Macroeconomics-习题集4

生信第四次作业参考答案1. 引言本文档提供了生信第四次作业的参考答案。

本次作业主要涉及基因组比对、变异检测和GO富集分析等生物信息学方法。

以下是各个问题的解答。

2. 基因组比对基因组比对是将一个或多个DNA或RNA序列与参考基因组进行比较的过程，用于确定它们的相似性和差异性。

常用的基因组比对工具包括BLAST、Bowtie、BWA等。

在基因组比对过程中，需要考虑参数的选择和结果的解读。

常见的比对参数有匹配分数、错配分数、间隙分数等。

结果的解读通常涉及比对率、覆盖率、错配率等指标。

3. 变异检测基因组的变异可以分为单核苷酸变异（SNV）、插入缺失变异（Indel）和结构变异三大类。

变异检测是通过对测序数据进行分析，识别出样本与参考基因组之间的差异。

常用的变异检测工具有GATK、VarScan、Samtools等。

这些工具根据测序数据的特点，采用不同的算法和策略进行变异检测。

对于检测结果的解读，需要考虑以下几个因素：•检测到的变异类型•变异的频率和深度•与参考基因组的一致性4. GO富集分析GO富集分析是一种用于解释基因功能和生物学进程的方法。

它将基因按照其功能进行分类，并对不同功能的基因进行统计分析。

GO富集分析常用于生物信息学研究和生物学实验数据的解读。

常见的GO富集分析工具有GOstat、DAVID、Enrichr等。

这些工具可以根据输入的基因列表，计算每个功能分类中的基因数目，并采用统计学方法判断是否富集。

结果的解读通常包括富集的功能分类和统计学显著性。

5. 结论本文档提供了生信第四次作业的参考答案，包括基因组比对、变异检测和GO富集分析等方面。

这些方法在生物信息学和基因组学研究中具有重要的应用。

在进行生信分析时，参数选择和结果解读是关键的步骤。

合理选择参数可以提高分析的准确性和效率；正确解读结果可以得出有价值的生物学结论。

希望这份参考答案对你的作业有所帮助！如有任何疑问，请随时与我联系。

参考文献1.Altschul SF, Gish W, Miller W, Myers EW, Lipman DJ(1990).。

Exercises for MicroeconomicsChapter 1问题1 ScarcityA. is the inability to satisfy all our wants.B. leads to higher prices.C. applies only to people living in poverty.D. is not something that affects very rich people.E. used to exist everywhere but has been eliminated in advanced economies.问题2 The study of economics is best described as a study ofA. the factors that influence the stock and bond markets.B. capitalism.C. the choices made in producing goods and services.D. coping with scarcity, and choices made as a result of scarcity in a society.E. how people earn a living.问题3 Microeconomics is the branch of economics that deals with which of the following topics?A. The behavior of individual consumersB. Unemployment and interest ratesC. The behavior of individual firms and investorsD. B and CE. A and C问题4 A Rolling Stones song goes: ʺY ou canʹt always get what you want.ʺThis echoes an importanttheme from microeconomics. Which of the following statements is the best example of thistheme?A. Consumers must make the best purchasing decisions they can, given their limitedincomes.B. Workers do not have as much leisure as they would like, given their wages and workingconditions.C. Workers in planned economies, such as North Korea, do not have much choice over jobs.D. Firms in market economies have limited financial resources.问题5 Economics is about the allocation of scarce resources. Which of the following is NOT anexample of economic scarcity?A. If Steve goes to see the movie Master and Commander on Saturday, he will not be able to afford buying ice cream.B. If Jenny studies for her economics quiz this evening, she will not have time to walk herdog.C. If General Motors increases its production of SUVs this year, it will have to spend moreon advertising.D. If Borders Books increases the number of titles it carries, it will have to reallocate shelf space to accommodate the new titles.问题6 A valid and useful theory of gold prices:A. helps to predict the movements of gold prices over time.B. may be founded on simplifying assumptions.C. need not exactly predict every change in gold prices.D. all of the aboveE. none of the above问题7 Which of the following is a positive statement?A. The President of the United States ought to be elected by a direct vote of the American people rather than the Electoral College.B. A fundamental assumption of the economic theory of consumer behavior is that consumers always prefer having more of any good to having less of it.C. Because many adults cannot afford to go to college, tax credits for tuition should be introduced.D. all of the aboveE. none of the above问题8 Which of the following is a normative statement?A. The taxes paid by the poor should be reduced in order to improve the incomedistribution in the U.S.B. State governments should not subsidize corporations by training welfare recipients.C. Presidential candidates should not be given funds from the federal government to runcampaigns.D. The sea otter should not be allowed to spread into Southern California coastal waters, because it will reduce the value of fisheries.E. all of the above问题9 Which of the following is a positive statement?A. Intermediate microeconomics should be required of all economics majors in order to build a solid foundation in economic theory.B. The minimum wage should not be increased because this action would increase unemployment.C. Smoking should be restricted on all airline flights.D. All automobile passengers should be required to wear seatbelts in order to protect them against injury.E. none of the above问题10 Which of the following is a positive statement?A. When the price of a good goes up, consumers buy less of it.B. When the price of a good goes up, firms produce more of it.C. When the Federal government sells bonds, interest rates rise and private investment is reduced.D. all of the aboveE. none of the above问题11 The key assumption underlying the theory of the firm is that:A. firms are assumed to maximize sales revenue.B. managers are assumed to maximize the number of employees in their department.C. firms are assumed to maximize profits.D. none of the above问题12 Which of the following statements is NOT true?A. The trade-offs facing consumers and producers are based on prices.B. All prices are determined by market interactions between buyers and sellers.C. Prices serve an important role in microeconomics.D. Only A and B above false.E. Only B and C above are false.问题13 The trade-offs facing consumers include:A. how to allocate income across goods and serves.B. how to allocate income between consumption and savings.C. both A and BD. none of the above问题14 The trade-offs facing workers include all of the following EXCEPT:A. decision to work or remain outside the workforce.B. decision to work or seek additional education.C. decision to work for a large corporation or a small firm.D. decision to allocate their time between work and leisure.E. All of the above are trade-offs facing workers.问题15 Firms face trade-offs in production, including decisions related to:A. which products to produce.B. how much of a particular product to produce.C. the best way to produce a given amount of output.D. all of the above问题16 The price of a taco was $0.29 in 1970 and $0.99 in 1993. The CPI was 38.8 in 1970 and 144.0 in 1993. The 1993 price of a taco in 1970 dollars is:A. $0.08.B. $0.27.C. $0.34.D. $3.67.问题17 Which of the following markets has the most restrictive geographic boundary?A. The market for retail gasolineB. The market for housingC. The market for goldD. The market for beef问题18 Why is market definition important for economic decision making?A. A firm is interested in knowing its actual and potential competitors.B. A firm will define its market in order to maximize revenue.C. Government regulators are interested in knowing the effect of mergers and acquisitions on competition and prices in a particular market.D. both A and CE. both A and B问题19 What does it mean when the CPI is higher this year than last?A. The rate of inflation has increased.B. There has been inflation since last year.C. Real prices have increased.D. Real prices have decreased.问题20 Which of the following could not possibly be included in the same market as Coke?A. A) PepsiB. GatoradeC. MilkD. BreadChapter 2问题1 Which of the following is NOT an application of supply and demand analysis?A. Understanding changing world economic conditions and their effects on pricesB. Evaluating the effects of government price controls on the agricultural industryC. Determining how taxes affect aggregate consumption spending patternsD. all of the aboveE. none of the above问题2 A supply curve reveals:A. the quantity of output consumers are willing to purchase at each possible market price.B. the difference between quantity demanded and quantity supplied at each price.C. the maximum level of output an industry can produce, regardless of price.D. the quantity of output that producers are willing to produce and sell at each possible market price.问题3 Plastic and steel are substitutes in the production of body panels for certain automobiles. If the price of plastic increases, with other things remaining the same, we would expect:A. the price of steel to fall.B. the demand curve for steel to shift to the right.C. the demand curve for plastic to shift to the left.D. nothing to happen to steel because it is only a substitute for plastic.E. the demand curve for steel to shift to the left.问题4 Coffee and cream:A. are both luxury goods.B. are complements.C. are both more inelastic in demand in the long run than in the short run.D. have a positive cross price elasticity of demand.问题5 Which of the following would shift the demand curve for new textbooks to the right?A. A fall in the price of paper used in publishing textsB. A fall in the price of equivalent used textbooksC. An increase in the number of students attending collegeD. A fall in the price of new textbooks.问题6 When an industryʹs raw material costs increase, other things remaining the same,A. the supply curve shifts to the left.B. the supply curve shifts to the right.C. output increases regardless of the market price and the supply curve shifts upward.D. output decreases and the market price also decreases.问题7 Sugar can be refined from sugar beets. When the price of those beets falls,A. the demand curve for sugar would shift right.B. the demand curve for sugar would shift left.C. the supply curve for sugar would shift right.D. the supply curve for sugar would shift left.问题8 Assume that steak and potatoes are complements. When the price of steak goes up, the demand curve for potatoes:A. shifts to the left.B. shifts to the right.C. remains constant.D. shifts to the right initially and then returns to its original position.问题9 Which of the following events will cause a leftward shift in the supply curve of gasoline?A. A decrease in the price of gasolineB. An increase in the wage rate of refinery workersC. Decrease in the price of crude oilD. An improvement in oil refining technologyE. all of the above问题10 Which of the following will NOT cause a shift in the supply of gasoline?A. An increase in the wage rate of refinery workersB. A decrease in the price of gasolineC. An improvement in oil refiningD. technologyA decrease in the price of crude oil问题11 You are analyzing the demand for good X. Which of the following will result in a shift to the right of the demand curve for X?A. A decrease in the price of XB. An increase in the price of a good that is a complement to good XC. An increase in the price of a good that is a substitute for XD. all of the above问题12 The price of good A goes up. As a result, the demand for good B shifts to the left. From this we can infer that:A. good A is used to produce goodB.B. good B is used to produce good A.C. goods A and B are substitutes.D. goods A and B are complements.E. none of the above问题13 Which of the following will cause the demand curve for Beatlesʹcompact discs to shift to the right?A. An increase in the price of the discsB. A decrease in consumersʹincomesC. An increase in the price of Phil Collins' latest compact disc (a substitute)D. all of the aboveE. none of the above问题14 Which of the following will NOT cause a rightward shift in the demand curve for beer?A. A change in the price of beerB. A health study indicating positive health benefits of moderate beer consumptionC. An increase in the price of French wine (a substitute)D. A decrease in the price of potato chips (a complement)E. none of the above问题15 Suppose biochemists discover an enzyme that can double the amount of ethanol that may be derived from a given amount of biomass. Based on this technological development, we expect the:A. supply curve for ethanol to shift leftward.B. supply curve for ethanol to shift rightward.C. demand curve for ethanol to shift leftward.D. demand curve for ethanol to shift rightward.问题16 Due to the recent increase in the price of natural gas, the quantity of coal demanded by electric power generation plants has increased. Based on this information, coal and natural gas are:A. complements.B. substitutes.C. independent goods.D. none of the above问题17 To protect the cod fishery off the northeast coast of the U.S., the federal government may limit the amount of fish that each boat can catch in the fishery. The result of this public policy is to:A. shift the cod demand curve to the left.B. shift the cod demand curve to the right.C. shift the cod supply curve to the right.D. shift the cod supply curve to the left.问题18 When the current price is above the market-clearing level we would expect:A. quantity demanded to exceed quantity supplied.B. quantity supplied to exceed quantity demanded.C. a shortage.D. greater production to occur during the next period.问题19 Assume that the current market price is below the market clearing level. We would expect:A. a surplus to accumulate.B. B) downward pressure on the current market price.C. upward pressure on the current market price.D. lower production during the next time period.问题20 As long as the actual market price exceeds the equilibrium market price, there will be:A. downward pressure on the market price.B. upward pressure on the market price.C. no purchases made.D. Both A and C are correct.E. Both B and C are correct.Chapter 3问题1 Gary Franklin is a movie critic. He invented the Franklin Scale with which he rates movies from 1 to 10 (10 being best). When asked about his scale, Mr. Franklin explained "that it is a subjective measure of movie quality. A movie with a ranking of 10 is not necessarily 10 times better than a movie with a ranking of 1, but it is better. A movie with a ranking of 5 is better than a movie with a ranking of 1, but is not as good a movie with a ranking of 10. That's all it really tells you." Based on Mr. Franklin's description, his scale is:A) ordinal but not cardinal.B) cardinal but not ordinal.C) an objective standard to judge movies.D) neither cardinal nor ordinal.问题2 Which of the following is NOT an assumption regarding people's preferences in the theory of consumer behavior?A) Preferences are complete..B) Preferences are transitive.C) Consumers prefer more of a good to less.D) All of the above are basic assumptions about consumer preferences问题3 The theory of consumer behavior is based on certain assumptions. The set of four basic assumptions includes:A) completeness.B) transitivity.C) intransitivity.D) Both A and B are correct.E) Both A and C are correct.问题4 The assumption of transitive preferences implies that indifference curves must:A) not cross one another.B) have a positive slope.C) be L-shaped.D) be convex to the origin.E) all of the above问题5 A consumer prefers market basket A to market basket B, and prefers market basket B to market basket C. Therefore, A is preferred to C. The assumption that leads to this conclusion is:A) transitivity.B) completeness.C) all goods are good.D) diminishing MRS.E) assumption of rationality.问题6 The assumption that preferences are complete:A) means that a consumer will spend her entire income.B) is unnecessary, as long as transitivity is assumed.C) recognizes that there may be pairs of market baskets that cannot be compared.D) means that the consumer can compare any two market baskets of goods and determine that either one is preferred to the other or that she is indifferent between them.问题7 If a market basket is changed by adding more of at least one good, then rational consumers will:A) rank the market basket more highly after the change.B) more likely prefer a different market basket.C) rank the market basket as being just as desirable as before.D) be unable to decide whether the first market basket is preferred to the second or vice versa.E) have indifference curves that cross.问题8 A curve that represents all combinations of market baskets that provide the same level of utility to a consumer is called:A) a budget line.B) an isoquant.C) an indifference curve.D) a demand curve.E) none of the above问题9 An upward sloping indifference curve defined over two goods violates which of the following assumptions from the theory of consumer behavior?A) transitivity.B) preferences are complete.C) more is preferred to less.D) all of the aboveE) none of the above问题10 The slope of an indifference curve reveals:A) that preferences are complete.B) the marginal rate of substitution of one good for another good.C) the ratio of market prices.D) that preferences are transitive.E) none of the above问题11 Zoe is an executive at Dell Computer Company who is in charge of designing the next version of laptop computers. She will consider such features as screen size, weight, processor speed, and CD and DVD drives. Given the fact that it is costly to include more features in new products, why might Zoe be interested in data on how much consumers paid for a range of laptops with different attributes?A) in order to estimate willingness to pay for each feature.B) in order to set an optimal price for the laptops.C) in order to determine the best features to include.D) in order to estimate willingness to trade off one feature for another.E) all of the above问题12 In what ways can economists help auto manufacturers estimate the marginal rate of substitution between features such as vehicle interior size and acceleration?A) Examining production cost dataB) Conducting consumer surveys about willingness to pay for auto featuresC) Solving the standard consumer model D) Statistically analyzing historical data on purchases of different types of autosE) B and D only问题13 Indifference curves are convex to the origin because of:A) transitivity of consumer preferences.B) the assumption of a diminishing marginal rate of substitution.C) the assumption that more is preferred to less.D) the assumption of completeness.E) none of the above问题14 Suppose that a market basket of two goods is changed by adding more of one of the goods and subtracting one unit of the other. The consumer will:A) rank the market basket more highly after the change.B) rank the market basket more highly before the change.C) rank the market basket just as desirable as before.D) any one of the above statements may be true.问题15 If indifference curves cross, then:A) the assumption of a diminishing marginal rate of substitution is violated.B) the assumption of transitivity is violated.C) the assumption of completeness is violated.D) consumers minimize their satisfaction.E) all of the above问题16 Which of the following is true about the indifference curve where one commodity (such as pollution) is "bad"?A) It has a negative slope. .B) It has a positive slope.C) It is horizontal.D) It is vertical问题17 If indifference curves are concave to the origin, which assumption on preferences is violated?A) Diminishing marginal rates of substitutionB) Transitivity of preferencesC) More is preferred to lessD) Completeness问题18 Envision a graph with meat on the horizontal axis and vegetables on the vertical axis. A strict vegetarian would have indifference curves that are:A) vertical lines.B) horizontal lines.C) diagonal straight lines.D) right angles. E) upward sloping.问题19 Mikey is very picky and insists that his mom make his breakfast with equal parts of cereal and apple juice--any other combination and it ends up on the floor. Cereal costs 4 cents per tablespoon and apple juice costs 6 cents per tablespoon. If Mikey's mom budgets $8 per month for Mikey's breakfast, how much cereal and juice does she buy?A) 40 tablespoons each of cereal and juiceB) 80 tablespoons each of cereal and juiceC) 40 tablespoons of cereal and 75 tablespoons of juiceD) 100 tablespoons of cereal and 67 tablespoons of juice问题20 Jane is trying to decide which courses to take next semester. She has narrowed down her choice to two courses, Econ 1 and Econ 2. Now she is having trouble and cannot decide which of the two courses to take. It's not that she is indifferent between the two courses, she just cannot decide. An economist would say that this is an example of preferences that:A) are not transitive.B) are incomplete.C) violate the assumption that more is preferred to less.D) all of the aboveChapter 4问题1 As we move downward along a demand curve for apples,A) consumer well-being decreases.B) the marginal utility of apples decreases.C) the marginal utility of apples increases.D) Both A and B are true.E) Both A and C are true.问题2 The change in the price of one good has no effect on the quantity demanded of another good. These goods are:A) complements.B) substitutes.C) both inferior.D) both Giffen goods.E) none of the above问题3 The price of good A goes up. As a result the demand for good B shifts to the left. From this we can infer that:A) good A is a normal good.B) good B is an inferior good.C) goods A and B are substitutes.D) goods A and B are complements.E) none of the above问题4 An individual demand curve can be derived from the ______ curve.A) price-consumptionB) price-incomeC) income-substitutionD) income-consumptionE) Engel问题5 Which of the following claims is true at each point along a price-consumption curve?A) Utility is maximized but income is not all spent.B) All income is spent, but utility is not maximized.C) Utility is maximized, and all income is spent.D) The level of utility is constant.问题6 Which of the following is true regarding income along a price-consumption curve?A) Income is increasing.B) Income is decreasing.C) Income is constant.D) The level of income depends on the level of utility.问题7 Which of the following is true regarding utility along a price-consumption curve?A) It is constant.B) It changes from point to point.C) It changes only if income changes.D) It changes only for normal goods.问题8 The income-consumption curveA) illustrates the combinations of incomes needed with various levels of consumption of a good.B) is another name for income-demand curve.C) illustrates the utility-maximizing combinations of goods associated with every income level.D) shows the utility-maximizing quantity of some good (on the horizontal axis) as a function of income (on the vertical axis).问题9 Which of the following pairs of goods are NOT complements?A) Hockey sticks and hockey pucksB) Computer CPUs and computer monitorsC) On-campus student housing and off-campus rental apartments D) all of the aboveE) none of the above问题10 Which of the following goods has a low, but positive, income elasticity of demand?A) furniture.B) new cars.C) health insurance.D) all of the aboveE) none of the above问题11 If an Engel curve has a positive slopeA) both goods are normal.B) the good on the horizontal axis is normalC) as the price of the good on the horizontal axis increases, more of both goods in consumed.D) as the price of the good on the vertical axis increases, more of the good on the horizontal axis is consumed.问题12 Which of the following pairs of goods are substitutes?A) Baseball bats and baseballsB) Hot dogs and mustardC) Computer hardware and softwareD) Gasoline and motor oilE) Owner-occupied housing and rental housing问题13 When the income-consumption curve has a positive slope throughout its entire length, we can conclude thatA) both goods are inferior.B) both goods are normal.C) the good on the vertical (y) axis is inferior.D) the good on the horizontal (x) axis is inferior问题14 Consider two goods X and Y available for consumption. Assume that the price of X changes while the price of Y remains fixed. For these two goods, the price-consumption curve illustrates theA) relationship between the price of X and consumption of Y.B) utility-maximizing combinations of X and Y for each price of X.C) relationship between the price of Y and the consumption of X.D) utility-maximizing combinations of X and Y for each quantity of X.问题15 Consider a graph on which one good Y is on the vertical axis and the only other good X is on the horizontal axis. On this graph the income-consumption curve has a positive slope for low incomes, then it takes a zero slope for a higher income, and then it takes a negative slope for even higher incomes (the curve looks like an arc, first rising and then falling as income increases). This curve illustrates that, for all income levels,A) both X and Y are normal.B) only Y is normal.C) both X and Y are inferior.D) only X is normal.问题16 According to a survey by the U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics, which of the following statements about annual U.S. household consumer expenditures is false?A) The income elasticity of demand for entertainment is positive.B) The income elasticity of demand for owner-occupied housing is positive.C) The income elasticity of demand for rental housing is positive.D) The income elasticity of demand for health care is positive.E) Average family expenditures increase with income.问题17 The income-consumption curve for Dana between Qa and Qb is given as: Qa = Qb. His budget constraint is given as:120 = Qa + 4QbHow much Qa will Dana consume to maximize utility?A) 0B) 24C) 30D) 60问题18 Jon's income-consumption curve is a straight line from the origin with a positive slope. Now suppose that Jon's preferences change such that his income-consumption curveremains a straight line but rotates 15 degrees clockwise. Jon's demand curve for the good on thehorizontal axisA) will shift left.B) will shift right.C) will not change.D) might do any of the above.问题19 Suppose that a consumer regards two types of soap as perfect substitutes for one another. The price consumption path generated by changing the price of one type of soapA) is always upward sloping.B) is always horizontal.C) is always vertical.D) corresponds with the axis for the cheaper soap.E) corresponds with the axis for the more expensive soap.问题20 Your income response for bicycle riding changes with the amount of income you earn. At low levels of income, you view bicycle riding as an inferior good and substitute other types of transportation (e.g., auto travel) as your income rises. However, you view bicycle riding as a normal good after your income rises above a particular level. What shape does your Engel curve for bicycle riding have?A) Vertical lineB) Horizontal lineC) C-shapedD) Upward slopingE) none of the aboveChapter 6问题1 A production function defines the output that can be producedA) at the lowest cost, given the inputs available.B) for the average firm.C) if the firm is technically efficient.D) in a given time period if no additional inputs are hired.E) as technology changes over time.问题2 A production function assumes a givenA) technology.B) set of input prices.C) ratio of input prices.D) amount of capital and labor.E) amount of output.问题3 A function that indicates the maximum output per unit of time that a firm can produce, for every combination of inputs with a given technology, is calledA) an isoquant.B) a production possibility curve.C) a production function.D) an isocost function.问题4 Which of the following inputs are variable in the long run?A) labor.B) capital and equipment.C) plant size.D) all of these.问题5 The short run isA) less than a year.B) three years.C) however long it takes to produce the planned output. D) a time period in which at least one input is fixed.E) a time period in which at least one set of outputs has been decided upon.问题6 Joe owns a small coffee shop, and his production function is q = 3KL where q is total output in cups per hour, K is the number of coffee machines (capital), and L is the number of employeeshired per hour (labor). If Joe's capital is currently fixed at K=3 machines, what is his short-run production function?A) q = 3L。

化学合成部专业知识培训试题姓名：项目组：得分：第一部分：Beilstein 查询（30 分）1.1在检索的主界面上Allow一栏，前面五个选择后代表什么（5 分）？1.21.2 看以下的检索设定，回答问题（5 分）：a) 以下的检索中小图虚线代表什么意思？b) 芳环的四个Cx代表什么？c) 检索主界面的Search field两栏，LAH, >90%各代表什么？1.3 按要求在虚框中填入检索信息（7 分）硝基苯表方法N吡啶氮氧化物表示方法NR 普通芳香环:R芳香杂环:R 任意官能团:R卤原子通式:R任意取代的杂原子:1.4 在一个分子中有一个仲羟基和一个伯羟基我们需要选定一个方法将硅的保护基放在仲羟基上而不是常规的伯羟基上，请写出检索的设定方法（5 分）：1.5 一般缩酮比N-Boc 对酸更敏感，如何通过设定检索方法找到可以脱N-Boc 但同一分子内缩酮基团还稳定的文献（7 分）：1.6 由于很多杂环的单双键可以移动，一般我们如何设定以防漏检？以如下的分子画出设定方法(3 分)。

ClNHNONH 2ClH N NH 2还原附加：1.7 在检索设定一览如何利用快捷键将单键改为双键 (2 分)第二部分：酰胺的合成（40 分）2.1 使用碳二亚胺类缩合剂一般需要加入酰化催化剂或活化剂，如4-N,N-二甲基吡啶（DMAP ）、1-羟基苯并三氮唑(HOBt)等等，其主要原因是什么，写出DMAP 作为催化剂的过渡态（8 分）.R N O R 2OHN CO RCxN Cx R 1活化剂: DMAP, HOBt+HNR 2R2.2 以HATU 的缩合反应为例，说明其反应机理（8 分）。

NN NNOHOROR N H O R 1+NH 2R 1NNH 2R12.3 请列举出至少十种以上的胺的酰化方法（10 分）2.4 胺酯交换一种最为通用的方法是什么，请写出通用反应式（3 分）？2.5 以下各类胺可以通过那些交换方法得到酰胺（5 分）：2.6 腈基水解一般条件都比较苛刻，写出一种较为温和的反应条件（3 分）：OCl CN ClNH2 2.7 请写出Ritter 反应的原理和反应通式（3 分）：第三部分：羟基的保护（20 分）3.1 以下四种羟基的硅保护基在使用时各有什么优缺点（8 分）？3.2 硅醚保护为什么用咪唑作碱（2 分）3.3 羟基的硅醚脱保护一般使用什么试剂，使用过程中有那些注意事项（3 分）3.4 写出EE, THP, MOM, SEM-等保护基的结构，为什么我们在分子中有受性中心时，一般尽量避免用EE和THP作为保护基（5 分）3.5．当分子中同时有游离的仲胺和伯胺，我们一般选择用什么作为羟基的保护基，为什么？（2 分）第四部分：Mitsunobu 反应（10 分）4.1 请写出Mitsunobu 反应的机理，并说明什么样亲核试剂适合于Mitsunobu 反应（4 分）RNuR'NuHN N COOR, PPh 3ROOC4.2以下那些亲核试剂可以用于Mitsunobu 反应（对打勾，不对打叉）（4 分）NHOHNNH O ONHOOHO OHNHSHOHOSHNN HOO F PhN H O NN NH N PhNH OOBocN H Ns备注：4.3和4.2共5分，每错两个扣一分，错九个扣全分4.3以下底物中那些羟基可以用于Mitsunobu 反应 （对打勾，不对打叉）（1 分）OHOHOHOEtOH4.4 一般做Mitsunobu 的实验注意事项是什么（2 分）。

microeconomics 2012-1Student: _____________________________________________________________________________一、選擇題：每題三分L You had to pay $600 (non-refundable) for your meal plan for Fall semester which gives you up to 150 meals. If you eat only 100 meals, your marginal cost for the 100th meal isA.$6B.$4C.$0.25D.$02. Refer to the figure above. According to the cost-benefit principle, the level of activity that provides the largestnet benefit isA.1B.4C.5D.7IBM employs Pam to assemble personal computers. Pam can assemble I computer if she works 1 hour, 4 computers in 2 hours, 8 computers in 3 hours, 10 computers in 4 hours, and 11 computers in 5 hours. Each computer consists of a motherboard that costs $200, a hard drive that costs $ 100, a case that costs $20, a monitor that costs $200, a keyboard at $60 and a mouse that costs $20. The cost of employing Pam is $40 per hour.3- What is the marginal cost of producing the computers Pam assembles during her 3rd hour of work?A.$1,200B.$1,240C.$2,400D.$2,440You own a pizza shop called "PizzaR Us”. Currently you are paying your cooks an hourly wage of $20. You sell a medium pizza for $10 a pie. By hiring more cooks, you can increase your pizza production as shown in the following table.4.If you operate one hour every day what is the marginal benefit of the 3rd cook?A.$10B.$20C.$30D.$405.IBM sells each computer for $620. How many hours should IBM employ Pam to maximize its benefit fromher employment?A.1 hourB.2 hoursC.3 hoursD.4 hours6.The central concern of economics isA.poverty.B.scarcity.C.wealth accumulation.D.overconsumption.Pat has 4 hours to spend either studying for a test or playing a new video game. If Pat spends all of that time studying, Pat can score a 92 on the test. If Pat plays for 1 hour, Pat's test score falls 5 points. For playing a second hour, Pat's score falls by 7 points. Playing for a third hour will lower Pats score by another 10 points.7.The opportunity cost of playing video gamesA.decreases the longer Pat plays.B.increases the longer Pat plays.C.is greater than the value of earning a higher grade on the test.D.is equal to the value of earning a higher grade on the test.8. Refer to the figure above. If this restaurant makes 75 salads in one hour, approximately how many pizzascan it also make in that same hour, assuming efficient production?A. 0B. 10C. 20D. 30Chris, Two hours of yard workBulbs Planted9. Refer to the figure above< If Pat and Chris were to specialize in the task for which each has a comparativeadvantage,A- Chris would plant bulbs and Pat would haul out trash. B. Chris would haul out trash and Pat would plant bulbs. C. Pat and Chris would each spend one hour on each task.D ・ both would plant bulbs as they both have an absolute advantage in that task.Smith and Jones comprise a two-person economy. Their hourly rates of production are shown below.Smith Jones 10 6 100 120GoodComputers Calculators Pat, Two hours of yard work Bags of trash removed Bags of trash removed10.For any efficient point with fewer than 10 computers and more than 120 calculators, Smith will_________ and Jones will __________ .A.split his time between the two; only produce calculatorsB.split his time between the two; split his time between the twoC.only produce calculators; only produce computersD・ only produce computers; only produce calculators11.The benefits to specialization are enhanced when the two trading partners haveA.absolute advantages in producing the same goods.B.similar consumption preferences・C・ very similar opportunity costs.rge comparative advantages in different goods.Dent^Scratch Used Cars and Trucks employs 3 salesmen. Data for their sales last month are shown in this table:12. ____ should specialize in truck sales and _______ should specialize in car sales.A.Joe; RalphB.Ralph; LarryC・ Larry; RalphD・ Larry; JoeEarth Movers and Shakers operates 3 iron ore mines. This table shows their daily production rates given the number of miners at each mine. All of the miners work for the same wage・13.By taking the first tons from ______ , Movers and Shakers is producing consistent with the _____Principle.A・ Mother Lode; Low Hanging FruitB.Middle Drift; CompromiseC.Middle Drift: Low Hanging FruitD.Scraping Bottom; Cost Minimizing14.The No Cash on the Table principle asserts thatA.in equilibrium, a few unexploited opportunities exist.B.sometimes tips aren't picked up・C・ in disequilibrium, no opportunities exist.D.in equilibrium, all opportunities have been exploited.15. A market in disequilibrium would featureA.a stable price.B.consumers able to purchase all they wish at the market price.C・ a stable quantity.D. either excess supply or excess demand.16.In general，when the supply curve shifts to the left and demand is constant thenA.the market cannot reestablish an equilibrium・B・ the equilibrium price will falLC.the equilibrium quantity will rise.D.the equilibrium price will rise.17.Refer to the figure above. Assume the market is originally at point W. Movement to point X is a combinationofA・ an increase in quantity supplied and an increase in demand.B.an increase in supply and an increase in demand・C.an increase in supply and an increase in quantity demanded.D.a decrease in supply and an increase in quantity demanded.18.When the price of a good is below its equilibrium value,A.consumers will bid the price up.B.excess supply will occur・C.it will tend to stay below the equilibrium value・D.suppliers will notice their inventories are growing・19.Assuming consumers eat either rice or pasta for dinner every night. If the price of rice increases, in the pastamarket one would expect to seeA. increase in the quantity of pasta demanded.B・ increase in the demand for pasta・C.decrease in the quantity of pasta demanded・D.decrease in the demand for pasta・20.If the demand for Personal Computers (PC) shifts to the right (up) as consumers1 incomes rise, PC f s areA.inferior goods-plement goods.C.normal goods.D・ substitute goods.1 • To earn extra money in the summer, you grow tomatoes and sell them at the farmers5 market for 30 cents per pound. By adding compost to your garden, you can in crease your yield as shown in the table below. If compost costs 50 cents per pound and your goal is to make as much money as possible, how many pounds of compost should you add? (10%)2. Susan can pick 4 pounds of coffee in an hour or gather 2 pounds of nuts. Tom can pick 2 pounds of coffee inan hour or gather 4 pounds of nuts・ Each works 6 hours per day. (15%)1. What is the maximum number of pounds of coffee the two can pick in a day?2. What is the maximum number of pounds of nuts the two can gather in a day?3. If Susan and Tom were picking the maximum number of pounds of coffee when they decided that theywould like to begin gathering 4 pounds of nuts per day, who would gather the nuts，and how manypounds of coffee would they still be able to pick?4. Now suppose Susan and Tom were gathering the maximum number of pounds of nuts when theydecided that they would like to begin picking 8 pounds of coffee per day. Who would pick the coffee,and how many pounds of nuts would they still be able to gather?5. Would it be possible for Susan and Tom in total to gather 26 pounds of nuts and pick 20 pounds ofcoffee each day? If so, how much of each good should each person pick?3. Indicate how you think each of the following would shift demand in the indicated market: (15%)a. In comes of buyers in the market for Adiron dack vacations in crease. 4%b・ Buyers in the market for pizza read a study linking hamburger consumption to heart disease.4%c. Buyers in the market for CDs lear n of an in crease in the price of audiocassettes (a substitute forCDs).4%d・ Buyers in the market for CDs lear n of an in crease in the price of CDs ・3%。

山东大学网络教育药物经济学测试题（一）一、英汉互译题（部分名词需要根据要求用中文解释，共15分）1.the Incremental Effectiveness Cost Ratio, IECR（1分）2.增量分析（1分）3.机会成本（翻译成英文，并用中文解释该术语，3分）4.沉淀成本（1分）5.边际成本（1分）6.贴现率（翻译成英文，并用中文解释为什么要在药物经济学中引入这一名词，3分）7.质量调整生命年（1分）8. PharmacoEconomics aims to promote the development and study of health economics as applied to rational drug therapy and disease management. The Journal explores the growing relationship between economic factors and clinical prescribing decisions, providing a practical background to informed prescribing and allocation of healthcare resources.（4分）二、填空题(每空1分，共10分)1.可以发表英文药物经济学学术文章，且被SCI收录的杂志有：《Pharmacoeconomics》，《British Medicine Journal》，《The New England Journal of Medicine》，《The Lancet》，（）2.经济学思维模式关注三个方面：个人行为、（）、这两种活动的结果，不管这些结果是有意的无意的。

3.经济体制是人们追逐利益、互相协作的方式和手段，是由()决定的。

4.对经济学家而言，世界上没有天堂，也没有地狱，因为天堂不存在稀缺，在地狱则没有()。

Test 1: Development of MicrobiologyMultiple-choice:1.The fundamental unit of all living organisms is the:A. membraneB. cellC. nucleusD. cell wallanisms that do not contain a true nucleus are referred to as:A. fungiB. eukaryoticC. prokaryoticD. nankaryotic3.The three kingdom classification system of organisms was proposed by:A. PasteurB. BaconC. Winogradsky4.Fungi differ from bacteria in a number of characteristics. The cell walls in fungi are composed of , while thecell walls of bacteria are composed of peptidoglycanB. phospholipidsC. proteinD. glucosamine5.The first microscopes were developed by:A.EhrlichB. Metchnikoff D. Lister6.The term "antibiotic" means:A. a substance produced by the laboratory that kills or inhibits other microorganismsB. a substance produced by microorganisms that kills or inhibits moldsD. a substance produced by microorganisms that kills or inhibits cancer cells7.The genetic material of a bacteria is located in the molecule:A.RNAB. DNAC. proteinD. lipidFILL IN BLANKS:anisms that contain a true nucleus are called_eukaryotic______2.Bacteria do not have a true nucleus and are considered _prokaryotic______3.Bacteria can be divided into two groups, the _archaea and the _eubacteria_.4._anaerobes_ are organisms that can grow without using molecular oxygen.5. Microorganisms that can synthesize complex organic compounds from CO2 are called _autotroph_.6. _phototrophs are microorganisms that obtain their energy to synthesize organic compounds from light.7. Heterotroph require organic compounds for growth.8. Organisms that survive only at very high temperatures are referred to as_thermophile_.9. _methanogen_ are organisms that produce methane from CO2.10. _halophile_____organisms grow under conditions of high salinity.11. Eubacteria can exhibit a number of morphological shapes. Identify four: a._spherical or cocci_____b._cylindrical or rod_____c._ spirals _____d._irregular or filament____丝状体_12.Fungi, algae and protozoa can be differentiated from bacteria by the following characteristic:_eukaryotic______ .13. Fungi have cell wall consisting of _chitin______.14.Viruses consist of _nucleic acid_____surrounded by a protein coat.15.The process used to reduce the number of viable organisms by moderate heating is called: _pasteurization_ .18 .An _antibiotic______is a substance produced by microorganisms that inhibits or kills other microorganisms.19. The process of stimulating the immune defenses of the body is referred to as__immunization_____.20. A substance in serum that can neutralize foreign material is referred to as _antitoxin_____or __antibody____.22. Exchange of genetic information by direct contact is referred to as__conjugation____.23. _thansformation_____ is the process in which DNA is transferred from one bacteria to another.Test 2: Organization and Structure of Microorganisms2.The arrangement of proteins and lipids in the membrane is referred to as the:C. trilayer modelD. permeable model3.The movement of water molecules across the membrane in response to a concentration gradient is referred toas:A. diffusionB. osmosisC. translocationD. transport4.The membrane of a cell is able to differentiate molecules that enter or exit the cell and act as a ____ barrier.A. semipermanentB. SemitransparentC. SemipermeableD. semidiffuse5. Movement of molecules at an enhanced rate across the membrane is called:A. facilitated diffusionB. passive diffusionC. OsmosisD. permeation6. Which of the following mechanisms transports molecules with chemical alteration?7. Which of the following transport mechanisms occurs only in prokaryotes?A. active transportC. facilitated diffusionD. binding protein transport8. Lysozyme and penicillin have activity against the cell wall. Lysozyme breaks this component; penicillinprevents its formation .A. lipopolysaccharideB. Phospholipid D. teichoic acid9. Partial destruction of the cell wall with lysozyme leaves a cell called a:A. protoplast C. periplast D. capsule10. DNA transfers information to make proteins in molecules referred to as:A. iRNA rRNA D. tRNA11. The endoplasmic reticulum (ER) is a membranous structure within eukaryotic cells. It is the site for protein synthesis and for storage and transportation of molecules out of the cell. Which part of the ER is used for proteinsynthesis?D. microbody12. Gram-positive bacteria can be differentiated from Gram-negative bacteria since the peptidoglycan layercomprises ____% of the cell wall.A. 90B. 50C. 30D.1013. Which of the following is not found in all bacterial cell?A. cell membraneB. a nucleoidC. ribosomesD. capsule14. Pili are tubular shafts in bacteria that serve as a means of .A. gram-positive, genetic exchangeB. gram-positive, attachmentC. gram-negative, genetic exchangeD. gram-negative, protection15. Which of the following is a primary bacterial cell wall function?A. transportB. motilityC. supportD. adhension16. Which of the following is present in both gram-positive and gram-negative cell wall?A. an outer membraneB. peptidoglycanC. teichoic acidD. lipopolysaccharides17. Mesosomes are internal extensions of theA. cell wallB. cell membraneC. chromosomeD. capsule18. Bacterial endospores function inA. reproductionB. survivalC. Protein synthesisD. storage19. A bacterial arrangement in packets of eight cells is described as a .A. micrococcusB. tetradC. DiplococcusD. sacina20. In general, if two haploid cells fuse, will result.A. a germ cellB. mitosisC. a diploid zygoteD. meiosis21. The cell wall is found in which eukaryotes:A. fungiB. algaeC. ProtozoaD. A and B22. Yeasts are fungi, and molds are fungi.A. macroscopic, microscopicB. unicellular, filamentousC. motile, nonmotileD. water, terrestrial23. In general, fungi derive nutrients throughA. photosynthesisB. engulfing bacteriaC. digesting organic substratesD. parasitism24. A hypha divided into compartments by cross walls is called .A. nonseptateB. imperfectC. septateD. perfect25. A conidium is a/an spore, and a zygospore is a/an spore.A. sexual, asexualB. free, endoC. ascomycete,basidiomyceteD. asexual, sexual26.Algae generally contain some types ofA. sporeB. chlorophyllC. locomotor organelleD. toxin27. Mitochondria likely originated fromA. archaeaB. invaginations of the cell membraneC. purple bacteriaD. cyanobacteria28. A virus is a tiny infectiousA. cellB. living thingC. particleD. nucleic acid29. Virus are known to infectA. plantsB. bacteriaC. fungiD. all organisms30. The capsid is composed of protein subunits calledA. spikesB. virionsC. protomersD. capsomers31. The envelope of an animal virus is derived from the of its host cell.A. cell wallB. cell membraneC. glycolyxD. receptors32. The nucleic acid of a virus isA. DNA onlyB. RNA onlyC. both DNA and RNAD. either DNA or RNA33. The general steps in a viral multiplication cycle areA. adsorption, penetration, replication, maturation, and releaseB. endocytosis, uncoating, replication, assembly, and buddingC. adsorption, uncoating, duplication, assembly, and lysisD. endocytosis, penetration, replication, maturation, and exocytosis34. A prophage is an early stage in the development of a/anA. bacterial virusB. poxvirusC. lytic virusD. enveloped virus35. Enveloped viruses carry surface receptors calledA. budsB. spikesC. fibersD. sheaths36. Viruses cannot be cultivated inA. tissue cultureB. live mammalsC. bird embryosD. blood agar37. The protein coat structure of the virus is called a:A. coatB. envelopC. receptorD.capsid38. The composition of the envelop of some viruses is:A. phospholipids and proteins coded by the viral genomeB. phospholipids and proteins coded by the host genomeC. phospholipids coded by the host genome and proteins coded by the viral genomeD. phospholipids coded by the viral genome and proteins coded by the host genome39. In some cases intact viruses are not needed to infect a cell. Infectious protein molecules that can cause disease are given the term:A.prionsB. viroidsC. CapsomersD.VirionsFILL IN BLANKS:1.Most cells use energy in the form of_ A TP__ to run the cell.2. The region between the outermembrane in Gram-negative bacteria and the cell wall is called the _periplasmic space___.2.Extrachromosomal DNA elements found in bacteria are called_plasmids_______.3.The fluid inside a cell is referred to as the _cytoplasm_______.4.The hereditary organelle of eukaryotic cells is called the _nucleus_____.5.Bacteria stained by the gram method fall into two groups: Gram positive bacteria (G+), appear deep violet incolor; Gram negative bacteria (G-) appear red in color.6.Staphylococcus aureus金黄色葡萄球菌stained by the gram method appear deep violet in color7.Escherichia coli 大肠杆菌stained by the gram method appear red in color.8.The cell walls of most Gram-positive eubacteria have peptidoglycan and teichoic acids.9.The outer membrane of the Gram-negative cell wall contains phospholipid on its inner surface andlipopolysaccharide (LPS) on its outer surface.10.Among the more prominent bacterial inclusions are Carbon storage polymers – PHB and glycogen、Phosphatepolymer、Sulfur Granules、Gas Vacuoles。

Macroeconomics 1、2、3、4、Abby consumes only apples. In year 1, red apples cost 1 dollar each, green apples cost 2 dollar each, and Abby buys 10 red apples. In year 2, red apples cost 2 dollar, green apples cost 1 dollar, and Abby buys 10 green apples.pute a consumer price index for apples for each year. Assume that year 1is the base yearin which the consumer basket is fixed. How does your index change from year 1 to year 2? pute Abby’s nominal spending on apples in each year. How does it change from year 1 toyear 2?ing year 1 as the base year, compute Abby’s real spending on apples in each year. Howdoes it change from year 1 to year 2?d.Defining the implicit price deflator as nominal spending divided by real spending, computethe deflator for each year. How does the deflator change from year 1 to year 2?Suppose that Abby is equally happy eating red or green apples. How much has the true cost of living increased for Abby? Compare this answer to your answers to parts (a) and (d). What does this example tell you about Laspeyres and Paasche price indexes?a.According to the CPI(消費物價指數), prices have doubled.b. N-spending is the total value of output produced in each year. In Y1 and Y2, Abby buys 10 apples for $1 each, so her N-spending remains constant at $10.c. R-spending is the total value of output produced in each year valued at the prices prevailing in Y1.InY1,the base year,her R-spending equals her N-spending of $10. In year 2, she consumes 10 green apples that are each valued at their Y1 price of $2, so her real spending is $20.Hence, Abby’s real spending rises from $10 to $20.d.Thus, the implicit price deflator suggests that prices have fallen by half.e. If Abby thinks of red apples and green apples as perfect substitutes, then the cost of living in this economy has not changed.According to the CPI, however, the cost of living has doubled. In contrast to the CPI, the implicit price deflator estimates the cost of living has halved.Thus, the CPI, a Laspeyres index, overstates the increase in the cost of living and the deflator, a Paasche index, understates it.This chapter of the text discusses the difference between Laspeyres and Paasche indices in more detail.5、6、Suppose that an economy’s production function is Cobb-Douglas with parameter .0.3α=a. What fractions of income do capital and labor receive?b. Suppose that immigration increases the labor force by 10 percent. What happen to total output?The rental price of capital? The real wage?c. Suppose that a gift of capita form abroad raises the capital stock by 10 percent. What happensto total output(in percent). The rental price of capital? The real wage?d. Suppose that a technological advance raises the value of the parameter A by 10 percent. Whathappens to total output? The rental price of capital? The real wage?7、Suppose that the money demand function takes the form(/)(,)/(5)d M P L i Y Y i ==a.If output grows at rate g, at what rate will the demand for real balances grow(assumingconstant nominal interest rates)?b.What is the velocity of money in this economy?c.If inflation and nominal interest rates are constant, at what rate, if any, will velocity grow?d.How will a permanent increase in the level of interest rates affect the level of velocity? Howwill it affect the subsequent growth rate of velocity?8、Consider an economy with the following Cobb-Douglas production function:1323Y K LThe economy has 1000 units of capital and a labor force of 1000 workers.a.Derive the equation describing labor demand in this economy as a function of thereal wage and the capital stock.b.If the real wage can adjust to equilibrate labor supply and labor demand, what isthe real wage? In this equilibrium, what are employment, output, and the total amount earned by workers?c.Now suppose that Congress, concerned about the welfare of the working class,passes a law requiring firms to pay workers a real wage of 1 unit of output. How does this wage compare to the equilibrium wage?d.Congress cannot dictate how many workers firm hire at the mandated wage.Given this fact, what are the effects of this law? Specifically, what happens to employment, output and the total amount earned by workers?e.Will Congress succeed in its goal of helping the working class? Explain.f.Do you think that this analysis provides a good way of thinking about aminimum-wage law? Why or why not?9、One country , A, the capital share of GDP is 30 percent, the average growth in output is 3 percent per year, the depreciation rate is about 4 percent per year, and the capital-output rate is about 2.5. Suppose that the production function is Cobb-Douglas, so the capital share is constant, and that country A has been in a steady state ;.a. What must the saving rate be in the initial?b. Compare the capital-output ratio at the Golden Rule steady state to the capital-output ratio inthe initial state.c. What must the saving rate be to reach the Golden Rule steady state? Doses it need to beincreased or decreased? What policies might country A purse ?10、Two countries, Richland and Poorland, are described by the Solow growth model. They havethe same Cobb-Douglas production function , 1(,)F K L AK L αα-=, but with different quantities ofcapital and labor,. Richland save 32 percent of its income, while Poorland saves 10 percent. Richland has population growth of 1 percent per year, while Poorland has population growth of 3 percent.(The numbers in this problem are chosen to be approximately realistic descriptions of richand poor nations.) Both nations have technological progress at rate of 2 percent per year and depreciation at a rate of 5 percent per year.a.What is the per-worker production function f(k)?b.Solve for the ratio of Richland’s steady-state income per worker to Poorland’s.(Hint: Theαparameter will play a role in your answer.)αc.If the Cobb-Douglas parameter takes the conventional value of about 1/3, how muchhigher should income per worker in Richland compared to Poorland?d.Income per worker in Richland is actually 16 times income per worker in Poorland. Can youαexplain this fact by changing the value of parameter ? What must it be? Can you think of any way of justifying such a value for this parameter? How else might you explain the larger difference in income between Richland and Poorland?8、Suppose that consumption depends on the level of real money balance ( on the grounds that real money balances are part of wealth). Show that if real money balances depend on the nominal interest rate, then an increase in the rate of money growth affects consumption, investment, and the real interest rate. Does the nominal interest rate adjust more than one-for-one or less than one-for-one to expected inflation?This deviation from the classical dichotomy and the Fisher effect is called the Mundell-Tobin effect. How might you decide whether the Mundell-Tobin effect is important in practi概率小：3、Consider how each of the following events is likely to affect real GDP. Do you think the change in real GDP reflects a similar change in economic well-being?a. A hurricane in Florida forces Disney World to shut down for a month.b. Increased hostility between unions and management sparks a rash of strikes?c. Firms throughout the economy experience falling demand, causing them to lay off workers.d. More high-school students drop out of school to take jobs mowing lawns.4、When the government subsidizes investment, such as with an investment tax credit, thesubsidy often applies to only some types of investment. This question asks you to consider the effect of such a change. Suppose there are two types of investment in the economy: business investment and residential investment. And suppose that the government institutes an investment tax credit only for business investment.a. How does this policy affect the demand curve for business investment? The demand curve forresidential investment?b. Draw the economy’s supply and demand for loanable funds. How does this policy affect thesupply and demand for loanable funds? What happens to the equilibrium interest rate?c. Compare the old and the new equilibria. How does this policy affect the total quantity ofinvestment? The quantity of residential investment?。

Macroeconomics----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------Part I IntroductionChapter 1 The Science of Macroeconomics【Mainpoints】1.Exogenous Variables and Endogenous VariablesExample: The total quantity and price level of pizza in a country.Exogenous variables are given in a model. [aggregate income, price of materials]Endogenous variables are what a model explains. [price level and total quantity of pizza]2.Flexible Price and Sticky PriceFlexible price: easy to adjust, in short run.Sticky price: hard to adjust, in long run.===========================================Chapter 2 The Data of Macroeconomics【Mainpoints】1.GDP(1) Real GDP and Nominal GDP, GDP deflator(2) economy's income = economy's expenditure(3) GDP = C + G + I + NX2.CPI(1) CPI measures the price of a basket of goods(2) CPI = ∑P m Q / ∑P n Q(3) difference between GDP deflator and CPI3. The Unemployment Rate(1) Labour Force = Number of Unemployment + Number of Employment(2) Unemployment Rate = Number of Unemployment / Labour Force × 100%---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- Part II Classical Theory: The Economy in the Long Run ---- Flexible Price Chapter 3 National Income: Where It Comes From and Where It Goes【Mainpoints】1.Total Production(1) Production Function: Y = F(L,K)(2) constant returns to scale: zY = zF(L,K)2. National Income Distribution(1) Factor Prices ---- Labour:MPL = F(L+1,K) - F(L,K)ΔProfit = ΔRevenue - ΔCost = MPL×P - WIn order to maximize profit, make ΔProfit = 0. So MPL=W/P, Real WageLabour Income = MPL×L(2) Factor Prices ---- CapitalMPK = F(L,K+1) - F(L,K)ΔProfit = ΔRevenue - ΔCost = MPK×P - RIn ordet to maximize profit, make ΔProfit= 0 . So MPK=R/P, Real Rental Price ofCapitalCapital Income = MPK×K3)The Cobb-Douglas Production FunctionLabour Income = MPL×L = (1-α)YCapital Income = MPK×K = αY→F(K,L) = AKαL(1-α) , A measures the productivity of the available technology3.Total Demand1)Consumption:Determined by disposable incomeC=C(Y-T)Marginal Propensity to ConsumeMPC=C(Y-T+1)-C(Y-T)2)Investment:Determined by interest rateI=I(r)When r is high, investors will give upinvestment because cost of loan is higherthan rate of return.3) Government PurchasesG vs T, measures government budget5. Equilibrium (in a closed economy)(1) Market of Goods and ServicesY=C(Y-T)+I(r)+G(2) Market of Loanable FundsS=Y-C(Y-T) - G = I(r)investment is crowded out ===========================================Chapter 4 Money and Inflation【Mainpoints】1.Concept of Money(1) Funtions of Money: 1) Store of Value. Example: You can hold your money and trade itfor goods and services at some time in the future.2) Unit of Account. Example: In store people use money to showprice.3) Medium of Exchage. Example: People use money as tool toexchange goods.(2) Types of Money: 1) Fiat Money. No value, example: Paper Money.2) Commodity Money. With value, example: Gold and Silver.(3) Control of Money: 1) Institution: Central Bank. Example: Deutsche Bundesbank2) Method: Open-Markt Operation. Example: Buy governmentbonds to increase money supply.2.The Quantity Theory of Money(1) Quantity Equation: MV=PT →MV=PYQuantity Theory of Money: MV=PY(2) Real Money Balances: M/P , measured in quantity of goods and services.The Money Demand Function: (M/P)d = L(Y,i) = M/P← Money Supply. Y↑, d↑; i↑,d↓(3) Money and Inflation: ΔM% + ΔV% = ΔP% + ΔY% So M↑, P↑3.Inflation and Interest Rate(1) Fisher Equation: i = r + π===========================================Chapter 5 The Open Economy【Mainpoints】1.International Trade in a Samll Open Economy(1) View of goods and capital flow: NX = Y- (C+G+I)(2) View of capital flow: NX = Y-C-G-I = S-I= S-I(r*)r* is World Interes Rate(3) Trade Policies: 1) Domestic Fiscal Policy, influenceG↑,T↓→S↓→NX↓2) Fiscal Policy Abroad, influenceG e↑, T e↓→S e↓→r*↑→NX↑3) Shift in investment demand. Example: Government provides aninvestment tax credit2.Exchange Rates(1) Nominal Exchange Rates(e) and Real Exchange Rates(ε)Nominal exchange rates are measured in currency. Example: 100 yen / 1 dollarReal exchage rates are measured in goods and services. Example: 2 Japan Car / 1 USA car ε = e × (P/P*) , P* means price level of foreign countries.(2) The Real Exchange Rates and Trade Balance:NX = NX(ε)ε↓, P/P*↓, means domestic goods and servicesare cheaper than abroad. NX↑When NX(ε) = S - I, ε is equilibrium real ex.rate.(3) Trade Policies: 1) Domestic Fiscal Policy:G↑,T↓ → S↓(Expansionary Fiscal Policy)2) Fiscal Policy Abroad:G e↑, T e↓→S e↓→r*↑→I↓3) Shift in investment demand.4) Shift in NX(ε) Example: Protectionist Trade Policies(4) Inflation and nominal exchange rates:e = ε × (P*/P) → Δe%= Δε% + (π* - π)(5) PPP(Purchasing-Power Parity): 1 Dollar can buy the same quantity of wheat in anycountry.===========================================Chapter 6 Unemployment【Mainpoints】1.Natual Rate of Unemployment(1) Concept: The rate of unemployment which the economy get closed to in the long run.(2) Calculation: L-Labour Froce, E-Number of Employed, U-Number of Unemployed, f-rate of job fiding, s-rate of job seperating.L=E+U, fU=sE → U/L=1/(1+f/s)2.Causes for Unemployment(1) Frictional Unemployment:Unemployed people need time to find jobs.e.g. sectoral shift, unemploymetn insurance.(2) Structural Unemployment:Wage Rigidity. Wage is above the equlibrium level.e.g. Minimum-Wage Laws, Unions, Efficiency Wages.---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- Part III Growth Theory: The Economy in the Very Long Run ---- Solow Growth Model Chapter 7 Economic Growth I: Capital Accumulation and Population GrowthAssumption: Constant Return to Scale【Mainpoints】1.Capital Accumulation(1) Production Function per worker: zY=F(zK,zL)→Y/L=F(K/L,1)→y=f(k),MPK=f(k+1)-f(k)(2) Output and consumption per worker: y=c+i→c=(1-s)y→i=sy→i=sf(k)(3) The Steady State: Capital stock growth Δk = 0Δk=i-δk, δ is depreciation rate→Δk=sf(k)-δk=0→sf(k*)=δk*(4)Golden Rule level of capital: k*gold which maximizes cc=y-i→c=f(k)-sf(k)→c*=f(k*)-δk*→c max:MPK=δ2. Population Growth(at rate of n)(1) The Steady State:Δk=i-k(δ+n)→Δk=sf(k)-k(δ+n)=0→sf(k*)=(δ+n)k*(2) Golden Rule level of capital:k*gold, c=y-i→c max:MPK=δ+nChapter 8 Economic Growth I: Technology, Empirics, and Policy1.Technological Progress in the Solow ModelAssumption: Technology growth is a given exogenous variable g(1) Efficiency of Labour: Y=F(K,EL)(2) The Steady State: Δk=sf(k)-(g+n+δ)k=0→sf(k*)=(g+n+δ)k*(3) Golden Rule level of capital: k*gold , c=y-i→MPK=g+n+δ2.Endogenous Growth TheoryAssupmtion: Technolgy growth is a endogenous function g(μ), capital includes knowledge (1) 2 Sector Model: Y=F[K,(1-μ)EL], ΔE=g(μ)E, ΔK=sY-δK---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- Part IV Business Cycle Theory: The Economy in the Short Run ---- Sticky Price Chapter 9 Introduction to Economic Fluctuations【Key Concepts】Recession: A period of falling output and rising unemployment.Business Cycle: Short-run fluctuations in output and employment.【Mainpoints】1.GDP and unemployment(1) Okun's Law: ΔReal GDP%=3%-2×ΔUnemployment Rate(2) Leading Economic Indicators: Forecasts. Example: Average work time, Index of stock prices, Money Supply....2.Aggregate Demand and Aggregate Supply( P=P(Y))(1) The Quantity Theory of Money→AD: MV=PY→M/P=(M/P)d=kY(2) AS: SRAS---P=P, LRAS---Y=Y(3) From Short Run to Long Run: M changes AD, Y is unchanged inthe long run, but P in the long run changes. (A→B→C)(4) Shocks to AD and AP:1) Shocks to AD. Example: Credit Card makes V rise.Policy: Reduce the Money Supply.2) Shocks to AP. Example: A drought that destroys crops. Cartel. Union. etc. P↑Policy: Wait! Then price returns original level eventually(But it takes longtime). Or expand AD(But price level will be high in long period of time).===========================================Chapter 10 Aggregate Demand I: Building the IS-LM Model (Y-r)【Mainpoints】1.IS Curve(1) Good and Service Market→The Keynesian Cross: Y=C+I+G, PE=AE(2) IS curve:Y=C(Y-T)+I(r)+G 1) r↑→I↓→Y↓ 2) Fiscal Policy: G↑→Y↑→IS→, Governmetn-purchases multiplier, tax multiplier.2.LM Curve(1) Money Market→The Theory of Liquidity Peference: M/ P=L(r), M s=M d(2) LM Curve: M/P=L(r,Y). 1) Y↑,M d↑, r↑ 2)M s↑,r↓,LM←3. The Short-Run Equilibrium=========================================== Chapter 11 Aggregate Demand II: Applying the IS-LM Model (Y-P) 【Mainpoints】1.IS-LM Model as a Theroy of Aggregate Demand(1) Derivation: P↑,(M/P)s↓,r↑,LM↑→Y↓(2) Shift in AD: G,T,M→IS/LM→Y(3) In long run and short run: In long run Y<Y===========================================Chapter 12 The Open Economy Revisited: The Mundell-Fleming Model and the Exchange Rate Regime【Mainpoints】1.Mundell-Fleming Model(1) IS* Curve: Y=C(Y-T)+I(r*)+G+NX(ε) (2) LM* Curve: M/P=L(r*,Y)2.Under Floating Exchange Rates(1)Fiscal Policy:Shift IS*,ineffectual; Monetary Policy:Shift LM*; Trade Policy:Shift NX(ε)→IS* 3.Under Fixed Exchange Rates(1) Theory: Arbitrageur arbitrage so that M changes.(2)Fiscal Policy shifts IS*→LM*; Monetary Policy:Shift LM*, ineffectual; Trade Policy: ShiftNX(ε)→IS*→LM*4. Policy Choice: Impossible Trinity5. Mundell-Fleming Model in Short andLong RunChapter 13 AS and the Short-Run Tradeoff Between Inflation and Unemployment1.Aggregate Supply ModelY=Y+α(P-P e)2.Inflation, Unemployment and Phillips Curve(1)Y=Y+α(P-P e)→P-P-1=P e-P-1+1/α(Y-Y)+v→π=πe+β(μ-μn)+v [Okun's Law] v-supply shock(2) Sacrifice Ratio: π↓1%, GDP ↓ ? %----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------Part V Macroeconomic Policy DebateChapter 14 Stabilization Policy1.Inside Lag and Outside Lag(1) Inside lag is the time between economy shock and the policy anction responds. Example: Policy makers need time to recognize a shock and react.(2) Outside lag is the time between a policy action and its influence on the economy. Example: Change in money supply and interest rate.===========================================Chapter 15 Government Debt and Budget Deficits1.The Traditional View of Government Debt(1) In the short run, T↓,C↑,S↓,r↑,I↓,lower steady-state K and a lower level of Y.(2) In the lo ng run, T↓,C↑,IS→,AD↑, finally Y=Y, P is higher.(3) In open economy, T↓,C↑,IS→, ε↑2.The Ricardian View of Government Debt(1) Ricardian Equivalence: Consumers are forward-looking.They think that government will raise tax at some point in the future, in order to afford budget. So they won't change consumption. --------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- Part VI More on the Microeconomics Behind MacroeconomicsChapter 18 Money Supply, Money Demand and the Banking System1.Money Supply(1) Money Supply (M) = Currency (C) + Demand Deposits (D)(2) Reserves: The money that bank receive but don't lend out. Reserve-deposit ratio-rr1) 100% Reserve Banking. 1C→1D, M remains constant.2) Fractional-Reserve Banking. 1C→rrD+(1-rr)C, M increases. And (1-rr)C can be put into another bank, the process of money creation can be continued.(3) Money Supply Model: M=C+D.B(Monetary Base)=C+R [Control by Central Bank]→ M=(cr+1)/(cr+rr)×B=m×B [cr is currency-deposit ratio](4) Monetary Policy Tool: open-market operation, reserve requirements, discout rate[the rate that banks borrow from central bank].2.Money Demand(1) Quantity Theory: (M/P)d=L(i;Y)(2) Portfolio Theory: (M/P)d=L(r s,r b,πe,W) [r s-expected real return on stock, r b-expected real return on bonds, W-real wealth]。

微生物题库及答案中文版2004-2005秋季学期说明：1．以网上流传的“微生物答案1[1][1].2版”为基本框架，题目和顺序均来自该版。

2．答案主要参考材料为科学出版社的中译版《微生物生物学》和老师的讲义。

3．绝大多数答案为中文，个别用中文难以表达或繁琐的部分保留了英文叙述。

4．由于现有图片都不甚清晰，涉及图片的部分均未加入，建议打印后徒手绘之。

（文档中相应部分均留有空间）。

1. Introduction to Microbiology1．what is Microbiology?研究微生物的科学，微生物是一大群种类各异的微小生物体，他们以单细胞或细胞群体存在，包括病毒。

2．what are Microorganisms?微生物是一大群种类各异的微小生物体，他们以单细胞或细胞群体存在，也包括病毒。

例如：细菌，古细菌，藻类，真菌，原生动物等。

3．4．粘菌。

5．a)且往往是的DNAb)c)d)e)f)谢以及复制功能。

6．a)b)7．a)Small volume, large surface areab)Fast absorption and conversionc)Rapid duplication and growthd)Strong adaptabilitye)8．Populations, communities and ecosystems?裂。

9．Brief history of microbiology?f)1684 Antonie van Leeuwenhoek (discovery of bacteria) 列文虎克发现细菌g)1857-1864 Louis Pasteur (lactic acid fermentation, yeast alcohol fermentation,spontaneous generation theory) 巴斯德和自然发生说的破灭（发现乳酸发酵和酒精发酵）h)1881-1884 Robert Koch (pure culture, cause of tuberculosis, Koch’spostulates, cause of (霍乱) cholera）科赫的疾病细菌说，纯培养；Koch假设，结核和霍乱病茵的发现。

习题集一Question 1In Australia ,using 2000-01 as the base year, we would find that:a)Nominal GDP is always larger than real GDP.b)Real GDP is always larger than nominal GDP for the period 1960 to 2000.c)Real GDP is larger than nominal GDP from 1998 to 2002.d)Real GDP is smaller than nominal GDP from 1988 to 1995.e)Real GDP and nominal GDP would be equal for the entire period.Note: please see figure 2.1 on page 31 of the text book.Question 2During the date 1990s, Japan experienced reductions in the GDP deflator. Given this information, we know with certainty that:a)Real GDP fell during these periods.b)Real GDP did not change during these periods.c)The overall price level in Japan decreased during these periods.d)Both real GDP and the overall price level decreased during these periods.Question 3Suppose that in January 2003 in Australia, 200 million people are working, 20 million are not working but are looking for work, and 40 million are not working and have given up looking for work. The official unemployment rate for that month is:a)7.7%b)9.1%c)10%d)23%e)30%Question 4A country using the Australian system of unemployment statistics has 100 million people, of whom 50 million are working age. Of these 50 million, 20 million have jobs. Of the remainder: 10 million are actively searching for jobs; 10 million would like jobs but are not searching; and 10 million do not want jobs at all.The labour force is:a)10 millionb)20 millionc)30 milliond)40 millione)50 millionQuestion 5Suppose the consumption equation is represented by the following: C=100+ .75Y D. The multiplier in this economy is_______.a)0.25b)0.75c) 1.33d) 2e) 4Question 6The paradox of saving suggests that an increase in the desire to save will cause:a)An incease in equilibrium GDP.b) A reduction in GDP.c)An increase in the desire to invest.d)No change in equilibrium GDP.e) A permanent increase in the level of saving.Note: Please see definition of “ paradox of saving” on page 674 of the text book.( saving S↑→Y↓→S↓(S=Y-T-C) so,saving is unchanged )Question 7When C= C0+C1Y D, an increase in C0 will cause which of the following to increase?a)Equilibrium incomeb)Equilibrium disposable incomec)Equilibrium savingd)All of the abovee)None of the aboveQuestion 8Suppose the central bank wishes to conduct expansionary monetary policy. Given this, we would expect which of the following to occur?a) A central bank purchase of bonds and an increase in the interest rateb) A central bank purchase of bonds and a reduction in the interest ratec) A central bank sale of bonds and an increase in the interest rated) A central bank sale of bonds and a reduction in the interest rateQuestion 9Suppose the money supply decreased. Which of the following events could cause this?a)An increase in the monetary baseb) A decrease in the ratio of reserves to depositsc) A shift in public preferences away from currency toward current account depositsd)All of the abovee)None of the aboveQuestion 10Suppose there is an open market sale of bonds. Such an event will cause:a)An increase in bond prices and an increase in the interest rate(i)b) A reduction in bond prices and an increase in i.c)An increase in bond prices and a reduction in i.d) A reduction in abond prices and a reduction in i.e)None of the aboveQuestion 11After a contractionary fiscal policy:a)The LM curve shifts and we move along the IS curve.b)The IS curve shifts and we move along the LM curve.c)Both the IS and LM curve shift.d)Neither the IS nor the LM curve shifts.e)Output will change causing a chage in money demand and a shift of the LM curve.Quetsion 12Suppose there is a tax cut. Which of the following represents the complete list of variables that must increase in response to this tax cut?a)Consumptionb)Consumption and investmentc)Consumption, investment and outputd)Consumption and outpute)Consumption, output and the interest rateQuestion 13If efficiency wage theory is valid,we would expect a relatively high premium over the reservation wage when:a)The unemployment rate is high.b)The job requires very little training.c)Workers cannot be easily monitored.d)Workers have few other options for employment in the area.e)All of the aboveQuestion 14The natural level of output is the level of output that occurs when:a)The goods market is in equilibrium.b)The economy is operating at the unemployment rate consistent with both the wage-settingand price-setting equations.c)The financial markets are in equilibrium.d)The unemployment rate is zero.e)Both the goods and financial markets are in equilibrium.Question 15Use the following Phillips curve equation to answer this question: πt -πt-1 = (μ+z)-αu t.A permanent reduction in the unemployment rate causes:a)An increase in the markup over labour costs.b) A decrease in the markup over labour costs.c)An increase in the inflation rate over time.d) A decrease in the inflation rate over time.e)None of the aboveQuestion 16If policymakers underestimate the natural rate of unemployment, they may follow policies that cause Australia to have:a)More unemployment than necessary.b)An unemployment rate that is “to high”c) A higher inflation rate than necessary.d) A steadily decreasing inflation rate.e) A dramatically fluctuating unemployment rate.Question 17Based on a dynamic AD relation when the central bank controls nominal money, output growth will equal zero when which of the following conditions is satisfied?a)0% nominal money growth; 4% inflationb)4% nonminal money growth; 0% inflationc)-4% nominal money growth; 3% inflationd)4% nominal money growth; 4% inflatione)None of the aboveNote: dynamic AD relation: g y = g m - π. So, if g m = π = 4%, g y = 0.Question 18In the medium run, a reduction in the rate of inflation target will cause:a)An increase in the size of the sacrifice ratio.b) A reduction in the size of the sacrifice ratio.c) A reduction in adjusted money growth.d) A reduction in the rate of inflation.e)Both C and DNote: Please see figure 9.3 on page 217 of the text book.Question 19Which of the following will increase the steady-state growth rate of capital?a)An increase in the saving rateb)An increase in the population growth ratec) A temporary increase in technological progressd)All of the abovee)None of the aboveNote: Please see figure 12.3 on page 282 of the text book.Question 20Which of the following has been proposed as an explanation for the slowdown in technological progress since the mid-1970s?a)Measurement errorb) A dicline in manufacturing’s share in GDPc) A decline in spending on research and developmentd)All of the abovee)None of the aboveNote: Please see page 272- 274 of the text book of the last year.Question 21Which of the following is true whenever the inflation rate is positve?a)The real interest rate must be greater than the nominal interest rate.b)The real interest rate must be negative.c)The real interest rate must be positive.d)The nominal interest rate must be negative.e)None of the aboveQuestion 22If the nominal interest rate in 20% per year, how much money can an individual borrow today if she wants to repay $200 in one year?a)$240.00b)$150.00c)$160.00d)$166.67e)$180.00Note: 200/(1+20%) = $166.67Question 23Assume that the yield curve is downward-sloping yield curve. This suggests that financial market participants expect short-term interest rates to:a)Increase in the future.b)Decrease in the future.c)Be unstable in the future.d)Not change in the future.e)Rise in the near future, and fall in the more distant future.Question 24In general, when the short-term interest rates decrease, long-term rates will:a)Increaseb)Remain the same.c)Decrease by more than the short-term rate.d)Decrease by the same amount as the short-term rate.e)Decrease, but by less than the short-term rate.Question 25Which of following represents non-human wealth?a)Total wealth minus the present discounted value of expected future after-tax labour incomeb)Total wealth minus financial wealthc)Wealth that cannot be taken from a person, by lawd)Financial wealth minus housing wealthe)Total wealth minuse housing wealthQuestion 26Suppose individuals expect that interest rates will rise in the future. Also assume that the RBA wants to prevent any change in current output. Given this goal of the RBA, the RBA should implement a plocy in the current period that:a)Shifts the IS cruve rightward.b)Shifts the IS curve leftward.c)Shifts the IS curve leftward and the LM curve upward.d)Shifts the LM curve upward.e)Shifts the LM curve downward.Question 27Suppose there is a real appreciation of the Australian dollar. Which of the following may have occurred?a)Foreign currency has become less expensive in the Australian dollars.b)Foreign goods have become more expensive to Americans.c)The foreign price level has increased relative to the Australian price level.d)All of the abovee)None of the aboveNote: ε = EP/ P*Question 28An increase in the real exchange rate indicates that:a)Foreign goods are now relatively cheaper.b)Foreign goods are now relatively more expensive.c)Domestic goods are now relatively more expensive.d)Both A and CNote: ε = EP/ P*. so P↑ or P*↓→ ε↑Question 29Suppose there is a reduction in foreign output(Y*). This reduction in Y* will cause which of the following in the domestic country?a) A reduction in outputb) A reduction in consumptionc) A reduction in net exportsd)All of the abovee)None of the aboveNote : (1) Y*↓→ X↓→NX↓→Z↓→Y↓(2) C↓ = c0 + c1(Y↓ -T)Question 30Suppose net exports are postive(NX>0) for a country. Given this information, we know that:a)Demand for domestic goods will be equal to the domestic demand for goods.b)Demand for domestic goods will be greater than the domestic demand for goods.c)Demand for domestic goods will be less than the domestic demand for goods.d) A budget surplus exists.Note : domestic demand for goods: DD = C+I+Gdemand for domestic goods: ZZ = C+I+G+NX = DD + NXQuestion 31In an open economy under flexible exchange rates, a reduction in the interest rate will cause an increase in which of the follwing?a)Investmentb)Exportsc)Net exportsd)All of the abovee)None of the aboveQuestion 32Suppose a country inplements simultaneously a fiscal expansion and monetary contraction. In a flexible exchangerate regime, we know with certainty that:a)The exchange rate and output would both increase.b)The exchange rate would increase and output would decrease.c)The exchange rate would increase.d)The exchange rate would decrease output would increase.Question 33Which of the following explains why the Great Depression did not end sooner?a)An increase in the nominal money stockb)An increase in the price levelc)The presence of a liquidity trapd)All of the abovee)None of the aboveQuestion 34In the IS-LM model, an increase in the expected rate of deflation will cause:a)An increase in demand.b)An increase in the nominal interest rate.c)An increase in the real interest rate.d)An increase in the nominal money supply.e) A decrease in the nominal money supply.Note: r ≈ i - eQuestion 35A dangerous sign for hyperinflation is when the government finances a growing proportion of its budget deficit through:a)Monetisationb)Tax collections.c)Bonds sold to foreigners.d)Bonds sold to domestic citizens.e)Voluntary contributions.Question 36Seignorage, the revenue from money creation, equals which of the following?a)The rate of inflationb)The rate of inflation times real money balancesc)Real money balancesd)The percentage growth rate of real moneye)The percentage growth rate of nominal money times real money balancesNote : Seignorage =△M/P = (△M/M)(M/P)Question 37Due to uncertainty about the impact of monetary policy, it would be best for the central bank to increase money growth:a) 3 months after the start of a recession.b)By more than the increase that will get the desired response.c)By less than the increase that will get the desired response.d)Only when it can be certain about the value of Okun’s coefficient and the timing of itsimpacts.e)Only after it is centain that the economy has entered a recession.Question 38The problem of time inconsistency in macro policy suggests that a nation might be better off:a)Using fiscal and monetary policy to fine tune the economy.b)Reducing the independence of the central bank.c)Appointing someone who is more conservative than the rest of the government to head thecentral bank.d)Intervening frequently in the foreign exchange market.e)Eliminating rational expectations from econometric models used for forecasting.Question 39According to Keynes:a)The Great Depression was caused by ill-considered expansionary fiscal policy.b)Balancing the budget in the midst of a depression would be a serious mistake.c)Inflation is always and everywhere a monetary phenomenon.d)The Phillips curve is stable.e)None of the aboveQuestion 40Which of the following events led to the crisis in macroeconomics and to the development of rational expectations theory?a)The Great Depressionb)The stock market crash of 1987c)The stock market speculative bubble of the late 1990sd)Stagflation in the 1970se)Large budget deficits in the 1980s.Question 41Explain the concept of neutrality of money.( please see p673 of the text book and the slides of module 3(cont.). )Question 42Explain the concept of time inconsistency.( please see the slides of module 6 (cont.) )Question 43Define each of the following terms:a)Okun’s Lawb)Sacrifice ratioc)Financial wealthQuestion 44Suppose some countries have been experiencing a slow-down in economic growth for last 2years. The slow-down was associated with a downturn in consumer confidence. The governments of these countries are thinking to implement expansionary fiscal and monetary policies (by increasing government expenditure and reducing interest rates) to overcome the situation. Using an IS-LM model, analyse the slow-down in growth and the short run effects of expansionary fiscal and monetary policies.Answer: ( please draw the Is and LM curve )Question 45a)Consider an economy with output below the natural level and the nominal interest rateequal to zero. Illustrate this economy in an IS-LM diagram.b)Under normal circumstances, how does the economy return to the naural level of output?Does this adjustment mechanism work when the nominal interest rate equals zero?c)Suppose the central bank wants to use monetary policy to return the economy to its naturallevel of output. Can it do so when the nominal interest rate is equal to zero? What happens if the central bank tries to use expansionary monetary policy? Illustrate your answer in an IS-LM diagram.d)In principle, can fiscal policy be used to restore the economy to its natural level of outputwhen the nominal interest rate equals zero? If so, explain how the appropriate policy affects output. If not, explain why not.e)Consider the following policy advice: ‘Since the central bank can act to keep the economy atthe natural level of output, the government should never use fiscal policy to stimulate the economy.’Do your answers to this question support this advice?Answer: ( please see slides 13-31 of module 6 )- 11 -。

Question 1In Australia ,using 2000-01 as the base year, we would find that:a)Nominal GDP is always larger than real GDP.b)Real GDP is always larger than nominal GDP for the period 1960 to 2000.c)Real GDP is larger than nominal GDP from 1998 to 2002.d)Real GDP is smaller than nominal GDP from 1988 to 1995.e)Real GDP and nominal GDP would be equal for the entire period.Note: please see figure 2.1 on page 31 of the text book.Question 2During the date 1990s, Japan experienced reductions in the GDP deflator. Given this information, we know with certainty that:a)Real GDP fell during these periods.b)Real GDP did not change during these periods.c)The overall price level in Japan decreased during these periods.d)Both real GDP and the overall price level decreased during these periods.Suppose that in January 2003 in Australia, 200 million people are working, 20 million are not working but are looking for work, and 40 million are not working and have given up looking for work. The official unemployment rate for that month is:a)7.7%b)9.1%c)10%d)23%e)30%Question 4A country using the Australian system of unemployment statistics has 100 million people, of whom 50 million are working age. Of these 50 million, 20 million have jobs. Of the remainder: 10 million are actively searching for jobs; 10 million would like jobs but are not searching; and 10 million do not want jobs at all.The labour force is:a)10 millionc)30 milliond)40 millione)50 millionQuestion 5Suppose the consumption equation is represented by the following: C=100+ .75Y D. The multiplier in this economy is_______.a)0.25b)0.75c) 1.33d) 2e) 4Question 6The paradox of saving suggests that an increase in the desire to save will cause:a)An incease in equilibrium GDP.b) A reduction in GDP.c)An increase in the desire to invest.d)No change in equilibrium GDP.e) A permanent increase in the level of saving.Note: Please see definition of “paradox of saving”on page 674 of the text book. ( saving S↑→Y↓→S↓(S=Y-T-C) so,saving is unchanged )Question 7When C= C0+C1Y D, an increase in C0 will cause which of the following to increase?a)Equilibrium incomeb)Equilibrium disposable incomec)Equilibrium savingd)All of the abovee)None of the aboveQuestion 8Suppose the central bank wishes to conduct expansionary monetary policy. Given this, we would expect which of the following to occur?a) A central bank purchase of bonds and an increase in the interest rateb) A central bank purchase of bonds and a reduction in the interest ratec) A central bank sale of bonds and an increase in the interest rated) A central bank sale of bonds and a reduction in the interest rateQuestion 9Suppose the money supply decreased. Which of the following events could cause this?a)An increase in the monetary baseb) A decrease in the ratio of reserves to depositsc) A shift in public preferences away from currency toward current accountdepositsd)All of the abovee)None of the aboveQuestion 10Suppose there is an open market sale of bonds. Such an event will cause:a)An increase in bond prices and an increase in the interest rate(i)b) A reduction in bond prices and an increase in i.c)An increase in bond prices and a reduction in i.d) A reduction in abond prices and a reduction in i.e)None of the aboveQuestion 11After a contractionary fiscal policy:a)The LM curve shifts and we move along the IS curve.b)The IS curve shifts and we move along the LM curve.c)Both the IS and LM curve shift.d)Neither the IS nor the LM curve shifts.e)Output will change causing a chage in money demand and a shift of the LMcurve.Quetsion 12Suppose there is a tax cut. Which of the following represents the complete list of variables that must increase in response to this tax cut?a)Consumptionb)Consumption and investmentc)Consumption, investment and outputd)Consumption and outpute)Consumption, output and the interest rateQuestion 13If efficiency wage theory is valid,we would expect a relatively high premium over the reservation wage when:a)The unemployment rate is high.b)The job requires very little training.c)Workers cannot be easily monitored.d)Workers have few other options for employment in the area.e)All of the aboveQuestion 14The natural level of output is the level of output that occurs when:a)The goods market is in equilibrium.b)The economy is operating at the unemployment rate consistent with both thewage-setting and price-setting equations.c)The financial markets are in equilibrium.d)The unemployment rate is zero.e)Both the goods and financial markets are in equilibrium.Question 15Use the following Phillips curve equation to answer this question: πt -πt-1 = (μ+z)-αu t.A permanent reduction in the unemployment rate causes:a)An increase in the markup over labour costs.b) A decrease in the markup over labour costs.c)An increase in the inflation rate over time.d) A decrease in the inflation rate over time.e)None of the aboveQuestion 16If policymakers underestimate the natural rate of unemployment, they may follow policies that cause Australia to have:a)More unemployment than necessary.b)An unemployment rate that is “to high”c) A higher inflation rate than necessary.d) A steadily decreasing inflation rate.e) A dramatically fluctuating unemployment rate.Question 17Based on a dynamic AD relation when the central bank controls nominal money, output growth will equal zero when which of the following conditions is satisfied?a)0% nominal money growth; 4% inflationb)4% nonminal money growth; 0% inflationc)-4% nominal money growth; 3% inflationd)4% nominal money growth; 4% inflatione)None of the aboveNote: dynamic AD relation: g y = g m - π. So, if g m = π = 4%, g y = 0.Question 18In the medium run, a reduction in the rate of inflation target will cause:a)An increase in the size of the sacrifice ratio.b) A reduction in the size of the sacrifice ratio.c) A reduction in adjusted money growth.d) A reduction in the rate of inflation.e)Both C and DNote: Please see figure 9.3 on page 217 of the text book.Question 19Which of the following will increase the steady-state growth rate of capital?a)An increase in the saving rateb)An increase in the population growth ratec) A temporary increase in technological progressd)All of the abovee)None of the aboveNote: Please see figure 12.3 on page 282 of the text book.Question 20Which of the following has been proposed as an explanation for the slowdown in technological progress since the mid-1970s?a)Measurement errorb) A dicline in manufacturing’s share in GDPc) A decline in spending on research and developmentd)All of the abovee)None of the aboveNote: Please see page 272- 274 of the text book of the last year.Question 21Which of the following is true whenever the inflation rate is positve?a)The real interest rate must be greater than the nominal interest rate.b)The real interest rate must be negative.c)The real interest rate must be positive.d)The nominal interest rate must be negative.e)None of the aboveQuestion 22If the nominal interest rate in 20% per year, how much money can an individual borrow today if she wants to repay $200 in one year?a)$240.00b)$150.00c)$160.00d)$166.67e)$180.00Note: 200/(1+20%) = $166.67Question 23Assume that the yield curve is downward-sloping yield curve. This suggests that financial market participants expect short-term interest rates to:a)Increase in the future.b)Decrease in the future.c)Be unstable in the future.d)Not change in the future.e)Rise in the near future, and fall in the more distant future.Question 24In general, when the short-term interest rates decrease, long-term rates will:a)Increaseb)Remain the same.c)Decrease by more than the short-term rate.d)Decrease by the same amount as the short-term rate.e)Decrease, but by less than the short-term rate.Question 25Which of following represents non-human wealth?a)Total wealth minus the present discounted value of expected future after-taxlabour incomeb)Total wealth minus financial wealthc)Wealth that cannot be taken from a person, by lawd)Financial wealth minus housing wealthe)Total wealth minuse housing wealthQuestion 26Suppose individuals expect that interest rates will rise in the future. Also assume that the RBA wants to prevent any change in current output. Given this goal of the RBA, the RBA should implement a plocy in the current period that:a)Shifts the IS cruve rightward.b)Shifts the IS curve leftward.c)Shifts the IS curve leftward and the LM curve upward.d)Shifts the LM curve upward.e)Shifts the LM curve downward.Question 27Suppose there is a real appreciation of the Australian dollar. Which of the following may have occurred?a)Foreign currency has become less expensive in the Australian dollars.b)Foreign goods have become more expensive to Americans.c)The foreign price level has increased relative to the Australian price level.d)All of the abovee)None of the aboveNote: = EP/ P*Question 28An increase in the real exchange rate indicates that:a)Foreign goods are now relatively cheaper.b)Foreign goods are now relatively more expensive.c)Domestic goods are now relatively more expensive.d)Both A and CNote: ε = EP/ P*. so P↑or P*↓→ε↑Question 29Suppose there is a reduction in foreign output(Y*). This reduction in Y* will cause which of the following in the domestic country?a) A reduction in outputb) A reduction in consumptionc) A reduction in net exportsd)All of the abovee)None of the aboveNote : (1) Y*↓→X↓→NX↓→Z↓→Y↓(2) C↓= c0 + c1(Y↓-T)Question 30Suppose net exports are postive(NX>0) for a country. Given this information, we know that:a)Demand for domestic goods will be equal to the domestic demand for goods.b)Demand for domestic goods will be greater than the domestic demand forgoods.c)Demand for domestic goods will be less than the domestic demand for goods.d) A budget surplus exists.Note : domestic demand for goods: DD = C+I+Gdemand for domestic goods: ZZ = C+I+G+NX = DD + NXQuestion 31In an open economy under flexible exchange rates, a reduction in the interest rate will cause an increase in which of the follwing?a)Investmentb)Exportsc)Net exportsd)All of the abovee)None of the aboveQuestion 32Suppose a country inplements simultaneously a fiscal expansion and monetary contraction. In a flexible exchangerate regime, we know with certainty that:a)The exchange rate and output would both increase.b)The exchange rate would increase and output would decrease.c)The exchange rate would increase.d)The exchange rate would decrease output would increase.Question 33Which of the following explains why the Great Depression did not end sooner?a)An increase in the nominal money stockb)An increase in the price levelc)The presence of a liquidity trapd)All of the abovee)None of the aboveQuestion 34In the IS-LM model, an increase in the expected rate of deflation will cause:a)An increase in demand.b)An increase in the nominal interest rate.c)An increase in the real interest rate.d)An increase in the nominal money supply.e) A decrease in the nominal money supply.Note: r ≈i - eQuestion 35A dangerous sign for hyperinflation is when the government finances a growing proportion of its budget deficit through:a)Monetisationb)Tax collections.c)Bonds sold to foreigners.d)Bonds sold to domestic citizens.e)Voluntary contributions.Question 36Seignorage, the revenue from money creation, equals which of the following?a)The rate of inflationb)The rate of inflation times real money balancesc)Real money balancesd)The percentage growth rate of real moneye)The percentage growth rate of nominal money times real money balancesNote : Seignorage =△M/P = (△M/M)(M/P)Question 37Due to uncertainty about the impact of monetary policy, it would be best for the central bank to increase money growth:a) 3 months after the start of a recession.b)By more than the increase that will get the desired response.c)By less than the increase that will get the desired response.d)Only when it can be certain about the value of Okun’s coefficient and thetiming of its impacts.e)Only after it is centain that the economy has entered a recession.Question 38The problem of time inconsistency in macro policy suggests that a nation might bebetter off:a)Using fiscal and monetary policy to fine tune the economy.b)Reducing the independence of the central bank.c)Appointing someone who is more conservative than the rest of the governmentto head the central bank.d)Intervening frequently in the foreign exchange market.e)Eliminating rational expectations from econometric models used forforecasting.Question 39According to Keynes:a)The Great Depression was caused by ill-considered expansionary fiscal policy.b)Balancing the budget in the midst of a depression would be a serious mistake.c)Inflation is always and everywhere a monetary phenomenon.d)The Phillips curve is stable.e)None of the aboveQuestion 40Which of the following events led to the crisis in macroeconomics and to the development of rational expectations theory?a)The Great Depressionb)The stock market crash of 1987c)The stock market speculative bubble of the late 1990sd)Stagflation in the 1970se)Large budget deficits in the 1980s.Question 41Explain the concept of neutrality of money.( please see p673 of the text book and the slides of module 3(cont.). )Question 42Explain the concept of time inconsistency.( please see the slides of module 6 (cont.) )Question 43Define each of the following terms:a)Okun’s Lawb)Sacrifice ratioc)Financial wealthQuestion 44Suppose some countries have been experiencing a slow-down in economic growth for last 2years. The slow-down was associated with a downturn in consumer confidence. The governments of these countries are thinking to implement expansionary fiscal and monetary policies (by increasing government expenditure and reducing interest rates) to overcome the situation. Using an IS-LM model, analyse the slow-down in growth and the short run effects of expansionary fiscal and monetary policies.Answer: ( please draw the Is and LM curve ) Question 45a)Consider an economy with output below the natural level and the nominalinterest rate equal to zero. Illustrate this economy in an IS-LM diagram.b)Under normal circumstances, how does the economy return to the naural levelof output? Does this adjustment mechanism work when the nominal interest rate equals zero?c)Suppose the central bank wants to use monetary policy to return the economyto its natural level of output. Can it do so when the nominal interest rate is equal to zero? What happens if the central bank tries to use expansionary monetary policy? Illustrate your answer in an IS-LM diagram.d)In principle, can fiscal policy be used to restore the economy to its natural levelof output when the nominal interest rate equals zero? If so, explain how the appropriate policy affects output. If not, explain why not.e)Consider the following policy advice: ‘Since the central bank can act to keepthe economy at the natural level of output, the government should never use fiscal policy to stimulate the economy.’Do your answers to this question support this advice?Answer: ( please see slides 13-31 of module 6 )。

GLOSSARYAbundance of an mRNA is the average number of molecules per cell.Abundant mRNAs consist of a small number of individual species, each present in a large number of copies per cell.Acceptor splicing site—see right splicing junction.Acentric fragment of a chromosome (generated by breakage) lacks a centromere and is lost cell division.Acrocentric chromosome has the centromere located nearer one end than the other.Active site is the restricted part of a protein to which a substrate binds.Allele is one of several alternative forms of a gene occupying a given locus on a chromosome. Allelic exclusion describes the expression in any particular lymphocyte of only one allele coding for the expressed immunoglobulin.Allosteric control refers to the ability of an interaction at one site of a protein to influence the activity of another site.Alu family is a set of dispersed, related sequences, each～300 bp long, in the human genome. The individual members have Alu cleavage sites at each end (hence the name).Alu-equivalent family is the set of sequences in a mammalian genome that is related to the human Alu family.α-Amanitin is a bicyclic octapeptide derived from the poisonous mushroom Amanita phalloides; it inhibhits transcription by certain eukaryotic RNA polymerases, especially RNA polymerase II.Amber codon is the nucleotide triplet UAG, one of three codons that cause termination of protein synthesis.Amber mutaion describes any change in DNA that creates an amber codon at a site previously occupied by a codon representing an amino acid in a protein.Amber suppressors are mutant genes that code for tRNAs whose anticodons have been altered so that they can respond to UAG codons as well as or instead of to their previous codons.Aminoacyl-tRNA is transfer RNA carrying an amino acid; the covalent linkage is between the NH2group of the amino acid and either the 3’-or-2’-OH group of the terminal base of the tRNA.Aminoacyl-tRNA synthetases are enzymes responsible for covalently linking amino acids to the 2’ or 3’-OH position of tRNA.Amphipathic structures have two surfaces, one hydrophilic and one hydrophobic. Lipids are amphipathic; and some protein regions may form amphipathic; and some protein regions may form amphipathic helices, with one charged face and one neutral face.Amplification refers to the production of additional copies of a chromosomal sequence,found as intrachromosomal or extrachromoxomal DNA.Anchorage dependence describes the need of normal eukaryotic cells for a surface to attach to in order to grow in culture.Aneuploid chromosome constitution differes from the usal diploid constitution by loss or duplication of chromosomes or chromosomal segments. Annealing is the pairing of plementary single strands of DNA to form a double helix.Antibody is a protein (immunoglobulin) produced by B lymphocyte cells that recognizes a particular foreign ‘antigen,’and thusw triggers the immune response.Anticoding strand of duples DNA is used as a template to direct the synthesis of RNA that is plementary to it.Antigen is any molecule whose entry into an organism provokes synthesis of an antibody (immunoglobulin).Antiparallel strands of the double helix are organized in opposite orientation, so that the 5’ end of one strand is aligened with the 3’ end of th e other strand.Antitermination proteins allow RNA polymerase to transcribe through certain terminator sites.Ap endonucleases make incisions in DNA on the 5’ side of either apurinic or apyrimidinc sites.Apoinducer is a protein that binds to DNA to switch on transcription by RNA polymerase. Archebacteria prise a minor line of prokaryotes, and may have introns in the genome. Ascus of a fungus contains a tetrad or octad of the (haploid) spores, representhing the products of a sihngle meiosis.att sties are the loci on a phage and the bacterial chromosome at which rebination integrates the phage into. or excises it from , the bacterial chromosome.Attenuation describes the regulation of termination of transcription that is involved in controlling the expression of some bacterial operons.Attenuato r is the terminator sequence at which attenuatioj occurs.Autogenous conhtrol describes the action of a gene product that either inhibits (negative autogenous control) or activates (positive autogenous control) expression of the gene coding for it.Autonomous controlling element in maize is an active transposon with the ability to transpose (cf nonautonomous controlling element).Autoradiography detects radioactively labeled molecules by their effect in creating an image on pholtographic film.Autosomes are all the chromosomes except the sex chromosomes; a diploid cell has two copies of each autosome.Blymphocytes (or B cells) are the cells responsible for synthesizing antibodies.Backcross is another (earlier) term for a testcross.Back mutation reverses the effect of a mutation that hand inactivated a gene; thus it restores wild type.Bacteriophages are viruses that infect bacteria; often abbreviated as phages.Balbaini ring is an extremely large puff at a band of a polytene chromosome.Bands of polytene chromosomes are visible as dense regions that contain the majority of DNA;bands of normal chromosomes are relatively much larger and are generated in the form of regions that retain a stain on certain chemical treatments.Base pair (bp) is a partnership of A with T or of C with G in a DNA double helix; other pairs can be formed in RNA under certain circumstances.Bidirectional replication is acplished when two replication forks move away from the same origin in different directions.Bivalent is the structure containing all four chromatids (two representing each homologue) at the start of meiosis.Blastoderm is a stage of insect embryogenesis in which a layer of nuclei or cells around the embryo surround an internal mass of yolk.Blocked reading frame cannot be translated into protein because it is interrupted by termination codons.Blunt-end ligation is a reaction that joins two DNA duplex molecules directly at their ends. bp is an abbreviation for base pairs; distance along DNA is measured in bp.Branch migration describes the ability of a DNA strand partially paired with its plement in a duplex to extend its pairing by displacing the resident strand with which it is homologous. Breackage and reunion describes the mode of genetic rebination, in which two DNA duplex molecules are broken at corresponding points and then rejoined crosswise (involving formation of a length of heteroduplex DNA around the site of joining).Buoyant desity measures the ability of a substance to float in some standard fluid, for example, CsCl.C banding is a technique for generating stained regions around centromeres.C genes code for the constant regions of immunoglobulin protein chains.C value is the total amount of DNA in a haploid genome.CAAT box is part of a conserved sequence located upstream of the startpoints of eukaryotic transcription units; it is recognized by a large group of transcription factors.Cap is the structure at the 5’ end of eukaryotic mRNA, introduced after transcripton b y linking the terminal phosphate of 5’ GTP to the terminal base of the mRNA. The added G (and sometimes some other bases) are methylated, giving a structure of the form 7Me G5’ppp 5’Np…CAP(CRP)is a positive regulator protein activated by cyclic AMP. It is needed for RNA polymerase to initiate transcription of certain (catabolitesensitive) operons of E. coli.Capsid is the external protein coat of a virus particle.Catabolite repression describes the decreased expression of many bacterial operons that results from addition of glucose. It is caused by a decrease in the level of cyclic AMP, which in turn inactivates the CAP regulator.cDNA is a single-stranded DNA plementary to an RNA, synthesized from it by reverse transcription in vitro.cDNA clone is a duplex DNA sequence representing an RNA, carried in a cloning vector.Cell cycle is the period from one division to the next.Cell hybrid is a somatic cell containing chromosomes derived from parental cells of different species (e.g. a man-mouse somatic cell hybrid), generating by fusing the cells to form a heterokaryon in which the nuclei subsequently fused.Centrioles are small hollow cylinders consisting of microtubules that bee located near the poles during mitosis. They reside within the centrosomes.Centromere is a constricted region of a chromosome that includes the site of attachment to the mitotic or meiotic spindle (see also kinetochore).Centrosomes are the regions from which microtubules are organized at the poles of a mitotic cell. In animal cells, each centrosome contains a pair of centrioles surrounded by a dense amorphous region to which the microtubules attach. See also MTOC.Molecular chaperone is a protein that is needed for the assembly or proper folding of some other protein, but which is not itself a ponent of the target plex.Chemical plexity is the amount of a DNA ponent measured by chemical assay.Chi sequence is an octamer that provides a hotspot for RecA-mediated genetic rebination in E. coli.Chi structure is a joint between two duplex molecules of DNA revealed by cleaving an intermediate of two joined circles to generate linear ends in each circle. It resembles a Greek chi in outline, hence the name.Chiasma (pl. chiasmata)is a site at which two homologous chromosomes appear to have exchanged material during meiosis.Chromatids are the copies of a chromosome produced by replication. The name is usually used to describe them in the period before they separate at the subsequent cell division. Chromatin is the plex of DNA and protein in the nucleus of the interphase cell. Individual chromosomes cannot be distinguished in it .It was originally recognized by its reaction with stains specific for DNA.Chromocenter is an aggregate of heterochromatin from different chromosomes. Chromomeres are densely staining granules visible in chromosomes under certain conditions, especially early in meiosis, when a chromosome may appear to consist of a series ofchromomeres.Chromosome is a discrete unit of the genome carrying many genes. Each chromosome counsists of a very long molecule of duplex DNA and an approximately equal mass of proteins. It is visible as a morphological entity only during cell division.Chromosome walking describes the sequential isolation of clones carrying overlapping sequences of DNA, allowing large regions of the chromosome to be spanned. Walking is often performed in order to reach a particular locus of interest.cis-acting locus affects the activity only of DNA sequences on its own molecule of DNA; this property usually implies that the locus does not code for protein.cis-acting protein has the exceptional property of acting only on the molecule of DNA from which it was expressed.cis configuration describes two sites on the same molecule of DNA.cis/trans test assays the effect of relative configuration on expression of two mutations. In a double heterozygote, two mutations in the same gene show mutant phenotype in trans configuration, wild-type in cis configuration.Cistron is the geneti unit defined by the cis/trans test; equivalent to gene ib prising a unit of DNA representing a protein.Class switching is a change in the expression of the c cregion of an immunoglobulin heavy chain during lymphocyte differentiation.Clone describes a large number of cells or molecules identical with a single ancestral cell or molecule.Cloning vector is a plasmid or phage that is used to ‘carry’ inserted foreign DNA for the purposes of producing more material or a protein product.Closed reading frame contains termination codons that prevent its translation into protein. Coated vesicles are vesicles whose membrane has on its surface a layer of the protein clathrin.Coconversion is the simultaneous correction of two sites during gene conversion.Coding strand of DNA has the same sequence as mRNA.Codominant alleles both contribute to the phenotype; neither is dominant over the other. Coevolution —see concerted evolution.Cognate tRNAs are those recognized by a particular aminoacy-tRNA synthetase. Coointegrate structure is produced by fusion of two replicons, one originally possessing a transposon, the other lacking it; the cointegrate has copies of the transposon present at both junctions of the replicons, oriented as directrepeats.Cold-sensitive mutant is defective at low temperature but functional at normal temlperature. Colony hybridization is a technique for using in situ hybridization to identify bacteria carrying chimeric vectors whose inserted DNA is homologous with some particular sequence. patibility group of plasmids contains members unable to coexist in the same bacterial cell.plementation refers to the ability of independent (nonallelic)genes to provide diffusible products that produce wild phenotype when two mutants are tested in trans configuration in a heterozygote.In vitro plementation assay consists of identifying a ponent of a wid-type cell that can confer activity on an extract prepared from a mutant cell. The assay identifies the ponent rendered inactive by the mutation.plementation group is a series of mutations unable to plement when tested in pairwise binations in trans; defines a genetic unit (the cistron) that might better be called a nonplex mentation group.plex locus (of D. melanogaster)has genetic properties inconsistent with the function of a gene representing a single protein. plex loci are usually very large (>100kb) at the molecular level.plexity is the total length of different sequences of DNA present in a given preparation. postie transposons have a central region flanked on each side by insertion sequences, either or both of which may enable the entire element to transpose.Concatemer of DNA consists of a series of unit genomes repeated in tandem. Concatenated circles of DNA are interlocked like rings one a chain.Concerted evolution describes the ability of two related genes to evolve together as though constituting a single locus.Condensation reaction is one in which a covalent bond is formed with loss of a water molecule, as in the addition of an amino acid to a polypeptide chain.Conditional lethal mlutations kill a cell or virus under certain (nonpermissive) conditions, but allow it to survive under other (permissive) conditions.Conjugation describes ‘mathing’ between two bacterial cells, when (part of ) the chromosome is transferred from one to the other.Consensus sequence is an idealized sequence in which each position represents the base most often found when many actual sequences are pared.Conservative rebination involves breakage and reunion of preexisting strands of DNA without any synthesis of new stretches of DNA.Conservative transposition refers to the movement of large elements, originally classified as transposons, but now considered to be episomes. The mechanism of movement resembles that of phage lambda.Constant regions of immunoglobulins are coded by C genes and are the parts of the chain that vary least. Those of heavy chains identify the type of immunoglobulin.Constitutive genes are expressed as a function of the interaction of RNA polymerase with the promoter, without additional regulation; sometimes also called household genes in the context of describing functions expressed in all cells at a low level.Constitutive heterochromatin describes the inert state of permanently nonexpressedsequences, usually satellite DNA.Constitutive mutations cause genes that usually are regulated to be expressed without regulation.Contractile ring is a ring of actin filaments that forms around the equator at the end of mitosis and is responsible for pinching the daughter cells apart.Controlling elements of maize are transposable units originally identified solely by their genetic properties. They may be autonomous (able to transpose independently) or nonautonomous (able to element).Coordinate regulation refers to the mon control of a group of genes.Cordycepin is 3’ deoxyadenosine, an inhibitor of polyadenylation of RNA.Core DNA is the 14.6 bp of DNA contained on a core particle.Core particle is a digestion product of the nucleosome that retains the histone octamer and has 14.6 bp of DNA; its structure appears similar to that of the nucleosome itself.Corepressor is a small molecule that triggers repression of transcription by binding to a regulator protein.Cosmids are plasmids into which phage lambda cos sites have been inserted; as a result, the plasmid DNA can be packaged in vitro in the phage coat.Cot is the product of DNA concentration and time of incubation in a reassociation reaction. Cot 21 is the Cot required to proceed to half pletion of the reaction; it is directly proportionalto the unique length of reassociating DNA.Cotransfection is the simultaneous transfection of two markers.Crossing-over describes the reciprocal exchange of material between chromosomes that occurs during meiosis and is responsible for genetic rebination.Crossover fixation refers to a possible consequence of unequal crossing-over that allows a mutation in one member of a tandem cluster to spread through the whole cluster (or to be eliminated).Cruciform is the structure produced at inverted repeats of DNA if the repeated sequence pairs with its plement on the same strand (instead of with its regular partner in the other strand of the duplex).Cryptic satellite is a satellite DNA sequence not identified as such by a separate peak on a density gradient; that is, it remains present in main-band DNA.ctDNA is chloroplast DNA.Cyclic AMP (cAMP) is a molecule of AMP in which the phosphate group is joined to both the 3’ and 5’ positions of the ribose; its binding activates the CAP, a postive regulator of prokaryotic transcription.Cyclins are proteins that accumulate continuously throughout the cell cycle and are then destroyed by proteolysis during mitosis. (see also MPF).Cytokinesis is the final process involved in separation and movement apart of daughter cells at the end of mitosis.Cytological hybridization—see in situ hybridization.Cytoplasm describes the material between the plasma membrane and the nucleus. Cytoplasmic inheritance is a property of genes located in mitochondria or chloroplasts (or possibly other extranuclear organelles).Cytoplasmic protein synthesis is the ranslation of mRNAs representing nuclear genes; it occurs via ribosomes attached to the cytoskeleton.Cytoskeleton consists of networks of fibers in the cytoplasm of the eukaryotic cell.Cytosol describes the general volume of cytoplasm in which organelles ( such as the mitochondria ) are located.D loop is a region within mitochondrial DNA in which a short stretch of RNA is paired with one strand of DNA, displacing the orignal partner DNA strand in this region. The same term is used also to describe the displacement of a region of one strand of duplex DNA byu a single-stranded invader in the reaction catalyzed by RecA protein.Degeneracy in the genetic code refers to the lack of an effect of many changes in the third base of the codon on the amino acid that is represented.Deletions are generated by removal of a sequence of DNA, the regions on either side being joined together.Denaturation of DNA or RNA describes its conversion from the double-stranded to the singlestranded state; separation of the strands is most often acplished by heating. Denaturation of protein describes its conversion from the physiological conformation to some other (inactive) conformation.Derepressed state describes a gene that is turned on. It is synonymous with induced when describing the normal state of a gene; it has the same meaning as constitutive in describing the effect of mutation.Dicentric chromosome is the product of fusing two chromosome fragments, each of which has a centromere. It is unstable and may be broken when the two centromeres are pulled to opposite poles in mitosis.Diploid set of chromosomes contains two copies of each autosome and two sex chromosome. Direct repeats are identical (or related) sequences present in two or more copies in the same orientation in the same molecule of DNA; they aer not necessarily adjacent.Discontinuous replication refers to the synthesis of DNA in short (Okazaki) fragments that are later joined into a continuous strand.Disjunction describes the movement of members of a chromosome pair to opposite poles during cell division. At mitosis and the second meiotic division, disjunction applies to sister chromatids; at first meiotic division it applies to sister chromatid pairs.Divergence is the percent difference in nucleotide sequence between two related DNA sequences or in amino acid sequences between two proteins.Divergent transcription refers to the intitiation of transcription at two promoters facing in the opposite direction, so that transcription proceeds away in both directions from a central region.dna mutants of bacteria are temperature-sensitive; they cannot synthesize DNA at 42℃, but can do so at 37℃.DNAase is an enzyme that attacks bonds in DNA.DNA-driven bybridization involves the reaction of an excess of DNA with RNA.DNA polymerase is an enzyme that synthesizes a daughter strand(s) of DNA (under direction from a DNA template). May be involved in repair or replication.DNA replicase is a DNA-synthesizing enzyme required specifically for replication.Domain of a chromosome may refer either to a discrete structural entity defined as a region within which supercoiling is independent of other domains; or to an extensive region including an expressed gene that has heightened sensitivity to degradation by the enzyme DNAase I.Domain of a protein is a discrete continuous part of the amino acid sequence that can be equated with a particular function.Dominant allele determines the phenotype displayed in a heterozygote with another (recessive) allele.Donor splicing site—see left splicing junction.Down promoter mutations decrease the frequency of initiaton of transcription. Downstream identifies sequences proceeding farther in the direction of expression, for example, the conding region is downstream of the initiation condon.Early development refers to the period of a phage infection before the start of DNA replication.Extopic expression describes the expression of a gene in a tissue in which it is not usually expressed; for example, in a transgenic animal.Elongation factors (EF in prokaryotes, eEF in eukaryotes) are proteins that associate with ribosomes cyclically, during addition of each amino acid to the polypeptide chain.End labeling describes the addi tion of a radioactively labeled group to one end (5’ or 3’) of a DNA strand.End-product inhibition describes the ability of a product of a metabolic pathway to inhibit the activity of an enzyme that catalyzes an early step in the pathway.Endocytosis is a process by which proteins at the surface of the cell are internalized, being transported into the cell within membranous vesicles.Endocytic vesicles are membranous particles that transport proteins through endocytosis; alsoknown as clathrin-coated vesicles.Endonucleases cleave bonds within a nucleic acid chain; they may be specific for RNA or for singlestranded of double-stranded DNA.Endoplasmic reticulum is a highly convoluted sheet of membranes, extending from the outer layer of the nuclear envelope into the cytoplasm.Enhancer element is a cis-acting sequence that increases the utilization of (some) eukaryotic promoters, and can function in either orientation and in any location (upstream or downstream) relative to the promoter.Envelopes surround some organelles (for example , nucleus or mitochondrion) and consist of concentric membranes, each membrane consisting of the usual lipid bilayer.Epigenetic changes influrence the phenotype without altering the genotype. They consist of changes in the properties of a cell that are inherited but that do not represent a change in genetic information.Episome is a plasmid able to integrate into bacterial DNA.Epistasis describes a situation in which expression of one gene wipes out the phenotypic effects of another gene.Essential gene is one whose deletions is lethal to the organism (see also lethal locus). Established cell lines consist of eukaryotic cells that have been adapted to indefinite growth in culture (they are said to be immortalized).Eubacteria prise the major line of prokaryotes.Euchromatin prises all of the genome in the interphase nucleus except for the heterochromatin.Evolutionary clock is defined by the rate at which mutations accumulate in a given gene. Excision-repair systems remove a single-stranded sequence of DNA containing damaged or mispaired bases and replace it in the duplex by synthesizing a sequence plementary to the remaining strand.Exocytosis is the process of secreting proteins from a cell into the medium, by transport in membranous vesicles from the endoplasmic reticulum, through the Golgi, to storage vesicles, and finally (upon a regulatory signal) through the plasma membrane.Exocytic vesicles (also secretory vesicles) are membranous particles that transport and store proteins during excytosis.Exon is any segment of an interrupted gene that is represented in the mature RNA product. Exonucleases cleave nucleotides one at a time from the end of a polynucleotide chain; they may be specific for either the 5’ or 3’ end of DNA or RN A.Expression vector is a cloning vector desined so that a coding sequence inserted at a particular site will be transcribed and translated into protein.Extranuclear genes reside outside the nucleus in organelles such as mitochondria and chloroplasts.F factor is a bacterial sex or fertility plasmid.F1 generation is the first generation produced by crossing two parental (homozygous) lines. Facultative heterochromatin describes the inert state of sequences that also exist in active copies—for example, one mammalian X chromosome in females.Fast ponent of a reassociation reaction is the first to reature and contains highly repetitive DNA.Fate map is a map of an embryo showing the adult tissues that will develop from the descendants of cells that occupy particular regions of the embryo.Figure eight describes two circles of DNA linked together by a rebination event that has not yet been pleted.Filter hybridization is performed by incubating a deatured DNA preparation immobilized on a nitrocellulose filter with a solution of radioactively labeled RNA or DNA.Fingerprint of DNA is a pattern of polymorphic restriction fragments that differ between individual genomes.Fingerprint of a protein is the pattern of fragments (usually resolved on a two dimensional electrophoretic gel) generated by cleavage with an enzyme such as trypsin.Fluidity is a property of membranes; it indicates the ability of lipids to move laterally within their particular monolayer.Focus formation describes the ability of transformed eukaryotic cells to grow in dense clusters, piled up on one another.Focus forming unit (ffu) is a quantitative measure of forcus formation.Foldback DNA consists of inverted repeats that have renatured by intrastrand reassociation of denatured DNA.Foot printing is a technique for identifying the site on DNA bound by some protein by virtue of the protection of bonds in this region against attack by nucleases.Forward mutations inatctivate a wild-type gene.Founder effect refers to the presence in a population of many individuals all with the same chromosome (or region of a chromosome) derived from a single ancestor.Frameshift mutations arise by deletions or insertions that are not a multiple of 3bp; they change the frame in which triplets are translated into protein.G banding is a technique that generates a striated pattern in metaphase chromosomes that distinguishes the members of a haploid set.G1 is the period of the eukaryotic cell cycle between the last mitosis and the start of DNA replication.G2 is the period of the eukaryotic cell cycle between the end of DNA replication and the start of the next mitosis.。