Economies of Scale, Imperfect Competition

国际经济学英文第七版克鲁格曼英文经济名词翻译Key Terms of International EconomicsChapter3 Labor Productivity and Comparative Advantage Comparative advantage 比较优势Absolute advantage 绝对优势Opportunity cost 机会成本Production possibility frontier 生产可能性边界Unit labor requirement 单位产品劳动投入Relative price 相对价格Relative demand curve相对需求曲线Relative supply curve 相对供给曲线Relative wage 相对工资Relative quantity 相对产量Ricardian model 李嘉图模型Pauper labor argument 贫民劳动论Nontraded goods 非贸易商品Chapter 4 Resources and Trade: the Heckscher-Ohlin Model Abundant factor 丰裕要素Biased expansion of production 偏向性生产扩张Equalization of factor prices 要素价格均等化Factor abundance 要素丰裕度Factor intensity 要素密集度Scarce factor 稀缺要素Leontief paradox 里昂惕夫悖论land-intensive 土地密集型Labor-intensive劳动密集型the ratio of 2 factor prices 要素价格比Wage-rental ratio 工资-租金比Land-labor ratio ，the ratio of land to labor 土地劳动比Chapter 5 The standard Trade ModelBiased growth 偏向性增长Export-biased growth 出口偏向性增长Immiserizing growth 贫困化增长Import-biased growth 进口偏向性增长Isovalue line等价值线Marginal propensity to spend边际消费倾向Terms of trade贸易条件Transfers of income转移支付Chapter 6 Economies of Scale, Imperfect Competition, and international TradeDumping 倾销External economies of scale外部规模经济Imperfect competition 不完全竞争Interindustry trade 产业间贸易Intraindustry trade 产业内贸易Internal economies of scale内在规模经济Monopolistic competion垄断竞争Reciprocal dumping 相互倾销Increasing return 报酬递增Chapter 7 The Instruments of Trade policyad valorem tariff从价税Specific tariff从量税Consumer surplus消费者剩余Producer surplus生产者剩余Production distortion loss生产扭曲损失Consumption distortion loss消费扭曲损失Effective rate of protection有效保护率Efficiency loss效率损失Export restraint出口限制Export subsidy出口补贴Import quota进口配额Voluntary export restraint自愿出口限制Local content requirement国产化程度要求nontariff barriers非关税避垒Quota rent配额租金Chapter 8 National Income Accounting and the Balance of Payments The Balance of Payment AccountsCurrent accountFinancial accountCapital accountChapter 9 Exchange Rates and the Foreign Exchange Market:An Asset ApproachAppreciation升值Arbitrage套汇、套利Depreciation贬值Exchange rate汇率Forward exchange rate远期汇率Interest parity condition利率平价条件Rate of appreciation升值率Rate of depreciation贬值率Real rate of return实际收益率Spot exchange rate即期汇率Vehicle currency载体货币Foreign exchange外汇Chapter 10 Money, Interest Rates, and Exchange ratesMoney Supply 货币供给Money Demand 货币需求Short-Run Price Rigidity 短期价格粘性Long-run Price Flexibility 长期灵活价格permanent increase in the U.S. money supply 货币供给永久性增长overshooting 超调Chapter 11 Price Levels and the Exchange Rate in the Long Run Law of one price 一价定律Nominal exchange rate 名义汇率Nominal interest rate 名义利率Purchasing power parity 购买力平价Real appreciation实际升值Real depreciation 实际贬值Real exchange rate 实际汇率Relative PPP相对购买力平价Market rigidity市场刚性Price rigidity价格刚性Price stickiness价格粘性Chapter 12 Output and the Exchange Rate in the Short Run Aggregate demand 总需求Fiscal policy 财政政策J-curve J曲线Real exchange rate 实际汇率Real appreciation 实际升值Real depreciation 实际贬值Chapter 13 Fixed, Floating Exchange Rate and Policies Effects Sterilization冲销Sterilized foreign exchange intervention冲销性外汇干预Devaluation法定贬值Revaluation法定升值Clean float 清洁浮动Dirty float 肮脏浮动Capital flight 资本抽逃Chapter 14 The Theory of Optimum Currency Areas optimumcurrency areas 最优货币区Monetary efficiency gain 货币效率收益Economic integration 经济一体化Floating exchange rate 浮动汇率Fixed exchange rate 固定汇率。

Overview of Section IInternational Trade TheorySection I of the text is comprised of six chapters: Chapter 2 Labor Productivity and Comparative Advantage: The Ricardian Model Chapter 3 Specific Factors and Income Distribution Chapter 4 Resources and Trade: The Heckscher-Ohlin Model Chapter 5 The Standard Trade Model Chapter 6 Economies of Scale, Imperfect Competition, and International Trade Chapter 7 International Factor Movements T Section I Overview Section I of the text presents the theory of international trade. The intent of this section is to explore the motives for and implications of patterns of trade between countries. The presentation proceeds by introducing successively more general models of trade, where the generality is provided by increasing the number of factors used in production, by increasing the mobility of factors of production across sectors of the economy, by introducing more general technologies applied to production, and by examining different types of market structure. Throughout Section I, policy concerns and current issues are used to emphasize the relevance of the theory of international trade for interpreting and understanding our economy. Chapter 2 gives a brief overview of world trade. In particular, it discusses what we know about the quantities and pattern of world trade today. The chapter uses the empirical relationship known as the gravity model as a framework to describe trade. This framework describes trade as a function of the size of the economies involved and their distance. It can then be used to see where countries are trading more or less than expected. The chapter also notes the growth in world trade over the previous decades and uses the previous era of globalization (pre-WWI) as context for today’s experience. Chapter 3 introduces you to international trade theory through a framework known as the Ricardian model of trade. This model addresses the issue of why two countries would want to trade with each other. This model shows how mutually-beneficial trade arises when there are two countries, each with one factor of production which can be applied toward producing each of two goods. Key concepts are introduced, such as the production possibilities frontier, comparative advantage versus absolute advantage, gains from trade, relative prices, and relative wages across countries. 4 Krugman/Obstfeld • International Economics: Theory and Policy, Seventh Edition Chapter 4 introduces what is known as the classic Heckscher-Ohlin model of international trade. Using this framework, you can work through the effects of trade on wages, prices and output. Many important and intuitive results are derived in this chapter including: the Rybczynski Theorem, the Stolper-Samuelson Theorem, and the Factor Price Equalization Theorem. Implications of the Heckscher-Ohlin model for the pattern of trade among countries are discussed, as are the failures of empirical evidence to confirm the predictions of the theory. The chapter also introduces questions of political economy in trade. One important reason for this addition to the model is to consider the effects of trade on income distribution. This approach shows that while nations generally gain from international trade, it is quite possible that specific groups within these nations could be harmed by this trade. This discussion, and related questions about protectionism versus globalization, becomes broader and even more interesting as you work through the models and different assumptions of subsequent chapters. Chapter 5 presents a general model of international trade which admits the models of the previous chapters as special cases. This “standard trade model” is depicted graphically by a general equilibrium trade model as applied to a small open economy. Relative demand and relative supply curves are used to analyze a variety of policy issues, such as the effects of economic growth, the transfer problem, and the effects of trade tariffs and production subsidies. The appendix to the chapter develops offer curve analysis. While an extremely useful tool, the standard model of trade fails to account for some important aspects of international trade. Specifically, while the factor proportions Heckscher-Ohlin theories explain some trade flows between countries, recent research in international economics has placed an increasing emphasis on economies of scale in production and imperfect competition among firms. Chapter 6 presents models of international trade that reflect these developments. The chapter begins by reviewing the concept of monopolistic competition among firms, and then showing the gains from trade which arise in such imperfectly competitive markets. Next, internal and external economies of scale in production and comparative advantage are discussed. The chapter continues with a discussion of the importance of intra-industry trade, dumping, and external economies of production. The subject matter of this chapter is important since it shows how gains from trade arise in ways that are not suggested by the standard, more traditional models of international trade. The subject matter also is enlightening given the increased emphasis on intra-industry trade in industrialized countries. Chapter 7 focuses on international factor mobility. This departs from previous chapters which assumed that the factors of production available for production within a country could not leave a country’s borders. Reasons for and the effects of international factor mobility are discussed in the context of a one-factor (labor) production and trade model. The analysis of the international mobility of labor motivates a further discussion of international mobility of capital. The international mobility of capital takes the form of international borrowing and lending. This facilitates the discussion of inter-temporal production choices and foreign direct investment behavior. 。

差异性产品differentiated goods不完全竞争imperfect competition垄断竞争monopolistic competition规模收益递减increasing returns to scale规模经济economies of scale产业内贸易intra-industry trade引力方程gravity equation区域性贸易协定regional trade agreements双头垄断duopoly边际收入marginal revenue边际成本marginal cost垄断利润monopoly profits自由贸易协定free-trade agreements贸易调整救济Trade Adjustment Assistance产品内贸易指数index of intra-industry边界效应border effects价格歧视price discrimination反倾销税anti-dumping duty歧视性垄断discrimination monopoly相互倾销reciprocal dumping境外外包foreign outsourcing商业服务business services技能偏向型技术变迁skill-biased technological change 工资总额total wage payments等产量线isoquants贸易政策trade policy进口关税import tariffs进口配额import quotas出口补贴export subsidies保障条款safeguard provision免责条款escape clause区域性贸易协定regional trade agreements自由贸易区free-trade areas关税同盟customs unions消费者剩余consumer surplus生产者剩余producer surplus进口需要曲线import demand curve无谓损失dead-weight loss生产损失production loss消费损失consumption loss争端解决程序dispute settlement procedure贸易条件terms of trade贸易条件利得terms-of-trade gain最优关税optimal tariff多种纤维协定Multifibre Arrangement,MFA等效进口关税equivalent import tariff配额许可证quota licenses“自愿”出口限制“voluntary”export restraint,VER “自愿”限制协议“voluntary”restraint agreement,VRA 幼稚产业infant industry歧视性垄断discriminating monopoly反倾销税anti-dumping duty市场势力market power边际收益marginal revenue知识外溢konwledge spillover市场失灵market failure反补贴税countervailing duty保障性关税safeguard tariff出口补贴export subsidy共同农业政策Common Agriculture Policy,CAP生产补贴production subsidy瞄准原理targeting principle战略优势strategic advantage不完全竞争imperfect competition双头垄断duopoly支付矩阵payoff matrix纳什均衡Nash equilibrium先动者优势first mover advantage多边协定multilateral agreement最惠国原则most favored nation principle囚徒困境prisoner`s dilemma特惠贸易协定preferential trade agreements原产地规则rules of origin贸易创造trade creation贸易转移trade diversion劳工标准labor standards最低生活工资living wage多边环境协定multilateral environmental agreements公地悲剧tragedy for the commons公共财产common property81.<京都议定书>Kyoto Protocol1、商品贸易：merchandise goods2、服务进口：service exports3、对外直接投资：foreign direct investment4、贸易差额：trade balance5、贸易顺差：trade surplus6、贸易逆差：trade deficit7、双边贸易差额：bilateral trade balance8、进口关税：import tariffs9、国内生产总值：10、贸易壁垒：trade barriers11、进口配额：import quotas12、李嘉图模型：Ricardian model13、贸易模式：trade pattern14、自由贸易区：free-trade area15、自然资源：natural resources16、劳动力资源：labor resources17、生产要素：factors of production18、对外直接投资：foreign direct19、绝对优势：absolute advantage20、比较优势：comparative advantage21、边际劳动产出：marginal product of labor (MPL)22、生产可能性边界：production possibilities frontier (PPF)23、机会成本：opportunity cost24、无差异曲线：indifference curve25、相对价格：relative price26、国际贸易均衡：international trade equilibrium27、世界价格曲线：world price line28、贸易所得：gains from trade29、出口供给曲线：export supply curve30、进口需求曲线：import demand curve31、贸易条件：terms of trade32、特定要素模型：specific-factors model33、收益递减：diminishing returns34、自给自足：autarky35、实际工资：real wage36、贸易调整救济：Trade Adjustment Assistance(TAA)37、名义保护系数：nominal protection coefficient38、资本租金：rental on capital39、贸易禁运：embargo40、赫克歇尔-俄林模型：Heckscher-Ohlin model41、要素密集度逆转：reversal of factor intensities42、自由贸易均衡：free-trade equilibrium43、赫克歇尔-俄林定理：Heckscher-Ohlinv theorem44、里昂惕夫悖论：Leontief’s paradox45、斯托尔铂-萨缪尔森定理：Stolper-Samuelson theorem46、出口要素含量：factor content of exports47、进口要素含量：factor content of imports48、该要素丰裕：abundant in that factor49、该要素稀缺：scarce in that factor50、有效劳动力：effective labor force51、有效要素禀赋：effective factor endowment52、该有效要素丰裕:abundant in that effective factor53、该有效要素稀缺：scarce in that effective factor54、符号检验：sign test55、特定要素模型：specific-factors model56、雷布钦斯基定理：Rybczynski theorem67、要素价格不敏感性：factor price insensitivity68、实际增加值：real value-added69、对外直接投资：foreign direct investment70、充分移民条件的均衡：equilibrium with full migration差异性产品differentiated goods不完全竞争imperfect competition垄断竞争monopolistic competition规模收益递减increasing returns to scale规模经济economies of scale产业内贸易intra-industry trade引力方程gravity equation区域性贸易协定regional trade agreements双头垄断duopoly边际收入marginal revenue边际成本marginal cost垄断利润monopoly profits自由贸易协定free-trade agreements贸易调整救济Trade Adjustment Assistance产品内贸易指数index of intra-industry边界效应border effects价格歧视price discrimination反倾销税anti-dumping duty歧视性垄断discrimination monopoly相互倾销reciprocal dumping境外外包foreign outsourcing商业服务business services技能偏向型技术变迁skill-biased technological change 工资总额total wage payments等产量线isoquants贸易政策trade policy进口关税import tariffs进口配额import quotas出口补贴export subsidies保障条款safeguard provision免责条款escape clause区域性贸易协定regional trade agreements自由贸易区free-trade areas关税同盟customs unions消费者剩余consumer surplus生产者剩余producer surplus进口需要曲线import demand curve无谓损失dead-weight loss生产损失production loss消费损失consumption loss争端解决程序dispute settlement procedure贸易条件terms of trade贸易条件利得terms-of-trade gain最优关税optimal tariff多种纤维协定Multifibre Arrangement,MFA等效进口关税equivalent import tariff配额许可证quota licenses“自愿”出口限制“voluntary”export restraint,VER“自愿”限制协议“voluntary”restraint agreement,VRA 幼稚产业infant industry歧视性垄断discriminating monopoly反倾销税anti-dumping duty市场势力market power边际收益marginal revenue知识外溢konwledge spillover市场失灵market failure反补贴税countervailing duty保障性关税safeguard tariff出口补贴export subsidy共同农业政策Common Agriculture Policy,CAP生产补贴production subsidy瞄准原理targeting principle战略优势strategic advantage不完全竞争imperfect competition双头垄断duopoly支付矩阵payoff matrix纳什均衡Nash equilibrium先动者优势first mover advantage多边协定multilateral agreement最惠国原则most favored nation principle囚徒困境prisoner`s dilemma特惠贸易协定preferential trade agreements原产地规则rules of origin贸易创造trade creation贸易转移trade diversion劳工标准labor standards最低生活工资living wage多边环境协定multilateral environmental agreements 公地悲剧tragedy for the commons公共财产common property81.<京都议定书>Kyoto Protocol1、商品贸易：merchandise goods2、服务进口：service exports3、对外直接投资：foreign direct investment4、贸易差额：trade balance5、贸易顺差：trade surplus6、贸易逆差：trade deficit7、双边贸易差额：bilateral trade balance8、进口关税：import tariffs9、国内生产总值：10、贸易壁垒：trade barriers11、进口配额：import quotas12、李嘉图模型：Ricardian model13、贸易模式：trade pattern14、自由贸易区：free-trade area15、自然资源：natural resources16、劳动力资源：labor resources17、生产要素：factors of production18、对外直接投资：foreign direct19、绝对优势：absolute advantage20、比较优势：comparative advantage21、边际劳动产出：marginal product of labor (MPL)22、生产可能性边界：production possibilities frontier (PPF)23、机会成本：opportunity cost24、无差异曲线：indifference curve25、相对价格：relative price26、国际贸易均衡：international trade equilibrium27、世界价格曲线：world price line28、贸易所得：gains from trade29、出口供给曲线：export supply curve30、进口需求曲线：import demand curve31、贸易条件：terms of trade32、特定要素模型：specific-factors model33、收益递减：diminishing returns34、自给自足：autarky35、实际工资：real wage36、贸易调整救济：Trade Adjustment Assistance(TAA)37、名义保护系数：nominal protection coefficient38、资本租金：rental on capital39、贸易禁运：embargo40、赫克歇尔-俄林模型：Heckscher-Ohlin model41、要素密集度逆转：reversal of factor intensities42、自由贸易均衡：free-trade equilibrium43、赫克歇尔-俄林定理：Heckscher-Ohlinv theorem44、里昂惕夫悖论：Leontief’s paradox45、斯托尔铂-萨缪尔森定理：Stolper-Samuelson theorem46、出口要素含量：factor content of exports47、进口要素含量：factor content of imports48、该要素丰裕：abundant in that factor49、该要素稀缺：scarce in that factor50、有效劳动力：effective labor force51、有效要素禀赋：effective factor endowment52、该有效要素丰裕:abundant in that effective factor53、该有效要素稀缺：scarce in that effective factor54、符号检验：sign test55、特定要素模型：specific-factors model56、雷布钦斯基定理：Rybczynski theorem67、要素价格不敏感性：factor price insensitivity68、实际增加值：real value-added69、对外直接投资：foreign direct investment70、充分移民条件的均衡：equilibrium with full migration。

国际经济学作业复习资料第六章Chapter 6 Economies of Scale, Imperfect Competition, and International Trade Multiple Choice Questions1. External economies of scale arise when the cost per unit(a) rises as the industry grows larger.(b) falls as the industry grows larger rises as the average firm grows larger.(c) falls as the average firm grows larger.(d) remains constant.(e) None of the above.Answer: B2. Internal economies of scale arise when the cost per unit(a) rises as the industry grows larger.(b) falls as the industry grows larger.(c) rises as the average firm grows larger.(d) falls as the average firm grows larger.(e) None of the above.Answer: D3. External economies of scale(a) may be associated with a perfectly competitive industry.(b) cannot be associated with a perfectly competitive industry.(c) tends to result in one huge monopoly.(d) tends to result in large profits for each firm.(e) None of the above.Answer: A4. Internal economies of scale(a) may be associated with a perfectly competitive industry.(b) cannot be associated with a perfectly competitive industry.(c) are associated only with sophisticated products such as aircraft.(d) cannot form the basis for international trade.(e) None of the above.Answer: B5. A monopolistic firm(a) can sell as much as it wants for any price it determines in the market.(b) cannot determine the price, which is determined by consumer demand.(c) will never sell a product whose demand is inelastic at the quantity sold.(d) cannot sell additional quantity unless it raises the price on each unit.(e) None of the above.Answer: C6. Monopolistic competition is associated with(a) cut-throat price competition.(b) product differentiation.(c) explicit consideration at firm level of the feedback effects of other firms’ pr icing decisions.(d) high profit margins.(e) None of the above.Answer: B7. The most common market structure is(a) perfect competition.(b) monopolistic competition.(c) small-group oligopoly.(d) perfectly vertical integration.(e) None of the above.Answer: C8. Modeling trade in monopolistic industries is problematic because(a) there is no one generally accepted model of oligopoly behavior.(b) there are no models of oligopoly behavior.(c) it is difficult to find an oligopoly in the real world.(d) collusion among oligopolists makes usable data rare.(e) None of the above.Answer: A9. Where there are economies of scale, the scale of production possible in a country is constrained by(a) the size of the country.(b) the size of the trading partner’s country.(c) the size of the domestic market.(d) the size of the domestic plus the foreign market.(e) None of the above.Answer: D10. Where there are economies of scale, an increase in the size of the market will(a) increase the number of firms and raise the price per unit.(b) decrease the number of firms and raise the price per unit.(c) increase the number of firms and lower the price per unit.(d) decrease the number of firms and lower the price per unit.(e) None of the above.Answer: C11. The simultaneous export and import of widgets by the United States is an example of(a) increasing returns to scale.(b) imperfect competition.(c) intra-industry trade.(d) inter-industry trade.(e) None of the above.Answer: C12. If output more than doubles when all inputs are doubled, production is said to occur under conditions of(a) increasing returns to scale.(b) imperfect competition.(c) intra-industry trade.(d) inter-industry trade.(e) None of the above.Answer: A13. Intra-industry trade can be explained in part by(a) transportation costs within and between countries.(b) problems of data aggregation and categorization.(c) increasing returns to scale.(d) All of the above.(e) None of the above.Answer: D14. If some industries exhibit internal (firm specific) increasing returns to scale in each country, we should not expect to see(a) intra-industry trade between countries.(b) perfect competition in these industries.(c) inter-industry trade between countries.(d) high levels of specialization in both countries.(e) None of the above.Answer: B15. Intra-industry trade is most common in the trade patterns of(a) developing countries of Asia and Africa.(b) industrial countries of Western Europe.(c) all countries.(d) North-South trade.(e) None of the above.Answer: B16. International trade based on scale economies is likely to be associated with(a) Ricardian comparative advantage.(b) comparative advantage associated with Heckscher-Ohlin factor-proportions.(c) comparative advantage based on quality and service.(d) comparative advantage based on diminishing returns.(e) None of the above.Answer: E17. International trade based on external scale economies in both countries is likely to be carried out by a(a) relatively large number of price competing firms.(b) relatively small number of price competing firms.(c) relatively small number of competing oligopolists.(d) monopoly firms in each country/industry.(e) None of the above.Answer: A18. International trade based solely on internal scale economies in both countries is likely to be carried out by a(a) relatively large number of price competing firms.(b) relatively small number of price competing firms.(c) relatively small number of competing oligopolists.(d) monopoly firms in each country/industry.(e) None of the above.Answer: D19. A monopoly firm engaged in international trade will(a) equate average to local costs.(b) equate marginal costs with foreign marginal revenues.(c) equate marginal costs with the highest price the market will bear.(d) equate marginal costs with marginal revenues in both domestic and in foreign markets.(e) None of the above.Answer: D20. A monopoly firm will maximize profits by(a) charging the same price in domestic and in foreign markets.(b) producing where the marginal revenue is higher in foreign markets.(c) producing where the marginal revenue is higher in the domestic market.(d) equating the marginal revenues in domestic and foreign markets.(e) None of the above.Answer: D21. A firm in monopolistic competition(a) earns positive monopoly profits because each sells a differentiated product.(b) earns positive oligopoly profits because each firm sells a differentiated product.(c) earns zero economic profits because it is in perfectly or pure competition.(d) earns zero economic profits because of free entry.(e) None of the above.Answer: D22. The larger the number of firms in a monopolistic competition situation,(a) the larger are that country’s exports.(b) the higher is the price charged.(c) the fewer varieties are sold.(d) the lower is the price charged.(e) None of the above.Answer: D23. The monopolistic competition model is one in which there is/are(a) a monopoly.(b) perfect competition.(c) economies of scale.(d) government intervention in the market.(e) None of the above.Answer: C24. In industries in which there are scale economies, the variety of goods that a country can produce is constrained by(a) the size of the labor force.(b) anti-trust legislation.(c) the size of the market.(d) the fixed cost.(e) None of the above.Answer: C25. An industry is characterized by scale economies, and exists in two countries. Should these two countries engage in trade such that the combined market is supplied by one country’s industry, then(a) consumers in both countries would suffer higher prices and fewer varieties.(b) consumers in the importing country would suffer higher prices and fewer varieties.(c) consumers in the exporting country would suffer higher prices and fewer varieties.(d) consumers in both countries would enjoy fewer varieties available but lower prices.(e) None of the above.Answer: E26. An industry is characterized by scale economies and exists in two countries. In order for consumersof its products to enjoy both lower prices and more variety of choice,(a) each country’s marginal cost must equal that of the other country.(b) the marginal cost of this industry must equal marginal revenue in the other.(c) the monopoly must lower prices in order to sell more.(d) the two countries must engage in international trade one with the other.(e) None of the above.Answer: D27. A product is produced in a monopolistically competitive industry with scale economies. If thisindustry exists in two countries, and these two countries engage in trade one with the other, then we would expect(a) the country in which the price of the product is lower will export the product.(b) the country with a relative abundance of the factor of production in which production of theproduct is intensive will export this product.(c) each of the countries will export different varieties of the product to the other.(d) neither country will export this product since there is no comparative advantage.(e) None of the above.Answer: C28. The reason why one country may export a product which is produced with positive scaleeconomies is(a) its labor productivity will tend to be higher.(b) it enjoys a relative abundance of the factor intensely used in the product’s production.(c) its demand is biased in favor of the product.(d) its demand is biased against the product.(e) None of the above.Answer: E29. Two countries engaged in trade in products with no scale economies, produced under conditions ofperfect competition, are likely to be engaged in(a) monopolistic competition.(b) inter-industry trade.(c) intra-industry trade.(d) Heckscher-Ohlin trade.(e) None of the above.Answer: B30. Two countries engaged in trade in products with scale economies, produced under conditions of monopolistic competition, are likely to be engaged in(a) price competition.(b) inter-industry trade.(c) intra-industry trade.(d) Heckscher-Ohlinean trade.(e) None of the above.Answer: C31. History and accident determine the details of trade involving(a) Ricardian and Classical comparative advantage.(b) Heckscher-Ohlin model consideration.(c) taste reversals.(d) scale economies.(e) None of the above.Answer: D32. We often observe intra-industry North-South trade in “computers and related devices.” This is due to(a) classification and aggregation ambiguities.(b) monopolistic competition.(c) specific factors issues.(d) scale economies.(e) None of the above.Answer: A33. We often observe “pseudo-intra-industry trade” between the United States and Mexico. Actually, such trade is consistent with(a) oligopolistic markets.(b) comparative advantage associated with Heckscher-Ohlin model.(c) optimal tariff issues.(d) huge sucking sound.(e) None of the above.Answer: B34. Intra-industry trade will tend to dominate trade flows when which of the following exists?(a) Large differences between relative country factor availabilities(b) Small differences between relative country factor availabilities(c) Homogeneous products that cannot be differentiated(d) Constant cost industries(e) None of the above.Answer: B35. The most common form of price discrimination in international trade is(a) non-tariff barriers.(b) Voluntary Export Restraints.(c) dumping.(d) preferential trade arrangements.(e) None of the above.Answer: CEssay Questions1. Why is it that if an industry were operating under conditions of domestic internal scale economies(applies to firm in the country)—then the resultant equilibrium cannot be consistent with the pure competition model? Answer: Because once one firm became bigger than another, or if one firm began the industry, then no other firm would be able to match its per unit cost, so that they would be driven out ofthe industry.2. Is it possible that if positive scale economies characterize an industry, that its equilibrium may beconsistent with purely competitive conditions? Explain how this could happen.Answer: Yes. If the scale economies were external to the firm, then there is no reason why the firms may not be in perfect competition.3. If a scale economy is the dominant technological factor defining or establishing comparativeadvantage, then the underlying facts explaining why a particular country dominates world markets in some product may be pure chance, or historical accident. Explain, and compare this with the answer you would give for the Heckscher-Ohlin model of comparative advantage.Answer: This statement is true, since the reason the seller is a monopolist may be that it happened to have been the first to produce this product in this country. It may have no connection toany supply or demand related factors; nor to any natural or man-made availability. This isall exactly the opposite of the Heckscher-Ohlin Neo-Classical model’s explanation of thedeterminants of comparative advantage.4. It is possible that trade based on external scale economies may leave a country worse off than itwould have been without trade. Explain how this could happen.Answer: One answer is that the terms of trade effects may dominate any other factors.5. If scale economies were not only external to firms, but were also external to individual countries.That is, the larger the worldwide industry (regardless of where firms or plants are located), thecheaper would be the per-unit cost of production. Describe what world trade would look like in this case.Answer: Presumably each country would specialize in some component of the final product. This would result in much observed intra-industry trade.6. Why are increasing returns to scale and fixed costs important in models of international trade andmonopolistic competition?Answer: There are many answers. Three of these are(a) Increasing returns to scale, and high fixed costs may be inconsistent with perfectcompetition. In such a case, the initial autarkic state may be a suboptimal equilibrium.For example, relative prices may not equal marginal rates of transformation. It followsfrom this that a change in output compositions associated with trade may result in anational welfare for one or both trading countries that is inferior to that associatedwith the initial autarkic conditions. Hence no “gains from trade.”(b) In a case of increasing scale economies at the firm or plant level, the determination ofwhich product will be exported by which country is ex-ante indeterminate. Therefore,deriving clear implications concerning the effects of trade on income distributionssuch as may be derived from the Samuelson-Stolper Theorem is no longer generallypossible.(c) Market structures containing positive scale economies and imperfect competition mayallow for “two-way trade,” or intra-industry trade. As in b. above, the varioustheorems derivable from the Heckscher-Ohlin model concerning directions of tradeand income distributions are no longer generally applicable.7. Explain why it may be argued that the relative importance of the intra-industry component of worldtrade is likely to lessen economic strife or confrontation (a la Stolper-Samuelson) associated with commercial policy within countries in which overall trade is expanding?Answer: In the case of the Neo-Classical H-O model, the expansion of trade will tend to increase the incomes of those factors in which the exports are relatively intense. This may createsituations in which unskilled lab or’s already relatively low relative incomes would worsenin a country such as the U.S., hence heating up “class warfare.” In the case of intra-industry trade, the expanding exports will tend to be in relatively fragmented subsets ofproducts (“brands”). S uch export expansion will have no determinant or systematictendency to affect relative factor returns in any deterministic manner.8. Explain why positive economies of scale in one (of two) sectors may establish a comparativeadvantage for the large (as compared to the small) country in the production of the commoditywhich exhibits positive scale economies.Answer: In the case of the H-O model, the actual size of the country is irrelevant in thedetermination of the direction of trade (though it may affect the equilibrium terms oftrade). When positive scale economies apply to the production of one product, the countrythat can devote more resources (in absolute terms) will be able to sell that product cheaper,and therefore will be more likely to gain a “revealed” comparative advantage in thatproduct. This will be the country with more factors (both labor and capital)—the largercountry.Quantitative/Graphing Problems1. The figure above represents the demand and cost functions facing a Brazilian Steel producingmonopolist. If it were unable to export, and was constrained by its domestic market, what quantity would it sell at what price? Answer: It would sell 5 (million tons) at a price of $8/ton.2. Now the monopolist discovers that it can export as much as it likes of its steel at the world price of$5/ton. It will therefore expand for-export production up to the point where its marginal cost equals $5. How much steel will the monopolist sell, and at what price?Answer: It would sell 10 million tons at $5/ton.3. Given the opportunity to sell at world prices, the marginal (opportunity) cost of selling a tondomestically is what?Answer: $5/ton.4. While selling exports it would also maximize its domestic sales by equating its marginal(opportunity) cost to its marginal revenue of $5. How much steel would the firm sell domestically, and at what price? Answer: 4 million tons at $10/ton.5. The Brazilian firm is charging its foreign (U.S.) customers one half the price it is charging itsdomestic customers. Is this good or bad for the real income or economic welfare of theUnited States? Is the Brazilian firm engaged in dumping? Is this predatory behavior on the partof the Brazilian steel company?Answer: Good. Yes, if you define dumping as selling abroad at a price lower than domestically. No, if by dumping you mean selling below marginal cost. No—this is not being done in orderto capture market shares, but rather is “mere” static profit maximization behavior, as isexpected of any self-respecting monopolist.6. The following Table describes the labor-input coefficients needed to produce one Widget in Englandand Portugal. Both countries are identical in size, tastes, technology. This technology is described in the table below:To Produce This Many Widgets, Or This Many Apples Labor-Hour Requirements1 32 53 64 75 86 97 10Let us assume that each country has 10 labor-hours available. Further, consumers always consume an equal amount of apples and widgets.(a) How of each product will be produced in England under autarky? 2 widgets and 2 apples.(b) Judging from autarky conditions, which country has a comparative advantage in widgets?(c) If England (completely) specialized in widgets, how many widgets would be produced, and howmany apples?(d) If the world terms of trade were established at 3.5 widgets 3.5 Apples, which country wouldenjoy gains from trade (as compared to The autarky solution?)(e) If Portugal were to completely specialize in widgets, how would the answers to c and d change?(f) What would the production possibility curve look like in each country?Answers: (a) 2 widgets and 2 apples(b) None(c) 7 widgets in England and 7 apples in Portugal(d) both would gain from trade. Instead of consuming 2 widgets and 2 apples, they wouldeach consume 3.5 widgets and 3.5 apples.(e) Same numbers as c, except that the countries will each be assigned a different product.Exactly the same answer for d.(f) convex to the origin.。

经济学(Economics)：研究人和社会对具有不同用途的稀缺资源配置并加以选择的科学；其目标是有效利用稀缺资源来生产商品和劳务，并在现在或将来把它们合理地分配给社会成员或集团以供消费之用。

微观经济学(Microeconomics)：研究微观(Micro)、或“小型”经济单位的经济行为，如单个消费者、生产者和单一市场的经济行为。

宏观经济学(Macroeconomics)：研究社会总体的经济行为及其后果，即对整个社会的消费、投资、生产、收入等进行分析研究。

经济人(Economic man)：作出决策的出发点是个人利益，寻求个人利益最大化。

需求（Demand）：一种商品的需求是指消费者在一定时期内在各种可能的价格下愿意而且能够购买的该种商品的数量。

需求函数（Demand function）：用来表示一种商品的需求数量和影响该需求数量的各种因素之间相关关系的数学表达式。

供给（Supply）：一种商品的供给是指生产者在一定时期内在各种可能的价格下愿意而且能够提供出售的该种商品的数量。

供给函数（Supply function）：用来表示一种商品的供给数量和影响该供给数量的各种因素之间相关关系的数学表达式。

均衡（Equilibrium）：指各个经济决策者（消费者、厂商）所作出的决策正好相容，在外界条件不变的情况下，每个人都不愿意再调整自己的决策，是一种相对静止的状态。

均衡价格（Equilibrium price）：指商品的市场需求量和市场供给量相等时候的价格。

均衡数量（Equilibrium quantity）：在均衡价格水平下相等的供求数量。

均衡点（Equilibrium point）：一种商品的市场需求曲线和市场供给曲线的交点。

需求量的变动（Variation of demand quantity）：仅仅因价格因素的变动而引起的需求数量的变动,是一种线上运动。

需求的变动（Variation od demand）：由于价格以外的因素的变动而引起的需求数量的变动,是一种线的移动。