic minorities’areas,the situation of becoming an aging society under such background will result in a classic example of“Aging before Getting Rich”.This will influence the minorities and their local socioeconomic devel⁃opment from various aspects.Seen from the perspective of supplies,the most direct impact of population aging is on labor supply.Secondly,population aging will influence the supply and formation of capital.Moreover,the large scale or rapid growth of the elderly will in⁃crease the expense of social insurance provided forthe elderly as well as the government’s annual pension payments.This,in turn,will influence2014/01 总第21期JOURNAL OFETHNOLOGY第五卷the formation of capital related to the government’s investment in ethnic minority areas where devel⁃opment mainly depends on the government’s in⁃vestment .In a word,the acceleration of the popu⁃lation’s aging process will shorten the minorityareas’“population dividend”period,and reduce related economic benefits.Seen from the perspective of demand,popula⁃tion aging will first influence the consumption mod⁃el.The change in the structure of population aging will cause the rate of social consumption and de⁃posit to fluctuate,and in doing so will influence e⁃conomic development.Secondly,the development of sociocultural welfare services will not be able to adapt to the population aging.Thirdly,population aging will increase the needs of social services for the elderly.Fourthly,the constant increase of an aging population will reveal the strong need forhealth care for the elderly.4.Concluding Comments and Policy Sugges⁃tionsPopulation aging is a trend that human society cannot avoid.The economic development level in ethnic minority areas in China is still low.It has entered an aging society when the per -capita in⁃come and its development level is still low.Hence,it is a typical type of “Aging before Get⁃ting Rich”.Therefore,we must pay attention to the issue of population aging in the socioeconomic development of the minority areas by:1)Adjusting population policy as soon as possible by using a “positive aging policy”in order to address the issues of social pressure and eco⁃nomic burden during the process of population ag⁃ing.2)Changing the methods,adjusting the structure,and accelerating the socioeconomic de⁃velopment in minorities’areas.3)Exploiting and using fully “silver humanresources”(i.e.the human capital of the elder⁃ly),and accelerating the development of the serv⁃ices and industries related to the aging.4)Constructing a social service institutionwith universal respect and love for the elderly by taking healthy aging as the core,and by widely en⁃couraging and adopting the participation of social intermediary organizations,volunteers and social resources.Key Words :minority populations;aging;“Aging before Getting Rich”;demographic censusReferences :David E.Bloom,David Canning,andGünther Fink.Implications of Population Aging forEconomic Growth ,2011,PGDA Working Paper No.64, /pg⁃da /working.htm.Liu Hongkang,Wu Zhongguan ed.renkoushouce (Manual of Population ),Chengdu:xinan caijing daxue chubanshe,1988:461.shijie wensheng zuzhi queding xin de nianlingfenduan (WHO Announces a New Age Standard ),China News, /life /2013/05-21/4838966.shtml.The census office of the state council,popula⁃tion and employment statistics division of the na⁃tional bureau of statistics ed.zhongguo yijiu jiuling nian renkou pucha ziliao (Data of China Census in1990),Beijing:zhongguo tongji chubanju,1992.———.zhongguo erling lingling nian renkoupucha ziliao (Data of China Census in 2000),Beijing:zhongguo tongji chubanju,2002.———.zhongguo erling yiling nian renkou pu⁃cha ziliao (Data of China Census in 2010),Bei⁃jing:zhongguo tongji chubanju,2012.Yi Fuxian.Daguo kongchao :fangsi zhonghuajihua shengyu zhengce (Empty Nests in a Big Country :Reflection on China ’s Family Planning Policy ),Beijing:zhongguo fazhan chubanshe,2013:141.Zheng Changde.jiyu xin jiegou jingjixue shi⁃jiao de minzu diqu chanye jiegou tiaozheng yushengji yanjiu (A Study on the Industrial StructureAdjustment and Upgrade in Ethnic Areas from the Perspective of New Structural Economics ),2013,draft for discussion.。
二语习得研究方法综述王璐璐1戴炜栋2提要：本文针对二语习得研究的跨学科特点，从语言学、心理语言学、社会文化、认知等视角对二语习得研究方法进行系统梳理，把学习者语言准确性、复杂性、流利性测量方法和语料库分析方法作为补充研究视角，阐述了各研究视角对二语习得研究的不同认识及其不同语料收集分析方法。
文章最后总结了我国二语习得研究方法的应用现状，指出研究方法本身没有对错优劣之分，我国二语习得研究者应灵活选择和组合运用不同视角下的研究方法并使之本土化，开展多方验证以推进二语习得研究科学化发展。
关键词：二语习得；研究方法；研究视角Abstract：This study provides a general survey of second language acquisition（SLA）research methods according to such domains as linguistic，psycholinguistic，sociocultural，cognitive，language proficiency（the measurement of lan-guage accuracy，complexity and fluency）and corpus analysis research．It examines thoroughly the techniques of col-lecting learner language samples and the methods of analyzing them in the research domains，and points out that each method has its own advantages and disadvantages．The paper finally makes a summary of SLA research method appli-cation in China，and suggests that SLA researchers should employ effective methods for their research topics and seek various experimental treatments to ensure scientific research．Key words：second language acquisition；research methods；research domains中图分类号：H319文献标识码：B文章编号：1004－5112（2014）05－0029－091．引言二语习得作为一门独立学科大概形成于20世纪60年代末70年代初。
文献评述英语The role of literature review in academic research is paramount as it serves as the foundation for any scholarly work. A thorough and well-structured literature review not only demonstrates the researcher's comprehensive understanding of the existing knowledge in the field but also helps to identify gaps and inconsistencies that warrant further investigation. In the context of English language studies, a literature review is essential for exploring the breadth and depth of the subject matter, synthesizing relevant theories and empirical findings, and positioning the proposed research within the broader academic discourse.One of the primary functions of a literature review in English language studies is to provide a critical analysis of the existing body of knowledge. This involves examining the key theories, models, and frameworks that have been developed to explain various aspects of the English language, such as its structure, acquisition, usage, and evolution. By engaging with the seminal works in the field, the researcher can gain a deeper appreciation of the intellectual traditions and ongoing debates that have shaped the discipline.Moreover, a literature review enables the identification of methodological approaches, data sources, and analytical techniques that have been employed in previous studies, which can inform the design and execution of the proposed research.Another crucial role of the literature review is to establish the significance and relevance of the research question or hypothesis. By synthesizing the findings and conclusions of relevant studies, the researcher can demonstrate how the proposed investigation fills a gap in the existing knowledge or addresses an unresolved issue. This can involve challenging or extending the conclusions of previous research, exploring alternative theoretical perspectives, or applying established frameworks to novel contexts. The literature review, therefore, serves as a bridge between the existing body of knowledge and the proposed study, justifying the need for the research and highlighting its potential contributions to the field.In the context of English language studies, the literature review can also play a vital role in identifying and critically evaluating the methodological approaches that have been used in previous research. This can include examining the sampling techniques, data collection methods, and analytical procedures employed by other scholars, as well as considering the strengths and limitations of these approaches. By engaging with the methodological choices of prior studies, the researcher can develop a more informed and robustresearch design, ensuring that the proposed investigation aligns with the established best practices in the field.Furthermore, the literature review can assist in the conceptualization and operationalization of key constructs and variables within English language studies. By exploring how various researchers have defined and measured concepts such as language proficiency, language attitudes, or language use, the researcher can gain a more nuanced understanding of the theoretical and practical implications of these constructs. This, in turn, can inform the selection and adaptation of appropriate measurement tools and analytical techniques, enhancing the validity and reliability of the proposed research.In addition to its role in framing the research question and informing the methodological approach, the literature review can also serve as a springboard for the development of theoretical and conceptual frameworks. By critically engaging with the existing theories and models in the field of English language studies, the researcher can identify opportunities for extending, refining, or even challenging these frameworks. This process of theory-building can lead to the generation of novel insights and the advancement of the discipline as a whole.It is important to note that the literature review is not merely a summary of previous studies but rather a critical and syntheticanalysis of the existing knowledge. The researcher must carefully evaluate the quality, rigor, and relevance of the sources included in the review, considering factors such as the research design, data analysis techniques, and the overall contribution to the field. Furthermore, the literature review should be organized in a coherent and logical manner, with a clear progression of ideas and a consistent argumentative thread that leads the reader to the proposed research question or hypothesis.In the context of English language studies, the literature review can also serve as a platform for exploring the sociocultural, political, and historical contexts that have shaped the development and usage of the English language. By examining how factors such as colonialism, globalization, and language policies have influenced the evolution of English, the researcher can gain a more nuanced understanding of the complex and multifaceted nature of the subject matter.Overall, the literature review is a crucial component of any scholarly work in the field of English language studies. It not only demonstrates the researcher's comprehensive understanding of the existing knowledge but also serves as a foundation for the proposed investigation, guiding the research design, informing the conceptual and theoretical frameworks, and positioning the study within the broader academic discourse. By engaging in a rigorous and critical analysis of the literature, the researcher can make valuablecontributions to the field and advance the understanding of the English language in its various manifestations and contexts.。
THE MEASUREMENT OF SOCIOCULTURALADAPTATIONCOLLEEN WARD*and ANTONY KENNEDYNational University of Singapore,SingaporeABSTRACT .This paper examines the construct of sociocultural adaptation anddescribes the development and re®nement of its measurement.Psychometric ana-lyses of the Sociocultural Adaptation Scale (SCAS)are presented based on thecompilation of data across a large number of sojourner samples from an emergingprogram of research.The measurement and patterns of sociocultural adaptationare examined across:(1)16cross-sectional samples,(2)4longitudinal samples,and (3)1paired comparison between sojourning and sedentary samples.Selectedcross-sample comparisons are reported,and the relationship between socioculturaland psychological adjustment across samples is discussed.#1999Elsevier ScienceLtd.All rights reservedKEY WORDS .sociocultural,adaptation,adjustment,sojourner,cross-culturaltransition..INTRODUCTIONDespite four decades of theory and research on ``culture shock,''there is still limited consensus as to what actually constitutes sojourneradjustment.The construct has been described,interpreted and measuredin varying ways and from numerous perspectives.Adjustive outcomes,for example,have been operationalized and examined in terms of:health-related variables,such as physical symptomatology and medicalconsultations (Babiker,Cox,&Miller,1980);perceptual variables,suchas cultural awareness (Gannon &Poon,1997)and perceptual maturity(Yoshikawa,1988);relational variables,such as feelings of acceptanceInt.J.Intercultural Rel.Vol.23,No.4,pp.659±677,1999#1999Elsevier Science Ltd.All rights reserved Printed in Great Britain 0147-1767/99$20.00+0.00PII:S0147-1767(99)/locate/ijintrel This research has been supported by grants from the Foundation for Research,Scienceand Technology,Wellington,New Zealand (No.8914);University of Canterbury,Department of Psychology;and the National University of Singapore (Nos.92007and95002).*Corresponding author.Department of Social Work and Psychology,NationalUniversity of Singapore,Kent Ridge,Singapore 117570.;E-mail:swkcaw@.sg659(Brislin,1981)and quality of relationships with host nationals(Deshpande &Viswesvaran,1992);intrapersonal or self-concept vari-ables,such as personal development (Gmelch,1997)and identity con-¯ict (Leong &Ward,in press);variables linked to task-speci®caccomplishments,such as job performance (Parker &McEvoy,1993)and academic achievement (Tanaka,Takai,Kohyama,&Fujihara,1994);psycho-emotional variables,such as life satisfaction (Yoshida,Sauer,Tidwell,Skager,&Sorenson,1997)and mood states (StoneFeinstein &Ward,1990);and behavioral variables,particularly the ac-quisition of culturally appropriate skills (Furnham &Bochner,1986),including communication e ectiveness (Witte,1993).Unfortunately,most investigations have been undertaken in piecemeal fashion,makingintegration and synthesis of research ®ndings di cult,if not impossible.A smaller number of investigators have embarked upon more sys-tematic programs of research on cross-cultural transition and adap-tation,identifying adjustment domains and,in some cases,constructingpredictive models of adjustive outcomes.This research has includeddata driven,factor analytic,studies by Hammer,Gudykunst andWiseman (1978),which identi®ed relational,communication and stressmanagement components of intercultural e ectiveness,and work byBlack,Mendenhall and Oddou (1991),which inspired research on gen-eral,job and interaction adjustment.It has also included more theorydriven contributions by Berry (1997)on acculturative stress and Ward(1996)and associates (Searle &Ward,1990;Ward &Kennedy,1996a)on psychological and sociocultural adjustment.PSYCHOLOGICAL AND SOCIOCULTURALADAPTATIONIn an attempt to bring conceptual integration to a fractionated areaof research,Ward and colleagues have proposed that cross-cultural ad-aptation may be meaningfully divided into two domains:psychological(emotional/a ective)and sociocultural (behavioral).The former refersto psychological well being or satisfaction;the latter is related to theability to ``®t in,''to acquire culturally appropriate skills and to nego-tiate interactive aspects of the host environment.Accordingly,Ward(1996)has argued that psychological adjustment can best be understoodin terms of a stress and coping framework while sociocultural adap-tation is best explained within a social skills or culture learning para-digm.This has been borne out by empirical research which has demon-strated that the two adjustive outcomes,though inter-related,are con-ceptually and empirically distinct.Psychological adjustment,de®ned interms of psychological and emotional well-being,is broadly a ected byC.Ward and A.Kennedy660The Measurement of Sociocultural Adaptation661 personality,life changes,coping styles and social support.As examples, psychological adjustment has been associated with personal¯exibility, internal locus of control,relationship satisfaction,approach-oriented coping styles,and use of humor,while psychological di culties in sojourners have been linked to a higher incidence of life changes,loneli-ness,stress,and avoidant coping styles(Berno&Ward,1998;Searle& Ward,1990;Stone Feinstein&Ward,1990;Ward&Kennedy,1998a; Ward&Rana-Deuba,1999).Sociocultural adaptation,by contrast, de®ned in terms of behavioral competence,is more strongly in¯uenced by factors underpinning culture learning and social skills acquisition. These include length of residence in the new culture,cultural knowledge, amount of interaction and identi®cation with host nationals,cultural distance,language¯uency and acculturation strategies(Searle&Ward, 1990;Ward&Kennedy,1993a,1994;Ward&Searle,1991). Research has also revealed that the two adjustive outcomes display di erent patterns of¯uctuation over time.The sociocultural adaptation of sojourners predictably follows a learning curve with rapid improve-ment demonstrated over the®rst few months of cross-cultural transition and then a gradual``leveling o ''of newly acquired culture-speci®c skills.Psychological adjustment is more variable over time although stu-dies have con®rmed that the greatest di culties are experienced at the earliest stages of cross-cultural transition(Ward&Kennedy,1996a, 1996b).Ultimately,the soundness of developing theory and research on psychological and sociocultural adjustment of sojourners rests on the measurement of the adjustive outcomes.In this regard,Ward and col-leagues have relied upon standard psychological assessment techniques for the measurement of psychological adjustment.The Zung Self-rating Depression Scale(Zung,1965)has been most frequently used because of its widely documented cross-cultural reliability and validity although some studies have additionally incorporated the Pro®le of Mood States (McNair,Lorr,&Droppleman,1971),given its inclusion of classic``cul-ture shock''symptomsÐtension,depression,anger,fatigue,and con-fusion.The measurement of sociocultural adaptation,by contrast,has been undertaken with an author-devised scale.It is this measurement that is discussed in this paper.The Sociocultural Adaptation Scale(SCAS)was®rst used by Searle and Ward(1990)in their study of cross-cultural transition and adap-tation of Malaysian and Singaporean students in New Zealand.This paper describes the scale development and documents the usefulness and versatility of the measurement.The psychometric properties of the SCAS are reported along with the analysis of data from16cross-sec-tional samples,4longitudinal samples,and1pair of comparative sojourning and sedentary groups.The paper also reports exploratoryresearch on expanding the SCAS to include cognitive as well as beha-vioral domains.METHODMaterialsThe development of Sociocultural Adaptation Scale (SCAS)wasinspired by Furnham and Bochner's (1982)40-item Social SituationsQuestionnaire (SSQ),based,in turn,on an earlier social skills scale byTrower,Bryant and Argyle (1978)and on interviews with foreignlanguage students in Britain.The ®rst version of the SCAS (Searle &Ward,1990)contained 16items.A portion of these items such as ``deal-ing with people staring at you''and ``dealing with people of higher sta-tus''were taken directly from Furnham and Bochner's instrument;however,the item content of the SCAS was not con®ned to social situ-ations.Areas of adaptation such as food and climate were also includedin the questionnaire.Like Furnham and Bochner's SSQ,the SCAS requires respondents toindicate the amount of di culty experienced in a number of areas byusing a ®ve-point scale (no di culty/slight di culty/moderate di culty/great di culty/extreme di culty ).Unlike the SSQ instructions and de®-nitions,however,di culty is not explicitly framed in a ective termsrelating to anxiety,discomfort,and embarrassment.The SCAS is a ¯exible instrument and can be easily modi®ed accord-ing to the characteristics of the sojourning sample.Table 1lists itemsthat have been used with the various samples.Most versions contain20±23items (See Table 2).Some items are speci®c to sojourner's desti-nations,e.g.,``eating at food stalls,''and others are speci®c to the ex-periences of student sojourners, e.g.,``expressing ideas in class;''however,most items can be used across a diverse range of sojourninggroups.The instrument was originally developed as an assessment of intercul-tural competence with emphasis on behavioral domains.The mostrecent version of the SCAS (with 29items)has explored the addition ofmore cognitive domains (e.g.,items 35±41).Samples and ProceduresCross-sectional Samples.The bulk of our research with theSociocultural Adaptation Scale has been undertaken with sojourningsamples connected in some way to either New Zealand or Singapore.Sixteen cross-sectional samples are described in Table 2.Sample sizeC.Ward and A.Kennedy662The Measurement of Sociocultural Adaptation663TABLE1Items from the Sociocultural Adaptation Scale a1.Making friendsing the transport system3.Making yourself understood4.Getting used to the pace of life5.Going shopping6.Going to social events/gatherings/functions7.Worshipping in your usual way8.Talking about yourself with others9.Understanding jokes and humor10.Dealing with someone who is unpleasant/cross/aggressive11.Getting used to the local food/finding food you enjoy12.Following rules and regulations13.Dealing with people in authority14.Dealing with the bureaucracy15.Making yourself understood16.Adapting to local accommodationmunicating with people of a different ethnic group18.Relating to members of the opposite sex19.Dealing with unsatisfactory service20.Finding your way around21.Dealing with the climate22.Dealing with people staring at you23.Going to coffee shops/food stalls/restaurants/fast food outlets24.Understanding the local accent/language25.Living away from family members overseas/independently from yourparents26.Adapting to local etiquette27.Getting used to the population density28.Relating to older people29.Dealing with people of higher status30.Understanding what is required of you at university31.Coping with academic work32.Dealing with foreign staff at the university33.Expressing your ideas in class34.Living with your host family35.Accepting/understanding the local political system36.Understanding the locals'world view37.Taking a local perspective on the culture38.Understanding the local value system39.Seeing things from the locals'point of view40.Understanding cultural differences41.Being able to see two sides of an intercultural issuea The first ten items are common to all cross-sectional studies and are used in the comparative analyses.The Measurement of Sociocultural Adaptation665 ranges from84to191sojourners(Mdn=119).Mean length of stay var-ied from2.5months to100.3months(Mdn=30.2).Student samples are identi®ed as such, e.g.,Singaporean and Malaysian students in New Zealand and New Zealand AFS students abroad.Adult samples(e.g.,Americans in Singapore and Britons in Hong Kong)generally include a cross-section of employed adults and in many cases their accompanying spouses or partners.Most of the adult samples are educationally and occupationally varied;however,in some instances,such as New Zealand civil servants on overseas postings or Filipina domestic helpers in Singapore,the samples are composed pri-marily or exclusively of people engaged in the same type of employ-ment.A number of multicultural samples are also included,such as overseas student samples in New Zealand,and in some instances samples are composed of members of a single cultural/national group who have relocated to a variety of overseas destinations(e.g., Singaporean students abroad).All samples,with the exception of Filipina domestic helpers in Singapore,include both males and females. The data pertaining to length of residence in host country,psychological and sociocultural adaptation have been extracted from larger data sets which examined the prediction of psychological and sociocultural adjustment in sojourners.Longitudinal Samples.Four longitudinal samples are included in this research.The®rst is composed of14(8males and6females)Malaysian and Singaporean secondary and tertiary students(M age=19.1years)in New Zealand(Ward&Kennedy,1996a).These students completed a20 item version of the SCAS within one month of arrival in New Zealand, and again6and12months later.The second sample included14participants in New Zealand's Volunteer Service Abroad(VSA)program(Ward&Kennedy,1996b). The VSA program(akin to the American Peace Corps)provides volun-teer workers for various projects in developing countries.Ten men and four women(M age=37.9years)completed a23item version of the SCAS at three points in time:in New Zealand before departure to their overseas assignments,within two months of arrival at their destinations (M=9.7weeks),and approximately one year into their®eld assignments (M=52.1weeks).The third sample(a subset of cross-sectional sample#16consisted of 35(17men and18women)Japanese students(M age=18.6years)in New Zealand(Ward,Okura,Kennedy,&Kojima,1999).These stu-dents attended an international college specializing in courses for Japanese students who wish to advance to tertiary education in English-speaking countries.The students completed a20item version of the SCAS on4occasions:the®rst within24h of arriving in New Zealand,The Measurement of Sociocultural Adaptation667 the second4months after arrival,the third6months after arrival and the®nal questionnaire12months after the initial arrival and an inter-vening school break.The®nal longitudinal sample(see cross-sectional sample#9)included 108(47male and61female)Singaporean students(M age=20.0years) studying in Australia,New Zealand,People's Republic of China,the United States and the United Kingdom(Kennedy,1998).These stu-dents completed a29item version of the SCAS three times:1month prior to departure(M=25days),1month after arrival(M=4.5weeks) and6months after arrival(M=25.2weeks)at their overseas desti-nations.Home-based Sample.A total of142New Zealand secondary students (49females,92males,1unspeci®ed)at home(M age=17.5years)pro-vided a comparison group for178New Zealand AFS students abroad (cross-sectional sample#3).In this instance16common items from the SCAS served as the basis of the comparison of New Zealand students at home and abroad(Ward&Kennedy,1993a).RESULTSCross-sectional ComparisonsTable3reports evidence of scalar reliability.The scale alphas range from0.75to0.91(M=0.85).Across a diverse selection of sojourning samples the scale has retained good internal consistency.Table3also includes evidence of construct validity as indicated by the consistently signi®cant correlations(range=0.20±0.62,M=0.38)between sociocul-tural and psychological adjustment as measured by the Zung Self-rating Depression Scale(Zung,1965).Mean sociocultural adaptation scores based on the common10core items in the16cross-sectional samples are also presented in Table3.In addition,the mean item score is presented for all samples.Selected com-parisons by analysis of covariance(controlling for length of residence) are reported below.In all cases comparisons are made based on the maximum number of common SCAS items.The results reveal predictable di erences across sojourning samples and suggest that sociocultural adaptation problems decrease as a func-tion of ethnic and cultural similarity.For example,Chinese sojourners in Singapore experienced less sociocultural di culties(M=8.9)than non-Chinese(British,American and New Zealand)sojourners (M=11.8);F(1,475)=22.0,P50.0001(12item SCAS).In addition, Malaysian and Singaporean students in New Zealand(M=17.5) reported more sociocultural adaptation problems than Malaysian stu-dents in Singapore (M =14.8);F (1,289)=8.5,P 50.01(17item SCAS,Ward &Kennedy,1993b).Data also suggest that fewer adaptation problems are encountered by those with good resources and by those who make transitions to more ``comfortable''environments.New Zealand civil servants abroad (M =12.8)reported fewer sociocultural adaptation problems than a younger group of New Zealand AFS students abroad (M =17.1);F (1,258)=4.6,P 50.04(16item SCAS).Multinationals,i.e.,British,New Zealand,American,Hong Kong and PRC Chinese,in Singapore (M =10.9)experienced less sociocultural adaptation problems than mul-tinationals in Nepal (M =13.1);F (1,579)=9.3,P 50.002(12item SCAS).While considerable variation exists in sociocultural adjustment across samples,some sojourning groups appear particularly adaptable.Singaporeans in the United States (M =4.0),for example,encountered fewer sociocultural di culties than Americans in Singapore (M =23.4);F (1,236)=149.0,P 50.0001(23item SCAS).Similarly,Singaporean students abroad experienced less sociocultural adaptation problems (M =10.6)than New Zealand students overseas (M =16.4);F (1,268)=22.3,P 50.0001(15item SCAS).Despite these variations,similarities also emerged in the cross-sample comparisons.As might be expected,there was no signi®cant di erence in the sociocultural adaptation of British expatriates in Hong Kong (M =19.5)and Singapore (M =21.3);F 51(21item SCAS).Nor was a signi®cant di erence found between the 1991(M =18.6)and 1998(M =17.7)multinational samples of foreign students in New Zealand;F 51(17item SCAS).Longitudinal AnalysesLongitudinal data con®rmed that sociocultural adaptation problems are greatest during the early stages of transition and that they decrease signi®cantly over time.For the Malaysian and Singaporean students in New Zealand a one way analysis of variance indicated that social di culty was greatest during the ®rst month (M =26.4),that it dropped sharply during the ®rst 6months (M =17.3)and that it continued in a slightly downward direction 12months later (M =16.8);F (2,26)=12.8,P 50.0001(20item SCAS;Ward &Kennedy,1996a).For VSA volunteers sociocultural di culties signi®cantly decreased between two (M =27)and 12(M =24.5)months;t (13)=1.81,P 50.05,one tailed (23item SCAS).Interestingly,the volunteers expected socio-cultural adaptation to be more problematic as the mean predeparture expectations score on the SCAS was 32.9(Ward &Kennedy,1996b).C.Ward and A.Kennedy668The Measurement of Sociocultural Adaptation669 For Japanese students in New Zealand a one way analysis of variance indicated that there were also signi®cant changes in sociocultural adap-tation over time;F(3,34)=5.89,P50.001(20item SCAS).Post hoc tests revealed that the greatest amount of social di culty was experi-enced at entry(M=28.4),but that there were no signi®cant di erences across the4(M=22.7),6(M=20.7)and12month(M=22.6)time periods(Ward et al.,1999).For Singaporean students the predeparture SCAS scores were signi®-cantly lower(M=16.7)than the initial post-arrival SCAS scores (M=24.2);t(107)=5.58,P50.001(29item SCAS).Analysis also indi-cated that social di culty signi®cantly decreased between1(M=24.2) and6months(M=21.3)overseas;t(107)=3.86,P50.001(Kennedy, 1998).Sojourner And Sedentary ComparisonsComparative analyses indicated,as expected,that the home-based sample experienced less sociocultural di culty than the sojourning sample.AFS students abroad(M=16.3)experienced more sociocultural adaptation problems than secondary students who remained at home (M=13.1);F(1,317)=11.6,P50.001(16item SCAS;Ward& Kennedy,1993a).DIMENSIONS OF SOCIOCULTURAL ADAPTATION The addition of cognitive items to the traditionally behavior-based SCAS was explored in one of the most recent studies.The structure of the29item version of the instrument used in Kennedy's(1998)study of Singaporean students abroad(cross-sectional sample#9)was examined by factor analysis.First,MSA(measure of sampling adequacy)values were obtained in order to determine the appropriateness of statistical treatment for the scale items.The0.70criterion(indicating a high degree of intercorrelation)recommended by Hair,Anderson,Tatham and Black(1995)was applied to the data,resulting in the deletion of nine items from the original scale.These tended to be diverse asocial items pertaining to things such as transport,climate,accommodation, and shopping.Next,the data were subjected to a forced two factor sol-ution using oblique rotation as we anticipated the emergence of a cogni-tive and a behavioral dimension.Analysis indicated that Factor I (eigenvalue=6.4)which accounted for32.1%of the variance and Factor II(eigenvalue=1.7)which accounted for8.7%of the variance were moderately highly related(0.45).The results of the factor analysis are reported in Table4.Results suggest that the ®rst factor relates to cognition (e.g.,under-standing local perspectives,values and world views)and communication (intercultural communication,making friends,making oneself under-stood).We have labeled this factor Cultural Empathy and Relatedness.The second factor,by contrast,concerns the management of impersonal interactions (e.g.,bureaucracy,authority)and/or awkward situations (e.g.,unsatisfactory services,unpleasant people).We have labeled this factor Impersonal Endeavors and Perils.DISCUSSIONAn evolving program of cross-sectional and longitudinal research has convincingly demonstrated that the Sociocultural Adaptation Scale is a reliable and valid measurement of cultural competence or behavioral adaptability in cross-cultural sojourners.The psychometric properties of the instrument have proven robust across a wide range of culturally diverse sojourning groups,including both student and adult samples.TABLE 4FactorAnalysis of the SCAS Based on a Sample of 108Singaporean Students Abroad aFactorIFactor II Understanding the local value system0.81À0.01Understanding the locals'world view0.740.01Seeing things from the locals'point of view0.700.04Understanding cultural differences0.690.01Taking a local perspective on the culture0.660.10Making friends0.60À0.16Being able to see two sides of an intercultural issue0.570.08Family relationships0.550.08Making yourself understood0.53À0.10Communicating with people of a different ethnicgroup0.520.21Relating to members of the opposite sex0.49À0.03Understanding the local political system0.460.15Finding your way around0.400.11Dealing with people in authority0.040.74Dealing with people staring at youÀ0.140.74Dealing with someone who is unpleasant0.010.71Dealing with unsatisfactory service0.020.67Dealing with bureaucracy0.100.66The pace of life0.190.45Finding food you enjoy0.230.27a Due to the oblique rotation the results of the pattern matrix are reported.The original 29items in this version of the SCAS may be found inTable 1.The items are:1^22and 35^41.C.Ward and A.Kennedy670The Measurement of Sociocultural Adaptation671 Internal consistency measures have ranged from0.75to0.91(M=0.85), and the scale's construct validity has been supported by®ndings consist-ent with contemporary theory and research on social skills acquisition: (1)sociocultural adaptation problems are greatest upon entering a new culture and decrease in a predictable fashion over time;(2)sociocultural di culties are greater for sojourning,compared to sedentary,groups; and(3)there is a signi®cant relationship between the psychological and sociocultural components of sojourner adjustment.In addition to the psychometric analyses,selected cross-sample com-parisons have been presented to illustrate basic principles or speci®c aspects of sociocultural adaptation.For example,cultural and/or ethnic similarity is associated with better sociocultural adjustment.Malaysian students in Singapore experienced less sociocultural adaptation pro-blems than Malaysian and Singaporean students in New Zealand. Similarly,Chinese sojourners in Singapore adapted more readily than did Anglo-European residents.These®ndings are consistent with the broader literature on the relationship between cultural distance and psychological and sociocultural adaptation(Babiker et al.,1980; Furnham&Bochner,1982).There is also some evidence that sociocultural adaptation may be easier in more modern or developed countries.In this case our®ndings have shown that multinational aid workers in Nepal experienced more sociocultural adaptation problems than multinational residents in Singapore.This is in line with Torbiorn's(1982)work which suggested that expatriates are generally more content in industrialized,economi-cally developed societies.These®ndings,however,may just as persua-sively be interpreted in terms of cultural similarity,modernization and cultural homogeneity(Yang,1988)as in our research the sojourners in both Singapore and Nepal originated primarily from developed countries.Cross-sectional comparisons also suggest that some national or cul-tural groups may be more adaptable than others(see also Cochrane& Stopes-Roe,1977).Singaporeans,for example,seem particularly adept at making cross-cultural transitions.Singaporean adults in the United States experienced far less sociocultural di culties than Americans in Singapore.In addition,international students from Singapore appeared to encounter fewer di culties overseas than international students from New Zealand.Why might this be the case?Singapore itself is a multicul-tural and cosmopolitan society with broad exposure to Eastern and Western media,values,language and culture.The country is composed predominantly of Chinese,but also has signi®cant Malay,Indian and Eurasian communities.Singapore's geographical position and historical traditions,including former ties with Great Britain,have fostered inter-cultural awareness and cross-cultural familiarity.In short,Singaporeansare well equipped with cultural knowledge and intercultural skills to assist them with cross-cultural transitions to both Eastern and Western destinations.Certainly on an anecdotal basis Singaporeans appear more familiar with American culture and customs than vice versa.Indeed,we still receive correspondence from North America addressed to Singapore,China!There is also reason to suggest that those who relocate with an array of social and ®nancial resources ®nd cross-cultural transitions less di -cult.This is evidenced in the comparisons between New Zealand civil servants on overseas postings and New Zealand students abroad.Not only do the former have the bene®ts of age and education,they also have greater ®nancial assets and social status compared to the latter.The di erences in cross-cultural adjustment,which show that the adult sample experiences less di culties,is consistent with ®ndings that edu-cation and income are signi®cantly related to sociocultural adaptation (Ataca,1996).It is interesting to note that the sample of Filipina domestics in Singapore,the sojourning group with the fewest ®nancial assets and the lowest social status,had a particularly high mean di -culty score on the Sociocultural Adaptation Scale.While the SCAS has provided strong evidence of di erences in socio-cultural adaptation over time and across cultures,it has also demon-strated meaningful cross-sample consistencies.For example,there were no signi®cant di erences in the sociocultural di culties experienced by British expatriates in Hong Kong and in Singapore.In both instances sojourners from the United Kingdom made cross-cultural transitions to urban,primarily Chinese societies.Research also con®rmed that the sociocultural adaptation problems encountered by groups of inter-national students in New Zealand did not signi®cantly di er between the 1991and 1998samples.More recent research has explored the addition of a cognitive dimen-sion to the behavior-based SCAS.This represents an attempt to expand work by Ward and colleagues on psychological (a ective)and sociocul-tural (behavioral)adaptation to include the ABCs of cross-cultural adjustment.Although it was anticipated that the extended version of the SCAS might split into cognitive and behavioral subscales,factor analysis indicated that the cognitive items,such as understanding local values or world view,combined with interpersonal relationship items,such as making friends and relating to members of the opposite sex,to produce the ®rst factor.The second factor,in contrast,was composed of items relating to impersonal tasks and activities such as dealing with bureaucracy or unpleasantness.Accordingly,the ®rst factor was named Cultural Empathy and Relatedness while the second factor was labeled Impersonal Endeavors and Perils.Although these ®ndings are con-sidered preliminary,we believe that this line of research merits furtherC.Ward and A.Kennedy672。
