国际经济学(多米尼克萨瓦尔多)课后答案

第12章国际资源流动与跨国公司一、概念题1．脑力流失（brain drain）答：脑力流失是指在一单位内，对其经营发展具有重要作用，甚至是关键性作用的人才非单位意愿的流走，或失去其积极性的现象。

在国际资源流动中则指一些高技术及受过高级训练的人才从发展中国家迁往发达国家以及从其他发达国家迁至美国的现象。

脑力流失在欠发达地区表现更为明显。

由于欠发达地区资源、机会的限制，具备高技能的人才容易流向机会和待遇良好的发达地区。

随着经济全球化和技术革命的进一步扩展，市场竞争利益激烈，脑力流失成为一种常态，频率越来越快。

这给人才流失的企业、地区和国家都带来了严重的不利影响。

只有“以人为本”，最大限度地调动人才的积极性，为人才提供良好的发展环境，才能更好地留住人才。

2．直接投资（direct investments）答：直接投资是指投资者将货币资金直接投入投资项目，形成实物资产或者购买现有企业的投资，通过直接投资，投资者便可以拥有全部或一定数量的企业资产及经营的所有权，直接进行或参与投资的经验管理。

直接投资包括对现金、厂房、机械设备、交通工具、通讯、土地或土地使用权等各种有形资产的投资和对专利、商标、咨询服务等无形资产的投资。

其中，对外直接投资是指一国通过资本的国际转移，将其某种特定商品的生产过程由本国转移到世界的其他国家。

对外直接投资实际上是以资本这一生产要素的贸易替代了自由贸易条件下的商品贸易。

3．横向一体化（horizontal integration）答：企业增长在战略上可分为一体化扩张和多样化扩张。

一体化扩张又可分为横向一体化（水平一体化）和纵向一体化（垂直一体化）。

横向一体化是指为了扩大生产规模、降低成本、巩固企业的市场地位、提高企业竞争优势、增强企业实力而与同行业企业进行联合的一种战略。

实质是资本在同一产业和部门内的集中，目的是实现扩大规模、降低产品成本、巩固市场地位。

国际化经营是横向一体化的一种形式。

萨尔瓦多《国际经济学》（第12版）笔记和课后习题（含考研真题）详解完整版>精研学习网>无偿试用20％资料全国547所院校视频及题库资料考研全套>视频资料>课后答案>往年真题>职称考试试读（部分内容）隐藏第1章绪论1.1复习笔记考点一：经济全球化▼1经济全球化的含义经济全球化是世界上各国和地区之间通过商品、服务及劳动力、资本、信息、技术、管理等生产要素的跨国界流动，寻求资源最优配置的一个相互联系、相互依赖并不断深化的过程。

2经济全球化的影响经济全球化是一把“双刃剑”，对任何国家来说，它既是机遇，也是挑战。

以发展中国家经济为例，探讨经济全球化所带来的积极和消极影响。

（1）积极影响①由于信息技术使空间距离极大地缩短，世界各地的竞争关系加剧，相互争夺稀缺的生产要素。

不断加剧的竞争也激发了国家的创造力和创新精神，从而使国家富裕起来，社会福利水平不断提高。

②现代通信技术以及复杂的计算机程序，加快了信息的流通，有助于人们消除不同资本市场的时间差。

③全球化意味着世界整体福利水平的增升和机会的增加。

发达国家和发展中国家的国民财富在经济全球化进程中均实现了迅速增长，同时，由于世界范围的国际分工，每个国家都拥有机会参与国际竞争。

④全球化有利于促进资本、技术、知识等生产要素在全球范围内的优化配置，给发展中国家提供了新的发展机遇。

⑤全球化有利于促进世界和平与稳定，使各国经济的发展越来越紧密地联系在一起，促进了国家之间沟通交流，增进了彼此之间的理解与信任。

⑥全球化促使发展中国家的出口商品结构优化。

资本的流入、跨国公司的直接投资活动和本国产业结构的调整，有利于发展中国家出口商品结构的改善。

同时经济全球化有利于发展中国家的整体改革。

（2）消极影响①增大了各国特别是发展中国家经济运行的风险。

受社会历史和经济发展水平的影响，发展中国家在国际竞争中处于不利地位，经济更脆弱。

②各国各地区的发展差异有可能进一步拉大。

《国际经济学》课后习题参考答案第一章练习与答案1．为什么说在决定生产和消费时，相对价格比绝对价格更重要？答案提示：当生产处于生产边界线上，资源则得到了充分利用，这时，要想增加某一产品的生产，必须降低另一产品的生产，也就是说，增加某一产品的生产是有机会机本（或社会成本）的。

生产可能性边界上任何一点都表示生产效率和充分就业得以实现，但究竟选择哪一点，则还要看两个商品的相对价格，即它们在市场上的交换比率。

相对价格等于机会成本时，生产点在生产可能性边界上的位置也就确定了。

所以，在决定生产和消费时，相对价格比绝对价格更重要。

2．仿效图1—6和图1—7，试推导出Y商品的国民供给曲线和国民需求曲线。

答案提示：3．在只有两种商品的情况下，当一个商品达到均衡时，另外一个商品是否也同时达到均衡？试解释原因。

答案提示：4．如果生产可能性边界是一条直线，试确定过剩供给（或需求）曲线。

答案提示：5．如果改用Y商品的过剩供给曲线（B国）和过剩需求曲线（A国）来确定国际均衡价格，那么所得出的结果与图1—13中的结果是否一致？答案提示：国际均衡价格将依旧处于贸易前两国相对价格的中间某点。

6．说明贸易条件变化如何影响国际贸易利益在两国间的分配。

答案提示：一国出口产品价格的相对上升意味着此国可以用较少的出口换得较多的进口产品，有利于此国贸易利益的获得，不过，出口价格上升将不利于出口数量的增加，有损于出口国的贸易利益；与此类似，出口商品价格的下降有利于出口商品数量的增加，但是这意味着此国用较多的出口换得较少的进口产品。

对于进口国来讲，贸易条件变化对国际贸易利益的影响是相反的。

7．如果国际贸易发生在一个大国和一个小国之间，那么贸易后，国际相对价格更接近于哪一个国家在封闭下的相对价格水平？答案提示：贸易后，国际相对价格将更接近于大国在封闭下的相对价格水平。

8．根据上一题的答案，你认为哪个国家在国际贸易中福利改善程度更为明显些？答案提示：小国。

国际经济学第十版多米尼克.萨尔瓦多着P16页练习题6.1根据消费者需求理论,当其他条件不变时,一种商品价格的提高如由于税率的上浮所致,会带来需求量的什么变化答：根据消费者需求理论,当其他条件不变时,一种商品价格的提高,则该商品的需求量将会下降;2根据消费者需求理论,一种进口商品价格的提高如由于进口关税的上浮所致,会带来需求量的什么变化答：根据消费者需求理论,一种进口商品价格的提高,则该商品的出口量将会下降;7．1一国政府如何能消除或减少预算赤字答：一国政府可以通过减少政府支出、增加税收,来消除或者减少预算赤字;2一个国家如何能消除或减少贸易逆差答：一个国家要消除或减少其贸易逆差的方式有：对进口商品增税、补贴出口,借如更多的国外债券、减少借出外国债券,降低该国的国民收入水平; 8．1国际经济关系与地区经济关系有何区别答：在国际经济关系下,国家通常限制在国际间的自由流动的货物、服务和因素,不同的语言、消费习惯和法律规定同样也阻碍了它们在国际间的流动,此外,国际收支会在各种货币收据和付款中流通;而在地区经济关系下,就关税和进行相同的货币而言,区际流动的货物、服务和因素没有面临这样的限制因素,它们经常是在同样的语言环境下,在类似的消费习惯和法律规定下进行的,这就与国际经济关系形成了鲜明对比;2它们在哪方面相似答：国际经济关系和地区经济关系的相似点：两者都跨越了空间距离,事实上,它们都是在远距离贸易下的产物,把经济看待成在一个进行着生产、交换和消费的空间中的单一点,这也是从经济学的复位空间将它们区分;10．如果说一个国家可以从国际贸易中获益,那么你如何解释为什么许多国家又要对国际贸易施加某些限制答：国际贸易给本国消费者带来的是更低的价格,这样就会对本国的同种商品的生产商造成不利,挤兑了本国生产商的销售份额;通常在这种情况下,本国的生产商就会失去大量的订单,并且向政府提议限制进口;而由于消费者很多,平均每个消费者只有非常小的进口商品利益,政府就会根据生产商的要求,施加一些进口限制;第二章比较优势原理P45页练习题1.表列出了在4中假定下,英美两国1劳动小时可生产的小麦与布匹的数量;支出每种情况下,美、英两国具有绝对优势或劣势的商品;答：在A情形下,美国具有绝对优势的商品是小麦；英国具有绝对优势的商品是布匹；在B情形下,美国在小麦和布匹都有绝对优势；在C情形下,美国在小麦和布匹生产商都具有绝对优势,而英国在这两种商品的生产中都不具有绝对优势；在D情形下,美国在小麦、布匹这两种商品具有的绝对优势都比英国明显;2.指出表中每个国家有比较优势与比较劣势的商品;答：在A情形下,美国具有相对优势的商品是小麦；英国在布匹生产上具有相对优势；在B情形下,美国在小麦具有相对优势；英国在布匹生产具有相对优势；在C情形下,美国在小麦具有相对优势；英国在布匹生产具有相对优势；在D情形下,美国、英国在小麦、布匹这两种商品生产上没有相对优势; 3.指出表中每种情况下,贸易的可能性贸易基础;答：在A情形下,贸易的可能性贸易基础是绝对优势；在B情形下,贸易的可能性贸易基础是相对优势；在C情形下,贸易的可能性贸易基础是相对优势；在D情形下,没有贸易的可能性,因为美国在这两种商品的生产上都比英国具有绝对优势;4. 假设在表中的B 情况下,美国用4单位小麦与英国用的4单位布交换： （1） 美国获利多少 （2） 英国获利多少（3） 互惠贸易的范围有多大（4） 如果改用4单位小麦与6单位布交换,两国分别获利多少 答：1美国获利1C 2英国获利3C 3 3C<4W<8C4美国获利3C,而英国获利1w;5. 表中的B 情况下,假设劳动是唯一生产要素而且是同质的即只有一种类型： （1） 用劳动测度,美、英两国生产小麦和布的成本是多少 （2） 如果工资率为6美元,则小麦和布在美国的价格是多少 （3） 如果工资率为1英镑,则小麦和布在英国的价格是多少答：1在劳动测度下,生产小麦的成本在美国是1/4,在英国为1；而生产布匹的成本在美国是1/3,在英国为1/2.2在美国,小麦的价格w P =美元,而布匹的价格c P =美元； 3在英国,小麦的价格w P =英镑,而布匹的价格c P =英镑；6. 参考第5题回答：（1） 若美元、英镑的外汇比价是1英镑=2美元,则小麦与布在英国的美元价格是多少在此汇率下,美国会想英国出口小麦吗在此汇率下,英国会想美国出口布吗（2） 当汇率是1英镑=4美元时情况如何 （3） 当汇率是1英镑=1美元时又如何（4） 允许美国向英国出口小麦和允许英国向美国出口布的汇率范围是多少 答：1在英国,当美元、英镑的外汇比价是1英镑=2美元时,美国会出口小麦到英国,而英国会出口布匹到美国；2当汇率是1英镑=4美元时,在英国：$4.00w P =,$2.00c P =,因此美国会出口小麦到英国,而英国不会出口布匹到美国;3当汇率是1英镑=1美元时,在英国,$1.00,$0.50w c P P ==,因此英国会都出口小麦、布匹这两种商品到美国;4$1.50￡1.00$4.00<< 7. 假设表中B 情形的数据单位是百万蒲尔式小麦和百万码布： （1） 画出英美两国的生产可能线（2） 美、英两国的小麦相对价格为多少即c /w P P （3） 美、英两国的布匹相对价格为多少即/c w P P答：12小麦相对价格：在美国,w /3/4c P P =,在英国w /2c P P =； 3布匹相对价格：在美国,w /4/3c P P =,在英国w /1/2c P P =; 9.1如果图左图中的w()US UK D +向上移1/3,则小麦的均衡价格是多少此时,美、英国生产多少单位小麦和布21中的答案对右图的()c US UK D +意味着什么答：1此时小麦的均衡价格会从1/3上升到w /4/3c P P =；因为更高的w()US UK D +会和()W US UK S +曲线交叉,美国会继续专门生产小麦180W,而英国会继续专门生产布匹120C.2由于布匹的均衡价格是小麦的均衡价格的倒数,所以如果小麦的均衡价格是4/3,则布匹的均衡价格是3/4.这就意味着图中右图的()C US UKD +将会向右下移1/3;11.画一张与图类似的图,表明英国现在是一个小国,为图中右图所示的一半,并在c /w P P =2/3时用20单位布与美国的30单位小麦交换;第三章 国际贸易的标准理论P66页 练习题1. 在一个坐标系中,画一条凹向原点的生产可能性曲线（1） 从生产可能性曲线的中点开始,用箭头表示该国在生产更多X 纵轴表示的商品和更多Y 时所发生的机会成本递增情况;（2） 当生产更多的X 时,生产可能性曲线的斜率如何变化生产更多的Y 呢这种变化反映了什么答：12当生产更多的X时,则Y 的产量将减少,生产可能性曲线的斜率会增大;当生产更多的Y时,X的产量也会减少;这种变化反映了随着生产更多的X或者Y,机会成本是递增的,即：一个国家每多生产以单位该种商品,就必须放弃越来越多的另一种商品的生产以提高足够的资源;2.在另一个坐标系中,画出三条社会无差异曲线,并令最高两条相交：（1）社会无差异曲线为什么向下倾斜,或者说斜率为负（2）曲线的斜率代表什么为什么每条无差异曲线在较低点斜率较小呢（3）考虑相交的两条无差异曲线,在交点右边的那一条曲线表示的满意程度较高吗在交点左边呢为什么和无差异曲线的定义不一致你可以得出什么结论答：1社会无差异曲线向下倾斜是因为：在无差异曲线上,当消费者购买更多的X时,他们会放弃部分Y;2曲线的斜率代表社会或国家在获得相同的满足程度下,多消费一单位X的同时,必须减少Y 的消费量;无差异曲线在较低点斜率较小是因为：随着X的增大,Y减小,则从一单位的X得到的满足程度降低,而从一单位Y所得到的满足程度将增大; 3当在交点在右边时,满意程度：C>B；当交点在左边是：B>C;这种不一致是因为无差异曲线反映的是一个给定的满足程度的两种商品的不同组合,因此无差异曲线不能相交;、而一组特定的无差异曲线拜师的是一国国内一种特定的收入分配,一种不同的收入分配会导致一组全新的无差异曲线,而它很可能与先前的无差异曲线相交;例如一国开始贸易或扩大外贸规模时,无差异曲线的相交就会发生;3.在一个坐标系内,画一条生产可能性曲线,再画一条无差异曲线切于生产可能性曲线较平坦的地方；在另一个坐标系内,画另一条生产可能性曲线,再画另一条无差异曲线切于生产可能性曲线较陡直的地方;（1）画一条表示各国在孤立情形下的均衡想多商品价格的直线;（2）各国具有比较优势的商品分别是什么（3）在什么情况下,两国之间不存在比较优势或比较劣势答：12国家1在商品X上具有比较优势,而国家2在Y商品具有比较优势;3当两国的这两种商品的相对价格线具有相同的斜率时,两国不存在比较优势; 4．1在第3题图中,用箭头表示在贸易条件下各国专业化生产的方向,标出各国均衡的产量和消费2各国相对自给自足状态有什么额外所得哪个国家所得更多为什么答：12对于国家1,在E点到A点的右上方获利,而国家2从E'超过A'获利;国家1将从贸易中获得额外所得,因为X的相对价格比贸易前差别更大;5.在一个坐标系内,画出国家1对于X 的出口供给曲线,/X Y P P =1/4,X 的共给量X QS =0；/X Y P P =1/2时,X QS =40；/X Y P P =1时,X QS =60；/X Y P P =112时,X QS =70.在同一坐标系内,画出国家2对于国家1出口商品X 的需求曲线;/X Y P P =112时,对X 的需求X QD =40; /X Y P P =1时, X QD =60; /X Y P P =1/2时, X QD =120. 1确定出口X 的贸易均衡的相对商品价格;2如果/X Y P P =112,会发生什么3如果/X Y P P =1/2,又会发生什么 答：1S 是国家1的出口商品X 的供给曲线,而D 是国家2的出口商品X 的需求曲线,而需求和供给曲线在E 点相交,决定了X 的出口贸易均衡的相对价格为/B X Y P P P ==1,和均衡出口量是60X;2如果/X Y P P =112,将出现一个30R R X '=的出口供给过剩,而相对价格/X Y P P 将会降低至/X Y P P =1.（3） 如果/X Y P P =1/2,将出现一个80H HX '=的出口需求过剩,而相对价格/X Y P P 会升至/X Y P P =1.7.在一坐标系内,画一条凹向原点的生产可能性曲线,再画一条社会无差异曲线与其相切于平坦的部分;标出该国在自给自足状态下的均衡相对商品价格,记为A P ,假设该曲线表示一个小国,其对贸易并不影响世界市场的相对价格W P ,在图上标出分工的过程、贸易量和贸易所得;答：该小国的生产会从A点移动到B点,出口商品X来交换商品Y以达到最佳点E>A;9.在两个坐标系中,画两条相同的凹向原点的生产可能性曲线;再画两条分别与其相切的社会无差异曲线;1指出各国自给自足状态下的均衡相对价格;2指出生产分工的过程及互利贸易的过程;答：1211.在固定成本条件下,如果生产可能性曲线相同而无差异曲线不同,会发生什么情况画一条曲线来表示这种情况;答：在固定成本条件下,如果生产可能性曲线相同而无差异曲线不同,但持续的机会成本,使这两个国家之间不存在互利贸易的可能;第一章供给、需求、提供曲线与贸易条件P87页练习题5．一国的提供曲线与下列曲线有哪些相似之处1需求曲线 2供给曲线 3提供曲线与普通的需求曲线和供给曲线有哪些差异答：1一国的提供曲线与需求曲线的相似之处是它们都表示一国的进口需求;2一国的提供曲线与供给曲线的相似之处是它们都表示一国的出口供给;3提供曲反映的是一国为了进口其需要的某一数量的商品而愿意出口的商品的数量;而普通的需求曲线和供给曲线反映的是供给和需求的相对数量;7．为了说明两国如何不平均分配贸易所得：（1） 画一幅图,一国的提供曲线的曲率远大于其贸易伙伴国提供曲线的曲率；（2） 哪个国家在贸易中获益更大（3） 解释原因答：12提供曲线的斜率越大,则该国家获利越大;3提供曲线越大的国家越能从贸易中获利,这是因为斜率越大,该提供曲线反映的国家对外国出口商品的需求越弱;8．.从图中左图推导国家2对于商品Y 的出口供给曲线;从图的左图推导国家1对于国家2出口商品Y 的供给曲线与需求曲线;用你所得到的供给曲线与需求曲线表示如何确定Y 的贸易均衡相对价格;答：从教材图的左图可以看出,在/=4X Y P P 的相对价格下,国家2并没有出口任何数量的商品Y,令为国家2出口商品Y 的供给曲线S 上的A 点,同时也可知,/X Y P P =2是,国家2出口40单位的Y,得到S 曲线上的H 点;从教材左图,在//X Y Y X P P P P =1时,国家1需要国家2出口60单位的Y,这就在国家1的需求曲线D 上找到了点E,我们还可以估计国家1在/Y X P P =3/2时D 曲线上的H 点,需要40单位的Y,在/Y X P P =2时D 曲线上的H '点,需要120单位的Y;商品Y 的相对均衡价格是/Y X P P =1,这就决定了D 曲线的交点;在/Y X P P =3/2时,存在一个过度供给R R '=30Y 且/Y X P P 降至/Y X P P =1.在/Y X P P =1/2时,则存在=1个过度需求H H '=80Y,且/Y X P P 升至/Y X P P =1;9．1为什么第8题所使用的是局部均衡分析2为什么图的分析是一般均衡分析3局部均衡分析和一般均衡分析之间有什么关系答：1原因：利用传统的供给需求曲线,这两种曲线涉及到从经济体中所有的与商品Y 相关联的其他市场相分离,这只是对这个问题探索的大概分析;2图的分析是建立在提供曲线的基础上的;这些联系是发生在这两个国家的这两种商品的需求、供给里的,因此才能从每个国家、每种商品的供给和需求方面分别分析;这中分析法对这个问题的解释将比局部均衡分析更为全面、清晰,也更复杂;10．绘制国家1和国家2的提供曲线,国家2是一个小国,在国家1的贸易前的相对商品价格水平上进行贸易,贸易所得在两国之间如何分配为什么答：贸易在两国之间的分配：由于国家2是一个小国,在原点附近放大国家1的部分,意味着国家2可以进口充分小的商品X 就可以影响到国家1 的相对价格/X Y P P ,因此国家2是一个价格决定者;只要国家1维持不变的机会成本,且不是专门生产商品X,则在贸易中国家2将获得所有的利益,即使国家2不是一个小国,结果也是一样的; 11．画一幅图表示两个生产机会成本不变的国家的贸易均衡点;答：两国都的机会成不变,这是不可能的事件;两国的提供曲线都是直线直到两国在产品上完全专门化生产;之后,提供曲线会以正常形状相交于E点,并在E点得到相对价格/=P P P;X Y E12．假设在某一时间内,一国的贸易条件由100增长至110：1该国贸易伙伴国的贸易条件恶化了多少2从什么角度可以说贸易伙伴国由于这个变化,其贸易状况发生了恶化能认为贸易伙伴国的社会福利一定降低了吗答：1在某一时间内,一国的贸易条件由100增长至110,则该国贸易伙伴的贸易条件恶化了9%;2贸易国的贸易条件恶化了,则其贸易伙伴国必须为该国的商品进口支付更高的价格;而这并不意味着贸易伙伴国的社会福利一定降低了,因为这时期的贸易恶化可能是由于生产力比其他国家增加的更高效;第二章要素禀赋与赫克歇尔—俄林理论P123页练习题1.画两个坐标系分别表示国家1和国家2,横轴代表劳动,纵轴代表资本;（1）用通过远点的直线表示前两国生产Y时的资本/劳动比率高于生产X时的这一比率,以及国家2生产两种商品时的资本/劳动比率均高于国家1生产相应商品时的这一比率;（2）在国际贸易条件下,当国家2的利率/工资比率上升时,表示国家2每一种上平的资本/劳动比率的直线的斜率如何变化（3）在国际贸易条件下,当国家1的利率/工资比率下降时,表示国家1的资本/劳动比率的直线的斜率如何变化（4）根据2和3的结果说明,与贸易前的情况相比,国际贸易叩打还是缩小了两国生产每一商品的资本/劳动比率的差异呢答：12国家2的每一种商品的资本/劳动比率会下降;3国家1的每一种商品的资本/劳动比率会上升;4国际贸易缩小了两国生产每一种商品的资本/劳动比率差异;2.1画出与相似的图,说明在自给自足的条件下各国的均衡点以及贸易条件下各国的生产和消费点2解释是什么因素决定了两国的比较优势3为什么在无贸易条件下,两国消费两种商品的数量不同而在贸易条件下,两国消费两种商品的数量相同答：12在相同生产条件下的差异决定了两国的比较优势3因为无贸易条件下,两国的同种商品分别在本国的价格不同,因此其消费数量也不同；但是一旦有了贸易,则价格就相同了,因此消费两种商品的数量也相同;6.要素禀赋的差异会使两国的生产可能性曲线的形状产生不同：1还有什么其他因素会导致两国的生产可能性曲线有不同的形状2在赫—俄模型中,赫克歇尔和俄林做了哪些假设来防止1中的情形发生3在无贸易条件下,还有什么其他可能的原因会导致两国的相对商品价格产生差异答：1生产前沿也会导致两国的生产可能性曲线有不同形状;2为了防止要素禀赋的差异会使两国的生产可能性曲线的形状产生不同,赫克歇尔和俄林假设：两国的生产前沿不同是因为这两国的技术水平不同;3在无贸易条件下,导致两国的相对商品价格产生差异的其他可能原因有：两国的相关商品的价格不同;7.在两国需求偏好不同的条件下,作与图相似的直线,表明赫克歇尔—俄林模型仍然使用;答：12.1讨论里昂惕夫之谜的含义和重要意义;2概括说明克拉维斯、基辛、肯恩、鲍德温利用人力资本解决里昂惕夫之谜的经验检验的结果;3利墨尔、斯特恩、马斯库斯、萨瓦尔多和巴拉扎什是如何解释里昂惕夫之谜的答：1里昂惕夫之谜的含义：里昂惕夫用1947年美国数据对赫克歇尔—俄林模型做了第一个经验性检验;发现美国进口替代品的资本密集程度比美国出口商品的资本密集程度高出大约30%,由于美国是世界是上资本最密集的国家,这意味着美国进口的是资本密集型商品,出口的反而市劳动密集型商品;这与赫—俄理论的预测完全相反;里昂惕夫之谜的意义：里昂惕夫对赫——俄学说的验证,不仅开创了用投入——产出法这类经验手段检验理论假说的先河,大大推动了国际贸易的实证研究,而且第一个指明该理论学说与事实相悖逆,从而促进了战后各种各样贸易理论和见解的涌现;可见,里昂惕夫之谜的发现已成为战后国际贸易发展的基石;对该谜的种种解释,也没有从根本上否定赫——俄学说,而只是试图改变该学说的某些理论前提以适用实际情况;这表明,比较利益说仍是这些理论解释的内核;2科维拉斯得出正确结论：美国出口行业的高工资反映了美国出口行业比美国进口替代行业有较高的劳动生产率和较多的人力资本；肯恩实际估计了美国进出口竞争商品中人力资本的含量,并把其加载实物资本需求之上重新计算美国出口和进口替代品的资本/劳动比率;发现,利用%的收益率时比较保守估计,并不能彻底消除里昂惕夫悖论；但是,利用9%的收益率时,则可以完全消除里昂惕夫悖论,于是成功解释和消除了里昂惕夫之谜；1987年,鲍恩、利墨尔、思威考斯卡斯使用27个国家12种要素资源和多种商品的更完整的1967年贸易、要素投入需求和要素禀赋的剖面数据进行考察,发现赫克歇尔—俄林贸易模型只在部分情况下成立;3利墨尔、斯特恩、马斯库斯、萨瓦尔多和巴拉扎什对里昂惕夫之谜的解释方式是：由于美国劳动不必外国劳动含有更多的人力资本,把人力资本这一部分加到实物资本上就会使美国的出口相对于进口替代品的资本密集程度要大,从而解释了里昂惕夫之谜;14.解释为何在存在要素密集度颠倒的条件下,资本价格的世界性差异会缩小、上升、不变;答：要素密集度颠倒是指：一种给定商品在劳动丰裕的国家是劳动密集型产品,在资本密集型国家是资本密集型产品;例如：如果商品X在国家1低工资国家是劳动密集型商品,同时在国家2高工资国家是资本密集型产品,要素密集度的颠倒就发生了;要素密集度颠倒一旦发生了,则H—O理论和要素价格均等理论不再成立;原因是：国家1分工生产商品X,从而需要更多的劳动,国家1的相对和绝对工资就会上升;另一方面,由于国家2不能像国家1出口X,它就不得不分工生产和出口商品Y,而在国家2,Y是相对劳动密集的商品,故国家2对劳动需求以及工资也会上升,两国相对工资和绝对工资之间的差异如何变化取决于各国工资上涨的快慢程度;在贸易条件下,两国的相对和绝对工资差异会缩小、扩大或保持不变,要素价格均等理论不成立;第三章规模经济、不完全竞争与国际贸易P157 练习题1.画一张与相似的图,表示在规模经济下,生产可能性曲线相同而偏好不同的国家之间是如何进行互利贸易的答：2.如果两国生产可能性曲线不同,需求不同,其他条件同上题,重做第1 题;答：3.如果两国生产可能性曲线及偏好均不同,需求不同,其他条件同上题,重做第 1题;答：6.使用与图相同的AC曲线和MC曲线,运用与图相似的图显示一个厂商可以在其他厂商模仿其市场份额之前获得超额利润答：AC曲线和MC曲线和教材图相同;但是假定在其他企业尚未开始生产该企业的产品,市场份额减少或者失去竞争优势,该需求曲线D和MR曲线边际收益曲线更高;在上图中的E点,MR=MC,所以该企业的最优产出水平是5个单位,价格是$;由于在Q=5,AC=$30时,该企业的利润为每单位AB=$和总利润10$;7.1垄断竞争和垄断有什么相同之处2他们之间有什么区别3为什么在我们的产业内贸易模型中,垄断竞争与完全垄断之间的差别对于消费者的福利十分重要。

ch04国际经济学课后答案与习题（萨尔⽡多）*CHAPTER 4(Core Chapter)THE HECKSCHER-OHLIN AND OTHER TRADE THEORIESOUTLINE4.1 Introduction4.2 Factor Endowments and the Heckscher-Ohlin Theory4.3 The Formal Heckscher-Ohlin ModelCase Study 4-1 The Revealed Comparative Advantage of Various Countries and Regions4.4 Factor-Price Equalization and Income DistributionCase Study 4-2 Has International Trade Increased U.S. Wage Inequalities?4.5 Empirical Tests of the Heckscher-Ohlin Theory4.6 Economies of Scale and International TradeCase Study 4-3 The New International Economies of Scale4.7 Trade Based on Product DifferentiationCase Study 4-4 Growth of Intra-Industry Trade4.8 Technological Gap and Product Cycle ModelsCase Study 4-5: The United States as the Most Competitive Economy in the World4.9 Transportation Costs and International Trade4.10 Environmental Standards and International TradeAppendix The Specific-Factors Model and Intra-Industry Trade ModelsA4.1 The Specific-Factors ModelA4.2 A Model of Intra-Industry TradeKey TermsInternationalofscaleeconomies pricesRelativefactorproducts Heckscher–Ohlin (H–O) theory DifferentiatedtradeIntra-industryHeckscher–Ohlintheorem(H–O)Factor-proportions or factor-endowment theory Technological gap modelcyclemodelProductFactor–price equalization theoremcostsTransportationStolper-Samuelsontheoremmodel Nontraded goods and services Specific-factorsparadox Environmental standardsLeontiefMonopolisticcompetitionscalereturnsIncreasingtoLecture Guide1. This is one of the most important and difficult chapters in the book. It is also a long chapter andrequires four lectures to cover adequately.2. In the first lecture, I would cover sections 1-3. Section 3 is one of the most important sections inthe book because it presents the H-O model. I would proceed slowly and carefully in explaining Figure 4.1 and compare it to the standard trade model of Figure 3.4.3. In the second lecture, I would cover sections 4 and 5. Section 4 on the factor-price equalizationtheorem and income distribution is a difficult section. Case Study 4-2 should be of great interest to the students and give rise to a great deal of class discussion.4. In third lecture, I would cover sections sections 6-7, paying a great deal of attention to section 7on trade in differentiated products.5. In fourth lecture, I would cover the rest of the chapter.Answers to Review Questions and Problems1. a. The Heckscher–Ohlin (H-0) theorem postulates that a nation will export those commodi- ties whose production requires the intensive use of the nation’s relatively abundant and cheap factor and import the commodities whose production requires the intensive useof the nation’s relatively scarce and expensive factor. In short, the relatively labor-richnation exports relatively labor-intensive commodities and imports the relativelycapital-intensive commodities.b. Heckscher and Ohlin identify the relative difference in factor endowments amongnations as the basic determinant of comparative advantage and international trade.c. The H-O Theory represent an extension of the standard trade model because it explains the basis for comparative advantage (classical economists, such as Ricardo had assumed it) and examines the effect of international trade on factor prices and income distribution (which classical economists had left unanswered).2. See Figure 1 on the next page.3. a. The factor–price equalization theorem postulates that international trade will bring about the equalization of the returns to homogeneous or identical factors across nations.b. The Stopler-Samuelson theorem postulates that free international trade reduces the realincome of the nation’s relatively scarce factor and increases the real income of the nation’s relatively abundant factor.Fig 4.1Fig 4.2XXb. The specific-factors model postulates that the opening of trade (1) benefits the specific factorused in the production of the nation’s export commodity, (2) harms the specific factor used in the production of the nation’s import-competing industry, and (3) leads to an ambiguouseffect (i.e., it may benefit or harm) the mobile factor.c. Trade acts as a substitute for the international mobility of factors of production in itseffect on factor prices. With perfect mobility, labor would migrate from the low-wagenation to the high-wage nation until wages in the two nations are equalized. Similarly,capital would move from the low-interest to the high-interest nation until the rate ofinterest was equalized in the two nations.4. a. The Leontief paradox refers to the original Leontief’s finding that U.S. import substituteswere more K-intensive than U.S. exports. This was the opposite of what the H-O theorempostulated.b. The Leontief paradox was resolved by including human capital into the calculations andexcluding industries based on natural resources. Recent research using data on many sectors, for many countries, over many years, and considering that countries could specialize in aparticular subset or group of commodities that were best suited to their specific factorendowments, provides strong support for the H-O theorem.c. The Hecksher-Olhin theory remains the centerpiece of modern trade theory for explaininginternational trade today. To be sure, there are other forces (such as economies of scale,product differentiation, and technological differences across countries) that provide additional reasons and explanations for some international trade not explained by the basic H-O model.These other trade theories complement the basic H-O model in explaining the pattern ofinternational trade in the world today.5. International trade with developing economies, especially newly industrializing economies (NIEs), contributed in two ways to increased wage inequalities between skilled and unskilled workers in the United States during the past two decades. Directly, by reducing the demand for unskilledworkers as a result of increased U.S. imports of labor-intensive manufactures and, indirectly, byspeeding up the introduction of labor-saving innovations, which further reduced the U.S.demand for unskilled workers. International trade, however, was only a small cause of increased wage inequalities in the United States. The most important cause was technological change.6. a. Economies of scale refer to the production situation where output grows proportionatelymore than the increase in inputs or factors of production. For example, output may morethan double with a doubling of inputs.b. Even if two nations were identical in every respect, there is still a basis for mutually bene-ficial trade based on economies of scale. When each nation specializes in the production of one commodity, the combined total world output of both commodities will be greater thanthan without specialization when economies of scale are present. With trade, each nationthen shares in these gains.c. The new international economies of scale refers to the increase in productivity resultingfrom firms purchasing parts and components from nations where they are made cheaperand better, and by establishing production facilities abroad-26-7. a. Product differentiation refers to products that are similar, but not identical. Intra-industrytrade refers to trade in differentiated products, as opposed to inter-industry trade incompletely different products.b. Intra-industry trade arises in order to take advantage of important economies of scale inproduction. That is, with intra-industry trade each firm or plant in industrial countries canspecialize in the production of only one, or at most a few, varieties and styles of the sameproduct rather than many different varieties and styles of a product and achieve economies of scale.c. With few varieties and styles, more specialized and faster machinery can be developedfor a continuous operation and a longer production run. The nation then imports othervarieties and styles from other nations. Intra-industry trade benefits consumers because ofthe wider range of choices (i.e., the greater variety of differentiated products) available atthe lower prices made possible by economies of scale in production.8. a. According to the technological gap model, a firm exports a new product until imitators incountries take away its market. In the meantime, the innovating firm will have introduced a new product or process. b. The criticism of the technological gap model are that it does not explain the size of techno- logical gaps and does not explore the reason for technological gaps arising in the first place, or exactly how they are eliminated over time.c. The five stages of the product cycle model are: the introduction of the product, expansion of production for export, standardization and beginning of production abroad through imitation, foreign imitators underselling the nation in third markets, and foreigners underselling theinnovating firms in their home market as well.9. See Figure 2 on page 25.10. A nation with lower environmental standards can use the environment as a resource endow-ment or as a factor of production in attracting polluting firms from abroad and achieving acomparative advantage in the production of polluting goods and services. This can lead totrade disputes with nations with more stringent environmental standards.-27-Multiple-Choice Questions1. The H-O model extends the classical trade model by:a. explaining the basis for comparative advantageb. examining the effect of trade on factor prices*c. both a and bd. neither a nor b2. A nation is said to have a relative abundance of K if it has a:a. greater absolute amount of Kb. smaller absolute amount of Lc. higher L/K ratio*d. lower price of K in relation to the price of L3. A difference in relative commodity prices between nations can be based on a difference in:a. technologyb. factor endowmentsc. tastes*d. all of the above4. In the H-O model, international trade is based mostly on a difference in:a. technology*b. factor endowmentsc. economies of scaled. tastes5. According to the H-O theory, trade reduces international differences in:a. commodity pricesb. in factor prices*c. both commodity and factor pricesd. neither relative nor absolute factor prices6. According to the Stolper-Samuelson theorem, international trade leads toa. reduction in the real income of the nation’s relatively abundant factor*b. reduction in the real income of the nation’s relatively scarce factorc. increase in the real income of the nation’s relatively scarce factord. none of the above7. Which of the following is false with regard to the specific factors theorem, international trade *a. harms the immobile factors that are specific to the nation’s export commodities or sectorsb. harms the immobile factors that are specific to the nation’s import-competing commoditiesc. has an ambiguous effect on the nation’s mobile factorsd. may benefit or harm the nation’s mobile factors8. Perfect international mobility of factors of productiona. leads to a reduction in international differences in the returns to homogenous factorsb. acts as a substitute for international trade in its effects on factor pricesc. operates on the supply of factors in affecting factor prices*d. all of the above9. The Leontief paradox refers to the empirical finding that U.S.*a. import substitutes were more K-intensive than exportsb. exports were more L-intensive than importsc. exports were more K-intensive than import substitutesd. all of the above10. From empirical studies, we conclude that the H-O theory:a. must be rejectedb. must be accepted without reservations*c. can generally be acceptedd. explains all international trade11. International trade can be based on economies of scale even if both nations have identical:a. factor endowmentsb. tastesc. technology*d. all of the above12. A great deal of international trade:a. is intra-industry tradeb. involves differentiated productsc. is based on monopolistic competition*d. all of the above13. Intra-industry trade takes place:a. because products are homogeneous*b. in order to take advantage of economies of scalec. because perfect competition is the prevalent form of market organizationd. all of the above14. Which of the following statements is true with regard to the product-cycle theory?a. it depends on differences in technological changes over time among countriesb. it depends on the opening and the closing of technological gaps among countriesc. it postulates that industrial countries export more advanced products to lessadvanced countries*d. all of the above15. Transport costs:a. increase the price in the importing countryb. reduces the price in the exporting countryc. falls less heavily on the nation with the more elastic demand and supply curves of the traded commodity*d. all of the above-30-ADDITIONAL ESSAYS AND PROBLEMS FOR PART ONE1. Assume that both the United States and Germany produce beef and computer chips with the following costs: United States Germany(dollars) (marks)Unit cost of beef (B) 2 8Unit cost of computer chips (C) 1 2(a) What is the opportunity cost of beef (B) and computer chips (C) in each country?(b) In which commodity does the United States have a comparative cost advantage?What about Germany?(c) What is the range for mutually beneficial trade between the United States and Germanyfor each computer chip traded?(b) How much would the United States and Germany gain if 1 unit of beef is exchangedfor 3 chips?Answ. (a) In the United States:the opportunity cost of one unit of beef is 2 chips;the opportunity cost of one chip is 1/2 unit of beef.In Germany:the opportunity cost of one unit of beef is 4 chips;the opportunity cost of one chip is 1/4 unit of beef.(b) The United States has a comparative cost advantage in beef with respect to Germany,while Germany has a comparative cost advantage in computer chips.(c) The range for mutually beneficial trade between the United States and Germany foreach unit of beef that the United States exports is2C < 1B < 4C(d) Both the United States and Germany would gain 1 chip for each unit of beef traded.2. Given: (1) two nations (1 and 2) which have the same technology but different factor costs conditions, and (3) no transportation costs, tariffs, or other obstructions to trade.Prove geometrically that mutually advantageous trade between the two nations is possible.Note: Your answer should show the autarky (no-trade) and free-trade points of production and consumption for each nation, the gains from trade of each nation, and express the equilibrium condition that should prevail when trade stops expanding.) Ans.: See the figure below.Fig 4.3Fig 4.4Nations 1 and 2 have different production possibilities curves and different community indifference maps. With these, they will usually end up with different relative commodity prices in autarky, thus making mutually beneficial trade possible.In the figure, Nation 1 produces and consumes at point A and Px/Py=P A in autarky, while Nation 2 produces and consumes at point A' and Px/Py=P A'. Since P A < P A', Nation 1 has a comparative advantage in X and Nation 2 in Y. Specialization in production proceeds until point B in Nation 1 and point B' in Nation 2, at which P B =P B' and the quantity supplied for export of each commodity exactly equals the quantity demanded for import.Thus, Nation 1 starts at point A in production and consumption in autarky, moves to point B in production, and by exchanging BC of X for CE of Y reaches point E in consumption. E > A since it involves more of both X and Y and lies on a higher community indifference curve.Nation 2 starts at A' in production and consumption in autarky, moves to point B' in production, and by exchanging B'C' of Y for C'E' of X reaches point E'in consumption (which exceeds A').At Px/Py=P B =P B', Nation 1 wants to export BC of X for CE of Y, while Nation 2 wants to export B'C' (=CE) of Y for C'E' (=BC) of X. Thus, P B =P B' is the equilibrium relative commodity price because it clears both (the X and Y) markets.3. (a) Identify the conditions that may give rise to trade between two nations. (b) What aresome of the assumptions on which the Heckscher-Ohlin theory is based? (c) What does this theory say about the pattern of trade and effect of trade on factor prices?Ans. (a) Trade can be based on a difference in factor endowments, technology, or tastesbetween two nations. A difference either in factor endowments or technology results in a different production possibilities frontier for each nation, which, unlessneutralized by a difference in tastes, leads to a difference in relative commodity price and mutually beneficial trade. If two nations face increasing costs and have identical production possibilities frontiers but different tastes, there will also be a differencein relative commodity prices and the basis for mutually beneficial trade between the two nations. The difference in relative commodity prices is then translated into adifference in absolute commodity prices between the two nations, which is the immediate cause of trade.(b) The Heckscher-Ohlin theory (sometimes referred to as the modern theory – asopposed to the classical theory - of international trade) assumes that nations have the same tastes, use the same technology, face constant returns to scale (i.e., a givenpercentage increase in all inputs increases output by the same percentage) but differ widely in factor endowments. It also says that in the face of identical tastes or demand conditions, this difference in factor endowments will result in a difference in relative factor prices between nations, which in turn leads to a difference in relativecommodity prices and trade. Thus, in the Heckscher-Ohlin theory, the internationaldifference in supply conditions alone determines the pattern of trade. To be noted is that the two nations need not be identical in other respects in order for internationaltrade to be based primarily on the difference in their factor endowments.(c) The Heckscher-Ohlin theorem postulates that each nation will export the commodityintensive in its relatively abundant and cheap factor and import the commodityintensive in its relatively scarce and expensive factor. As an important corollary, itadds that under highly restrictive assumptions, trade will completely eliminate thepretrade relative and absolute differences in the price of homogeneous factors amongnations. Under less restrictive and more usual conditions, however, trade will reduce, but not eliminate, the pretrade differences in relative and absolute factor prices among nations. In any event, the Heckscher-Ohlin theory does say something very useful onhow trade affects factor prices and the distribution of income in each nation. Classical economists were practically silent on this point.4. Suppose that tastes change in Nation 1 (the L-abundant and L-cheap nation) so that consumers demand more of commodity X (the L-intensive commodity) and less of commodity Y (the K- intensive commodity). Suppose that Nation 1 is India, commodity X is textiles, and commodi- ty Y is food. Starting from the no-trade equilibrium position and using the Heckscher-Ohlinmodel, trace the effect of this change in tastes on India's (a) relative commodity prices anddemand for food and textiles, (b) production of both commodities and factor prices, and(c) comparative advantage and volume of trade. (d) Do you expect international trade to leadto the complete equalization of relative commodity and factor prices between India and theUnited States? Why?Ans. (a) The change in tastes can be visualized by a shift toward the textile axis in India'sindifference map in such a way that an indifference curve is tangent to the steepersegment of India's production frontier (because of increasing opportunity costs) after the increase in demand for textiles. This will cause the pretrade relative commodity price of textiles to rise in India.(b) The increase in the relative price of textiles will lead domestic producers in India toshift labor and capital from the production of food to the production of textiles. Since textiles are L-intensive in relation to food, the demand for labor and therefore the wage rate will rise in India. At the same time, as the demand for food falls, thedemand for and thus the price of capital will fall. With labor becoming relative more expensive, producers in India will substitute capital for labor in the production of both textiles and food.(c) Even with the rise in relative wages and in the relative price of textiles, India stillremains the L-abundant and low-wage nation with respect to a nation such as theUnited States. However, the pretrade difference in the relative price of textilesbetween India and the United States is now somewhat smaller than before the change in tastes in India. As a result the volume of trade required to equalize relativecommodity prices and hence factor prices is smaller than before. That is, India need now export a smaller quantity of textiles and import less food than before for therelative price of textiles in India and the United States to be equalized. Similarly, the gap between real wages and between India and the United States is now smaller and can be more quickly and easily closed (i.e., with a smaller volume of trade).(d) Since many of the assumptions required for the complete equalization of relativecommodity and factor prices do not hold in the real world, great differences can be expected and do in fact remain between real wages in India and the United States.Nevertheless, trade would tend to reduce these differences, and the H-O model does identify the forces that must be considered to analyze the effect of trade on thedifferences in the relative and absolute commodity and factor prices between Indiaand the United States.5. (a) Explain why the Heckscher-Ohlin trade model needs to be extended. (b) Indicate in what important ways the Heckscher-Ohlin trade model can be extended. (c) Explain what ismeant by differentiated products and intra-industry trade.Ans. (a) The Heckscher-Ohlin trade model needs to be extended because, while generallycorrect, it fails to explain a significant portion of international trade, particularly the trade in manufactured products among industrial nations.(b) The international trade left unexplained by the basic Heckscher-Ohlin trade model canbe explained by (1) economies of scale, (2) intra-industry trade, and (3) trade based on imitation gaps and product differentiation.(c) Differentiated products refer to similar, but not identical, products (such as cars,typewriters, cigarettes, soaps, and so on) produced by the same industry or broadproduct group. Intra-industry trade refers to the international trade in differentiated products.。

*CHAPTER 7(Core Chapter)INTEGRATIONECONOMICOUTLINE7.1 Introduction7.1 Forms of Economic Integration7.2 Trade Creation and Trade Diversion in Customs Unions7.3 Dynamic Benefits from Customs Unions7.4 The European UnionCase Study 7-1 Economic Profile of EU, NAFTA, and JapanCase Study 7-2 Gains from the Single EU Market in 19927.5 The European Free Trade Association7.6 The North-American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA)7.7 Attempts at Economic Integration Among Developing CountriesCase 7-3 Economic Profile of MercosurCase 7-4 Changes in Trade Pattern with Economic Integration7.9 Economic Integration in Central and Eastern Europe and in the former Soviet RepublicsCase Study 7-5 Per Capita Income in Transition EconomiesKey TermsdeflectionTradeEconomicintegrationPreferential trade arrangements European Economic Area (EEA)Free trade area North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA)MarketCommon(Mercosur)SouthernCustomsunionmarket Council of Mutual Economic Assistance (CMEA) or (COMECON) Commoncompaniestradingunion StateEconomicDuty-free zones or free economic zones Centrally planned economiesagreementsBilateralTradecreationBulkpurchasingdiversionTradeandEastern European Countries (CEEC) factoriesCentralTariffNewly Independent States (NIS)(EU)EuropeanUnionVariable import levies Commonwealth of Independent States (CIS)European Free Trade Association (EFTA) Central European Free Trade Association (CEFTA)(BFTA)AreaBalticTradeFree-53-Lecture Guide:1. This is not a core chapter and I would skip it, except for sections 7-4 to 7-8 dealing with theEuropean Union (EU), The European Free Trade Association, the North American FreeTrade Agreement (NAFTA), and the Southern Common Market (Mercosur).2. I would take two classes to cover the material. Case Studies 7-1 to 7-4 can be used for a very stimulating class discussion.Answers to Problems:1. If Nation A imposes a 100 percent ad valorem tariff on imports of commodity X fromNation B and Nation C, Nation A will produce commodity X domestically because thedomestic price of commodity X is $10 as compared with the tariff-inclusive price of$16 if Nation A imported commodity X from Nation B and $12 if Nation A importedcommodity X from nation C.2. a. If Nation A forms a customs union with Nation B, Nation A will import commodityX from Nation B at the price of $8 instead of producing it itself at $10 or importing itfrom Nation C at the tariff-inclusive price of $12.b. The formation by Nation A of a customs union with Nation B leads to trade creationonly because Nation A replaces the domestic production of commodity X at Px=$10with tariff-free imports of commodity X from Nation B at Px=$8.3. If Nation A imposes a 50 percent ad valorem tariff on imports of commodity X fromNation B and Nation C, Nation A will import commodity X from nation C at the tariff-inclusive price of $9 instead of producing commodity X itself or importing it fromNation B at the tariff-inclusive price of $12.4. a. If Nation A forms a customs union with Nation B, Nation A will import commodityX from Nation B at the price of $8 instead of importing it from Nation C at the tariff- inclusive price of $9.b. The formation by Nation A of a customs union with Nation B leads not only to tradecreation but also to trade diversion because it replaces lower-cost imports of commodity X of $6 (from the point of view of Nation A as a whole) with higher priced imports of Commodity X from Nation B at $8.Specifically, Nation A's importers do not import commodity X from Nation C becausethe tariff-inclusive price of commodity X from Nation C is $9 as compared with theno-tariff price of $8 for imports of commodity X from Nation B. However, since thegovernment of Nation A collects the $3 tariff per unit on imports of commodity Xfrom Nation C, the net effective price for imports of commodity X from Nation C isreally $6 for Nation A as a whole.-54-5. a. See Figure 1 below.b. The net gain from the trade-diverting customs union shown in Figure 1 is given byC'JJ'+B'HH'-MJ'H'N. As contrasted with the case in Figure 7-1 in the text, however,the sum of the areas of the two triangles (measuring gains) is here greater than the area the rectangle (measuring the loss). Thus, the nation would now gain from the formation of a custom union. Had we drawn the figure on graph paper, we would have been able to measure the net gain in monetary terms also.6. A customs union that leads to both trade creation and trade diversion is more likely to lead to a net positive welfare gain of the nation joining the union (1) the smaller is the relative inefficiency of the union member in relation to the non-union member and (2) the higher is the level of the tariff imposed by the customs union on the non-union member.7. The dynamic benefits resulting from the formation of a customs union are (1) increasedcompetition, (2) economies of scale, (3) stimulus to investment, and (4) better utilizationof economic resources. These are likely to be much more significant than the static benefits.8. See Figure 2 below. The formation of the customs union has no effect.9. NAFTA created much more controversy because the very low wages in Mexico led togreat fears of large job losses in the U. S.10. The possible cost to the U.S. from EU92 arose from the increased efficiency andcompetitiveness of the E.U. The benefit arose because a more rapid growth in the EUspills into a greater demand for American products, which benefits the U. S.Fig 7.1xPFig 7.2xP-55-Multiple-choice Questions:1. Which of the following statements is correct?*a. in a customs union, member nations apply a uniform external tariffb. in a free-trade area, member nations harmonize their monetary and fiscal policiesc. within a customs union there is unrestricted factor movementd. a customs union is a higher form of economic integration than a common market2. A customs union that allows for the free movement of labor and capital among itsmember nations is called a:a. preferential trade arrangementb. free-trade area*c. common marketd. all of the above3. A customs union creates trade when:a. lower-cost imports from outside the customs union are replaced by higher-costimports from a union member*b. some domestic production in a member nation is replaced by lower-cost imports from another member nationc. trade among members increases but trade with nonmembers decreasesd. trade among members decreases while trade with nonmembers increases4. Trade diversion arises in a customs union if it:a. increases trade among union members and with nonmember nationsb. reduces trade among union members and with nonmember nations*c. increases trade among members but reduces trade with non-membersd. reduces trade among union members but increases it with nonmembers5. Customs union usually results in:a. trade diversion onlyb. trade creation only*c. both trade creation and trade diversiond. we cannot say-56-6. The formation of a customs union that leads only to trade creation and all economic resources of member nations are fully employed before and after the formation of the customs union leads to an:*a. increase in the welfare of member and nonmember nationsb. increase in the welfare of member nations onlyc. increase in the welfare of nonmember nations onlyd. increase or decrease in the welfare of member and nonmember nations7. A customs union that leads to both trade creation and trade diversion:a. increases the welfare of member and nonmember nationsb. reduces the welfare of member and nonmember nationsc. increases the welfare of member nations but reduces that of nonmembers*d. reduces the welfare of nonmembers and may increase or reduce that of members8. A customs union is more likely to lead to trade creation:a. the lower are the pre-union trade barriers of the member countries*b. the lower are the customs union's barriers on trade with the rest of the worldc. the smaller is the number of countries forming the customs union and the smallertheir sized. the more complementary rather than competitive are the economies of the nationsforming the customs union9. Which is not a dynamic benefit from the formation of a customs union?a. increased competitionb. economies of scalec. stimulus to investment*d. trade creation10. The formation of the EU resulted in:a. trade creation in industrial and agricultural productsb. trade diversion in industrial and agricultural products*c. trade creation in industrial products and trade diversion in agricultural productsd. trade diversion in industrial products and trade creation in agricultural products11. The benefit that the United States receives from NAFTA:*a. increasing competition in product and resource marketsb. greater technical innovationc. improvements in its terms of traded. all of the above-57-12. The benefit that Mexico is likely to receive from NAFTA:a. greater export-led growthb. encouraging the return of flight capitalc. more rapid structural change*d. all of the above13. Which is a stumbling block to successful economic integration among groups ofdeveloping nations?a. benefits are not evenly distributed among nationsb. many developing nations are not willing to relinquish part of their newly-acquiredsovereignty to a supranational community body, as required for successful economicintegrationc. the complementary nature of their economies and competition for the same worldmarkets for their agricultural exports*d. all of the above14. The formation of a free trade area among the countries of Eastern Europe is advocatedin order to:a. restore trade trading*b. retain the traditional trade links that can be justified on market principlesc. reduce the need for structural changed. none of the above15. The Members of Mercosur are:a. Brazil, Mexico, Argentina, and venezuelab. Argentina, Brazil, the United States and Peru*c. Brazil, Argentina, Paraguay, and Uruguayd. Brazil, Chile, Peru and Canada-58-。

《国际经济学》课后习题参考答案第一章练习与答案1．为什么说在决定生产和消费时，相对价格比绝对价格更重要？答案提示：当生产处于生产边界线上，资源则得到了充分利用，这时，要想增加某一产品的生产，必须降低另一产品的生产，也就是说，增加某一产品的生产是有机会机本（或社会成本）的。

生产可能性边界上任何一点都表示生产效率和充分就业得以实现，但究竟选择哪一点，则还要看两个商品的相对价格，即它们在市场上的交换比率。

相对价格等于机会成本时，生产点在生产可能性边界上的位置也就确定了。

所以，在决定生产和消费时，相对价格比绝对价格更重要。

2．仿效图1—6和图1—7，试推导出Y商品的国民供给曲线和国民需求曲线。

答案提示：3．在只有两种商品的情况下，当一个商品达到均衡时，另外一个商品是否也同时达到均衡？试解释原因。

答案提示：4．如果生产可能性边界是一条直线，试确定过剩供给（或需求）曲线。

答案提示：5．如果改用Y商品的过剩供给曲线（B国）和过剩需求曲线（A国）来确定国际均衡价格，那么所得出的结果与图1—13中的结果是否一致？答案提示：国际均衡价格将依旧处于贸易前两国相对价格的中间某点。

6．说明贸易条件变化如何影响国际贸易利益在两国间的分配。

答案提示：一国出口产品价格的相对上升意味着此国可以用较少的出口换得较多的进口产品，有利于此国贸易利益的获得，不过，出口价格上升将不利于出口数量的增加，有损于出口国的贸易利益；与此类似，出口商品价格的下降有利于出口商品数量的增加，但是这意味着此国用较多的出口换得较少的进口产品。

对于进口国来讲，贸易条件变化对国际贸易利益的影响是相反的。

7．如果国际贸易发生在一个大国和一个小国之间，那么贸易后，国际相对价格更接近于哪一个国家在封闭下的相对价格水平？答案提示：贸易后，国际相对价格将更接近于大国在封闭下的相对价格水平。

8．根据上一题的答案，你认为哪个国家在国际贸易中福利改善程度更为明显些？答案提示：小国。

第21章国际货币体系：过去、现在与未来一、概念题1．调整（adjustment）答：调整是评价国际货币体系好坏的标准之一，是指国际货币体系纠正国际收支失衡的过程。

一个好的国际货币体系应该使调整成本和所需时间最小。

2．善意忽视（benign neglect）答：善意忽视是指在浮动汇率制度中，货币当局对汇率采取的一种相对放任的态度，较少地对外汇市场进行干预，而由货币本身价值的变化自动调节国际收支状况。

3．布雷顿森林体系（Bretton Woods System）答：布雷顿森林体系是第二次世界大战即将结束时创立的国际货币体系。

该体系是根据《国际货币基金协定》创立的。

主要特点是：规定美元与黄金挂钩，确认美国1934年1月规定的1美元含金量为0.888671克，即35美元＝1盎司黄金；规定其他各国货币按含金量同美元挂钩；市场汇率的波动幅度若超过平价上下1%，各国政府有义务进行市场干预；平价变动幅度如超过10%时则须得到国际货币基金组织的同意，由此形成了固定汇率制度，促进了国际贸易与金融关系的发展。

20世纪60年代频繁爆发的美元危机削弱了布雷顿森林体系，并迫使美国政府于1971年8月15日宣布停止美元兑换黄金。

1973年3月起，主要西方国家相继实行浮动汇率制，布雷顿森林体系正式宣告瓦解。

4．可靠性（confidence）答：可靠性是评价国际货币体系好坏的标准之一，是指国际货币体系调节机制具有正常运行的自动机制，能够保持国际储备的绝对价值和相对价值。

5．信用份额（credit tranches）答：信用份额是指国际货币基金组织为其成员国提供不受任何限制或附加条件约束的贷款的额度。

一般来说，一个成员国一年内的借款不得超过其配额的25%，每5年的借款总额不得超过其配额的125%，在此范围内，这些借款可自动获得。

当一国的借款超过所设定的信用份额时，国际货币基金组织就要收取越来越高的利息，而且进行越来越严格的监督，附加越来越多的条件，以确保该逆差国正在采取正确的措施以消除其赤字。

ch04国际经济学课后答案与习题萨尔瓦多国际经济学视角下的萨尔瓦多在国际经济学的广袤领域中，萨尔瓦多作为一个中美洲的国家，具有独特的经济特征和在全球经济格局中的地位。

萨尔瓦多的经济发展历程充满了挑战与机遇。

从传统的农业经济为主，逐渐向多元化的经济结构转变。

农业曾经是其经济的支柱，咖啡、棉花等农产品在国际市场上有一定的份额。

然而，随着时间的推移，萨尔瓦多开始注重发展制造业和服务业，以减少对农业的依赖。

在国际贸易方面，萨尔瓦多面临着诸多问题。

其出口产品相对单一，缺乏高附加值的商品。

这使得萨尔瓦多在国际贸易中处于相对弱势的地位，容易受到国际市场波动和贸易保护主义的影响。

同时，萨尔瓦多的贸易伙伴相对集中，主要是美国和中美洲的一些邻国。

这种贸易结构的单一性增加了经济的风险。

在国际金融领域，萨尔瓦多的货币汇率波动对其经济稳定产生了一定的影响。

萨尔瓦多曾经长期使用美元作为法定货币，这在一定程度上稳定了金融市场，但也削弱了本国货币政策的自主性。

此外，国际资本的流动对萨尔瓦多的金融市场也带来了冲击，尤其是在全球金融危机期间，外资的撤离给其经济造成了不小的压力。

从国际投资的角度来看，萨尔瓦多在吸引外资方面做出了不少努力。

政府出台了一系列优惠政策，试图吸引更多的外国直接投资。

然而，由于基础设施不完善、劳动力素质有待提高等因素，萨尔瓦多在吸引大规模、高质量的外资方面仍面临困难。

萨尔瓦多的经济还受到国际经济环境变化的深刻影响。

例如，全球经济增长放缓会导致对萨尔瓦多出口商品的需求减少，从而影响其经济增长。

而国际原材料价格的波动也会对萨尔瓦多的相关产业造成冲击。

在区域经济合作中，萨尔瓦多积极参与中美洲一体化体系等区域组织，试图通过加强区域内的贸易和投资合作来促进自身经济发展。

然而，区域内各国经济发展水平参差不齐，合作机制也存在一些不完善之处，这在一定程度上限制了区域合作对萨尔瓦多经济的推动作用。

为了实现经济的可持续发展，萨尔瓦多需要在多个方面采取措施。

国际经济学第十版课后答案-(萨尔瓦多、杨冰译)————————————————————————————————作者：————————————————————————————————日期：国际经济学（第十版）多米尼克.萨尔瓦多(著)P16页练习题6.（1）根据消费者需求理论，当其他条件不变时，一种商品价格的提高（如由于税率的上浮所致），会带来需求量的什么变化？答：根据消费者需求理论，当其他条件不变时，一种商品价格的提高，则该商品的需求量将会下降。

（2）根据消费者需求理论，一种进口商品价格的提高（如由于进口关税的上浮所致），会带来需求量的什么变化？答：根据消费者需求理论，一种进口商品价格的提高，则该商品的出口量将会下降。

7．（1）一国政府如何能消除或减少预算赤字？答：一国政府可以通过减少政府支出、增加税收，来消除或者减少预算赤字。

（2）一个国家如何能消除或减少贸易逆差？答：一个国家要消除或减少其贸易逆差的方式有：对进口商品增税、补贴出口，借如更多的国外债券、减少借出外国债券，降低该国的国民收入水平。

8．（1）国际经济关系与地区经济关系有何区别？答：在国际经济关系下，国家通常限制在国际间的自由流动的货物、服务和因素，不同的语言、消费习惯和法律规定同样也阻碍了它们在国际间的流动，此外，国际收支会在各种货币收据和付款中流通。

而在地区经济关系下，就关税和进行相同的货币而言,区际流动的货物、服务和因素没有面临这样的限制因素，它们经常是在同样的语言环境下，在类似的消费习惯和法律规定下进行的，这就与国际经济关系形成了鲜明对比。

（2）它们在哪方面相似？答：国际经济关系和地区经济关系的相似点：两者都跨越了空间距离，事实上，它们都是在远距离贸易下的产物，把经济看待成在一个进行着生产、交换和消费的空间中的单一点，这也是从经济学的复位空间将它们区分。

10．如果说一个国家可以从国际贸易中获益，那么你如何解释为什么许多国家又要对国际贸易施加某些限制？答：国际贸易给本国消费者带来的是更低的价格，这样就会对本国的同种商品的生产商造成不利，挤兑了本国生产商的销售份额。