Introduction about Francis Bacon

Francis Bacon and His WorksFrancis BaconFrancis Bacon(1561—1626)was one of the leading figures in natural philosophy and in the field of scientific methodology in the period of transition from the Renaissance to the early modern era.He studied at Cambridge (Trinity College) and Gray's Inn, entered Parliament, and gradually established his reputation, but made little progress during Elizabeth's reign.WorksFrancis Bacon left vast and varied writings, which might be divided into three great branches:Scientifical works — in which his ideas for an universal reform of knowledge, scientific method and the improvement of mankind's state are presented.Religious/literary works — in which he presents his moral philosophy and theological meditations. Juridical works — in which his reforms in Law are proposed.ContributionsFrancis Bacon had made great contributions on Literature, Philosophy, Science, law and art. Literature:Francis Bacon’s literatur al work mostly are proses and essays. There are some features of Bacon's essays: ①the language is very neat, pretty and weighty. ②the sentences are very short. Bacon also likes to use more co-ordinate conjunctions than the subordinated ones, such as "as, since, because". ③the devices are parallelism, epigrams(警句), metaphor,and simile.And his most important work is Essay, which was regarded as one of the greatest prose works in the world for its brevity, compactness and powerfulness. Essay covers a wide variety of subjects, such as love, truth, friendship, politics, economy, religion, beauty, studies, and marriage.Of TruthⅠ Brief Introduction●First published in 1625●Francis Bacon declares that truth in the philosophical and theological sense, as well as honesty in thecivil business sense, are the "sovereign good of human nature."Ⅱ Background Information“What is truth?” said jesting Pilate (Full name: Pontius Pilate)●According to the new testament scripture, at first, Pilate thinks Jesus is innocent, for he had questionedJesus for many times. But under the pressure of the jewish religious leaders, Jesus was sentenced to death.●In the conversation between Pilate and Jesus, Pilate asked,''what have you done?'' Then, Pilateasked:“What is truth?”●Actually Pilate knew Jesus was innocent but he still asked , “What is truth” . At that time a lot of peoplelike Pilate, they do know what is truth but they pretend they don’t know .●Bacon uses this Bible story to introduce his topic——truth. He wants to tell people what is truth andwhat attitude should we take towards truth.Ⅲ TopicThe inquiry of truth, which is the love-making or wooing of it, the knowledge of truth, which is the presence of it, and the belief of truth, which is the enjoying of it, is the sovereign good of human nature.Ⅳ Sentences Analysis1. “But it is not only the difficulty and labor, which men take in finding out of truth, nor again, that when it is found, it imposeth upon men's thoughts, that doth bring lies in favor; but a natural though corrupt love, of the lie itself.”●Up to this point Bacon is saying there are few philosophical skeptics left but humans still prefer thefreedom to choose their own views over the hard work of pursuing truth especially since they consider truth constricting.2. No advantageBacon writes “One of the later school of the Grecians, examineth the matter, and is at a stand, to think what should be in it, that men should love lies; where neither they make for pleasure, as with poets, nor for advantage, as with the merchant; but for the lie's sake.”3. AdvantagesBacon writes “A mixture of a lie doth ever add pleasure. Doth any man doubt, that if there were taken out of men's minds, vain opinions, flattering hopes, false valuations, imaginations as one would, and the like”4. DisadvantagesBacon writes “but it would leave the minds, of a number of men, poor shrunken things, full of melancholy and indisposition, and unpleasing to themselves?”5. “truth, which only doth judge itself, teacheth that the inquiry of truth, which is the love-making, or wooing of it,”●“yet truth, which only doth judge itself” means that “that truth seeking faculty is the sole judge of truth.”●In “the love-making, or wooing of it” Bacon means the happy match between the mind of man and thenature of things.”6. “The first creature of God, in the works of the days, was the light of the sense; the last, was the light of reason.”●Bacon believed that God gave us our senses to determine truth be he also believed God gave us theability to reason to determine truth.Ⅴ Beautiful Sentences1.But I cannot tell; this same truth, is a naked, and open day-light, that doth not show the masks, and mummeries, and triumphs, of the world, half so stately and daintily as candle-lights.余亦难言究竟，唯思真理犹如白日无遮之光，直照人世之歌舞庆典，不如烛光掩映，反能显其堂皇之美。

佛朗西斯培根历史哲学
佛朗西斯·培根（Francis Bacon）是一位英国哲学家，也是近代实验科学和归纳法的创始人之一。

他的历史哲学思想主要体现在他对历史发展的看法以及对历史研究的批判性思考。

培根认为历史的发展是必然的，受到各种自然规律的支配。

他强调历史发展的规律性和必然性，认为历史的发展是有序的，而不是混乱无序的。

同时，他认为历史的发展是受到人类活动的影响的，人类的行为和决策是推动历史发展的重要力量。

在历史研究方面，培根批判了当时的历史研究方法，认为它们过于主观和偏见，不能客观地反映历史事实。

因此，他提出了一系列新的历史研究方法，包括对历史证据的收集和鉴别、对历史事件的分类和分析以及对历史趋势的预测和评估等。

此外，培根还提出了“经验归纳法”的思想，认为通过实验和观察可以获得真实可靠的知识，并且只有通过归纳法才能从经验中得出普遍的结论。

他的这一思想对于后来的科学研究产生了深远的影响。

总的来说，佛朗西斯·培根的历史哲学思想强调了历史的规律性和必然性，批判了当时的历史研究方法，并提出了一系列新的历史研究方法。

他的思想对于后来的历史学和科学研究都产生了重要的影响。

培根人物介绍作品论读书读后感英文中文Title: A Reflection on Francis Bacon’s “Of Studies”Francis Bacon’s essay, “Of Studies,”is a condensed yet profound piece of literature that extols the virtues and values of reading and learning. Bacon, a respected philosopher, statesman, and lawyer, penned this essay with the intent to enlighten and guide his readers toward a life enriched by study and intellectual pursuit.In “Of Studies,”Bacon opens with a striking declaration that studies serve as a lock and key to the mind, unraveling the potential for wisdom and understanding. Throughout the text, he employs vivid metaphors and aphorisms to illustrate the benefits and drawbacks of learning. He likens books to food, suggesting that some are nourishing, while others only serve to indulge or corrupt the intellect.One of the most striking elements of Bacon’s essay is his emphasis on the balance between study and experience. He argues that while books offer knowledge and guidance, it is through the application of this knowledge in the real world that true understanding can be achieved. This notion resonates deeply, as it speaks to the harmony between theory and practice, encouraging individuals to not get lost in theabstract but to ground their learning in reality.Bacon further discusses the different effects of studies on various types of people, from those who are intelligent but lack diligence, to those whose minds are ready and open like wax to receive impressions. His observations provide a nuanced perspective on how education impacts individuals differently, based on their nature and disposition.Upon finishing “Of Studies,”I am left with a greater appreciation for the role of learning in life. Bacon’s essay is more than a mere endorsement of reading; it is a guide on how to read and learn effectively. It underscores the importance of combining bookish knowledge with practical experience and personal reflection to cultivate wisdom.Bacon’s words serve as a timeless reminder that studies are not an end in themselves, but rather a means to an end—the enrichment of life and the enhancement of one's intellectual faculties. His essay compels us to critically engage with what we learn and to always seek a harmonious blend of learning and living.标题：反思弗朗西斯·培根的《论读书》弗朗西斯·培根的散文《论读书》是一篇内容凝练而意义深远的文学作品，它赞扬了阅读和学习的价值与美德。

Francis Bacon and His WorksFrancis BaconFrancis Bacon(1561—1626)was one of the leading figures in natural philosophy and in the field of scientific methodology in the period of transition from the Renaissance to the early modern era.He studied at Cambridge (Trinity College) and Gray's Inn, entered Parliament, and gradually established his reputation, but made little progress during Elizabeth's reign.WorksFrancis Bacon left vast and varied writings, which might be divided into three great branches:Scientifical works — in which his ideas for an universal reform of knowledge, scientific method and the improvement of mankind's state are presented.Religious/literary works — in which he presents his moral philosophy and theological meditations. Juridical works — in which his reforms in Law are proposed.ContributionsFrancis Bacon had made great contributions on Literature, Philosophy, Science, law and art. Literature:Francis Bacon’s literatur al work mostly are proses and essays. There are some features of Bacon's essays: ①the language is very neat, pretty and weighty. ②the sentences are very short. Bacon also likes to use more co-ordinate conjunctions than the subordinated ones, such as "as, since, because". ③the devices are parallelism, epigrams(警句), metaphor,and simile.And his most important work is Essay, which was regarded as one of the greatest prose works in the world for its brevity, compactness and powerfulness. Essay covers a wide variety of subjects, such as love, truth, friendship, politics, economy, religion, beauty, studies, and marriage.Of TruthⅠ Brief Introduction●First published in 1625●Francis Bacon declares that truth in the philosophical and theological sense, as well as honesty in thecivil business sense, are the "sovereign good of human nature."Ⅱ Background Information“What is truth?” said jesting Pilate (Full name: Pontius Pilate)●According to the new testament scripture, at first, Pilate thinks Jesus is innocent, for he had questionedJesus for many times. But under the pressure of the jewish religious leaders, Jesus was sentenced to death.●In the conversation between Pilate and Jesus, Pilate asked,''what have you done?'' Then, Pilateasked:“What is truth?”●Actually Pilate knew Jesus was innocent but he still asked , “What is truth” . At that time a lot of peoplelike Pilate, they do know what is truth but they pretend they don’t know .●Bacon uses this Bible story to introduce his topic——truth. He wants to tell people what is truth andwhat attitude should we take towards truth.Ⅲ TopicThe inquiry of truth, which is the love-making or wooing of it, the knowledge of truth, which is the presence of it, and the belief of truth, which is the enjoying of it, is the sovereign good of human nature.Ⅳ Sentences Analysis1. “But it is not only the difficulty and labor, which men take in finding out of truth, nor again, that when it is found, it imposeth upon men's thoughts, that doth bring lies in favor; but a natural though corrupt love, of the lie itself.”●Up to this point Bacon is saying there are few philosophical skeptics left but humans still prefer thefreedom to choose their own views over the hard work of pursuing truth especially since they consider truth constricting.2. No advantageBacon writes “One of the later school of the Grecians, examineth the matter, and is at a stand, to think what should be in it, that men should love lies; where neither they make for pleasure, as with poets, nor for advantage, as with the merchant; but for the lie's sake.”3. AdvantagesBacon writes “A mixture of a lie doth ever add pleasure. Doth any man doubt, that if there were taken out of men's minds, vain opinions, flattering hopes, false valuations, imaginations as one would, and the like”4. DisadvantagesBacon writes “but it would leave the minds, of a number of men, poor shrunken things, full of melancholy and indisposition, and unpleasing to themselves?”5. “truth, which only doth judge itself, teacheth that the inquiry of truth, which is the love-making, or wooing of it,”●“yet truth, which only doth judge itself” means that “that truth seeking faculty is the sole judge of truth.”●In “the love-making, or wooing of it” Bacon means the happy match between the mind of man and thenature of things.”6. “The first creature of God, in the works of the days, was the light of the sense; the last, was the light of reason.”●Bacon believed that God gave us our senses to determine truth be he also believed God gave us theability to reason to determine truth.Ⅴ Beautiful Sentences1.But I cannot tell; this same truth, is a naked, and open day-light, that doth not show the masks, and mummeries, and triumphs, of the world, half so stately and daintily as candle-lights.余亦难言究竟，唯思真理犹如白日无遮之光，直照人世之歌舞庆典，不如烛光掩映，反能显其堂皇之美。

Bacon, Francis 培根Francis Bacon was an English philosopher, statesman, essay writer and scientist. He was born in London and was the son of a prominent statesman under Queen Elizabeth I. He studied in Cambridge University and later was introduced to the royal court. Bacon made some achievements in his political career, but he was mainly remembered as a philosopher. He wrote many important books on philosophy and science, of which The Great Instauration won the attention of scholars both at home and abroad. His essays were famous for their brevity, compactness and powerfulness. He was considered a master of English prose.弗朗西斯·培根是英国哲学家、政治家、作家和科学家。

他于1561年1月22日出生在伦敦一个新贵族家庭，父亲是伊丽莎白一世时期的官员。

培根12岁进入剑桥大学。

1626年他因病去世，终年65岁。

培根的主要成就是在哲学方面，他的主要著作《伟大的复兴》虽然只完成了前两部，但是却有很大的影响。

培根在英国文学史上也占有重要地位，他的作品《散文集》涉及哲学思想、伦理、处世之道、美的欣赏等，文章见解独到，文笔老练，结构严谨，警句层出，常为后人诵读。

弗兰西斯培根介绍英文English:Francis Bacon was an English philosopher, statesman, and scientist who was one of the most prominent figures of the scientific revolution of the seventeenth century. He is best known for his work in promoting scientific inquiry for the sake of improving the human condition, and for his contributions to the development of the scientific method. Bacon believed that the knowledge gained through the application of reason and empirical observation could be used to advance human welfare and progress. He wrote extensively on a wide range of topics, including politics, ethics, and metaphysics, but his most significant contributions were in the field of natural philosophy. In his influential work, Novum Organum, Bacon proposed a new method for acquiring knowledge about the natural world that emphasized experimentation and observation over dogmatic reliance on tradition or authority. This approach became known as the Baconian method and had a profound impact on the development of modern science. Bacon was also an important political figure in England, serving as Lord Chancellor under KingJames I. His tenure was marked by controversy and scandal, but he remained a respected intellectual figure until his death.Translated content:弗朗西斯・培根是英国的哲学家、政治家和科学家，他是17世纪科学革命中最重要的人物之一。

培根人物介绍作品论读书读后感英文全文共3篇示例，供读者参考篇1Title: A Brief Introduction to Francis Bacon: His Works, Criticism, and Insights on ReadingIntroductionFrancis Bacon, known as the father of empiricism and the pioneer of the scientific method, was a prominent figure in the intellectual landscape of the late 16th and early 17th centuries. His works, ranging from philosophical treatises to essays on various subjects, have had a lasting impact on the fields of literature, science, and philosophy. In this essay, we will provide a brief introduction to Bacon's life and works, discuss the critical reception of his writing, and explore his insights on the importance of reading.BiographyFrancis Bacon was born in London in 1561 to awell-connected family. He studied at Trinity College, Cambridge, and later at Gray's Inn, where he trained as a lawyer. Bacon rose to prominence during the reign of Queen Elizabeth I and heldseveral important political offices, including Attorney General and Lord Chancellor. In addition to his political career, Bacon was also a prolific writer, producing works on a wide range of topics, including philosophy, science, and literature.WorksBacon's most famous works include "The Essays," a collection of 58 short essays on various subjects, ranging from friendship and love to anger and ambition. In these essays, Bacon explores human nature and society with wit and insight, offering timeless reflections on the complexities of the human experience. Bacon's philosophical works, such as "Novum Organum" and "De Augmentis Scientiarum," laid the groundwork for the scientific method and emphasized the importance of empirical observation and experimentation in the pursuit of knowledge.CriticismBacon's works have been the subject of much critical debate over the centuries. Some scholars have praised Bacon for his pioneering contributions to the fields of science and philosophy, while others have criticized him for his sometimes obscure and convoluted writing style. In recent years, there has been a renewed interest in Bacon's work, with scholars reevaluating hislegacy and exploring the relevance of his ideas in the modern world.Insights on ReadingIn his essay "Of Studies," Bacon famously declared, "Reading maketh a full man." For Bacon, reading was not just a leisure activity but a vital tool for intellectual growth andself-improvement. Bacon believed that reading widely and critically could expand one's knowledge, sharpen one's thinking, and cultivate one's moral character. In an age marked by information overload and fake news, Bacon's insights on the importance of reading are more relevant than ever.ConclusionFrancis Bacon was a towering figure in the intellectual landscape of his time, whose works continue to inspire and provoke readers today. Through his essays, philosophical treatises, and scientific writings, Bacon challenged traditional ways of thinking and laid the foundation for the modern scientific method. As we reflect on Bacon's life and works, we are reminded of the enduring power of ideas and the transformative potential of reading. As Bacon himself said, "Some books are to be tasted, others to be swallowed, and some few to be chewedand digested." Let us heed his words and continue to engage with the rich tapestry of ideas that literature has to offer.篇2Francis Bacon, Baron Verulam, Viscount St Alban, was an English philosopher and statesman who is known for his promotion of the scientific method during the scientific revolution. Along with his significant contributions to science, Bacon is also renowned for his philosophical works, particularly his essays and his advancement of inductive reasoning.Born on January 22, 1561 in London, Bacon was the son of Sir Nicholas Bacon, the Lord Keeper of the Great Seal, and Anne Cooke Bacon, a noted scholar and translator. Bacon received his education at Trinity College, Cambridge, and later studied law at Gray's Inn. In 1582, he began his political career, serving as a Member of Parliament and later as the Attorney General and Lord Chancellor of England.Bacon's most famous works include his Essays, which are a collection of 58 essays that cover a wide range of topics such as truth, revenge, love, and friendship. In these essays, Bacon reflects on human nature and the complexities of life, offering insights that are still relevant today. Another notable work byBacon is Novum Organum, which outlines his philosophy of science and advocates for the use of empirical observation and experimentation in the search for knowledge.Reading Bacon's works, one cannot help but be impressed by his clear and concise writing style, as well as his profound insights into the human condition. His emphasis on the importance of reason and observation in the pursuit of knowledge has had a lasting impact on the fields of science and philosophy.Overall, Bacon's writings continue to be studied and appreciated by scholars and readers alike for their timeless wisdom and relevance. As we delve into his works, we are reminded of the enduring power of knowledge and the importance of critical thinking in our quest for understanding the world around us.篇3Title: Introduction, Works, Analysis, and Reflection on Francis BaconIntroductionFrancis Bacon, also known as Lord Verulam, Viscount St. Albans, was an English philosopher, statesman, scientist, andauthor. He was born on January 22, 1561, in London, England. Bacon is best known for his contributions to the scientific method and his groundbreaking works in philosophy. His ideas have had a significant impact on Western thought and have influenced countless thinkers throughout the centuries.WorksBacon's major works include "Novum Organum," "The Advancement of Learning," and "Essays." In "Novum Organum," Bacon criticized the methods of contemporary science and proposed a new approach based on empirical observation and inductive reasoning. This work laid the foundation for the scientific method and had a profound influence on the development of modern science.In "The Advancement of Learning," Bacon emphasized the importance of empirical evidence and logic in the pursuit of knowledge. He argued that true understanding could only be achieved through careful observation and systematic analysis. Bacon's emphasis on rational inquiry and skepticism towards traditional authority have made him a key figure in the history of philosophy.Bacon's essays cover a wide range of topics, including politics, philosophy, and morality. His writing is known for itsclarity, conciseness, and wit. Bacon's essays have been praised for their incisive observations on human nature and their timeless relevance to contemporary issues.AnalysisBacon's works are characterized by their systematic approach, logical rigor, and clarity of expression. He believed that knowledge should be pursued for its own sake, and that the search for truth should be guided by reason and evidence. Bacon's emphasis on empirical observation and inductive reasoning has had a lasting impact on the philosophy of science and has shaped our understanding of the natural world.Bacon's philosophy can be summed up in his famous motto, "knowledge is power." He believed that through the careful study of nature, human beings could gain mastery over their environment and improve their lives. Bacon's advocacy for the practical application of knowledge and his belief in the transformative power of science have made him a seminal figure in the history of ideas.ReflectionReading Bacon's works has been a transformative experience for me. His rigorous approach to knowledge hasinspired me to think critically and question traditional assumptions. Bacon's emphasis on evidence-based reasoning has encouraged me to seek out empirical data and test my beliefs against reality.Bacon's essays, in particular, have resonated with me on a personal level. His insights into human nature and the complexities of the human condition have deepened my understanding of myself and others. Bacon's prose is as engaging as it is profound, and his words have stayed with me long after I have finished reading.In conclusion, Francis Bacon's contributions to philosophy, science, and literature are immense. His works continue to provoke thought and inspire debate to this day. Bacon's legacy as a pioneer of the scientific method and a profound thinker will endure for generations to come. Reading his works has been a rewarding experience, and I look forward to delving deeper into his ideas in the future.。

Introduction of Francis Bacon（中英对照）Excerpt of the Chapter VII of < A History of Western Philosophy>Written by BERTRAND RUSSELL, Audio file < 307 Francis Bacon > delivered by BiHui.摘自伯特兰·罗素所著《西方哲学史》第七章，音频文件< 307 Francis Bacon >已由必辉提供。

FRANCIS BACON (1561-1626), although his philosophy is in many ways unsatisfactory, has permanent importance as the founder of modern inductive method and the pioneer in the attempt at logical systematization of scientic procedure.He was a son of Sir Nicholas Bacon, Lord Keeper of the Great Seal, and his aunt was the wife of Sir William Cecil, afterwards Lord Burghley; he thus grew up in the atmosphere of state affairs.He entered Parliament at the age of twenty-three, and became adviser to Essex. None the less, when Essex fell from favour he helped in his prosecution. For this he has been severely blamed:Lytton Strachey, for example, in his Elizabeth and Essex, represents Bacon as a monster of treachery and ingratitude. This is quite unjust. He worked with Essex while Essex was loyal, but abandoned him when continued loyalty to him would have been treasonable; in this there was nothing that even the most rigid moralist of the age could condemn.In spite of his abandonment of Essex, he was never completely in favour during the lifetime of Queen Elizabeth. With James's accession, however, his prospects improved. In 1617 he acquired his father's office of Keeper of the Great Seal, and in 1618 he became Lord Chancellor. But after he had held this great position for only two years, he was prosecuted for accepting bribes from litigants. He admitted the truth of accusation, pleading only that presents never influenced his decision. As to that, any one may form his own opinion, since there can be no evidence as to the decisions that Bacon would have come to in other circumstances. He was condemned to a fine of £40,000, to imprisonment in the Tower during the king's pleasure, to perpetual banishment from court and inability to hold office. This sentence was only very partially executed. He was not forced to pay the fine, and he was kept in the Tower for only four days. But he was compelled to abandon public life, and to spend the remainder of his days in writing important books.The ethics of the legal profession, in those days, were somewhat lax. Almost every judge accepted presents, usually from both sides. Nowadays we think it atrocious for a judge to take bribes, but even more atrocious, after taking them, to decide against the givers of them. In those days, presents were a matter of course, and a judge showed his "virtue" by not being influenced by them. Bacon was condemned as an incident in a party squabble, not because he was exceptionally guilty. He was not a man of outstanding moral eminence, like his forerunner Sir Thomas More, but he was also not exceptionally wicked. Morally, he was an average man, no better and no worse than the bulk of his contemporaries.After five years spent in retirement, he died of a chill caught while experimenting on refrigeration by stuffing a chicken full of snow.Bacon's most important book, The Advancement of Learning, is in many waysremarkably modern. He is commonly regarded as the originator of the saying "Knowledge is power," and though he may have had predecessors who said the same thing, he said it with new emphasis. The whole basis of his philosophy was practical: to give mankind mastery over the forces of nature by means of scientific discoveries and inventions. He held that philosophy should be kept separate from theology, not intimately blended with it as in scholasticism. He accepted orthodox religion; he was not the man to quarrel with the government on such a matter. But while he thought that reason could show the existence of God, he regarded everything else in theology as known only by revelation. Indeed he held that the triumph of faith is greatest when to the unaided reason a dogma appears most absurd. Philosophy, however, should depend only upon reason. He was thus an advocate of the doctrine of "double truth," that of reason and that of revelation. This doctrine had been preached by certain Averroists in the thirteenth century, but had been condemned by the Church. The "triumph of faith" was, for the orthodox, a dangerous device. Bayle, in the late seventeenth century, made ironical use of it, setting forth at great length all that reason could say against some orthodox belief, and then concluding "so much the greater is the triumph of faith in nevertheless believing." How far Bacon's orthodoxy was sincere it is impossible to know.Bacon was the first of the long line of scientifically minded philosophers who have emphasized the importance of induction as opposed to deduction. Like most of his successors, he tried to find some better kind of induction than what is called "induction by simple enumeration." Induction by simple enumeration may be illustrated by a parable. There was once upon a time a census officer who had to record the names of all householders in a certain Welsh village. The first that he questioned was called William Williams; so were the second, third, fourth, . . . At last he said to himself: "This is tedious; evidently they are all called William Williams. I shall put them down so and take a holiday." But he was wrong; there was just one whose name was John Jones. This shows that we may go astray if we trust too implicitly in induction by simple enumeration.Bacon believed that he had a method by which induction could be made something better than this. He wished, for example, to discover the nature of heat, which he supposed (rightly) to consist of rapid irregular motions of the small parts of bodies. His method was to make lists of hot bodies, lists of cold bodies, and lists of bodies of varying degrees of heat. He hoped that these lists would show some characteristic always present in hot bodies and absent in cold bodies, and present in varying degrees in bodies of different degress of heat. By this method he expected to arrive at general laws, having, in the first instance, the lowest degree of generality. From a number of such laws he hoped to reach laws of the second degree of generality, and so on. A suggested law should be tested by being applied in new circumstances; if it worked in these circumstances it was to that extent confirmed. Some instances are specially valuable because they enable us to decide between two theories, each possible so far as previous observations are concerned; such instances are called "prerogative" instances.Bacon not only despised the syllogism, but undervalued mathematics, presumably as insufficiently experimental. He was virulently hostile to Aristotle, but thought very highly of Democritus.Although he did not deny that the course of nature exemplifies a Divine purpose, he objected to any admixture of teleological explanation in the actual investigation ofphenomena; everything, he held, should be explained as following necessarily from efficient causes.He valued his method as showing how to arrange the observational data upon which science must be based. We ought, he says, to be neither like spiders, which spin things out of their own insides, nor like ants, which merely collect, but like bees, which both collect and arrange. This is somewhat unfair to the ants, but it illustrates Bacon's meaning.One of the most famous parts of Bacon's philosophy is his enumeration of what he calls "idols," by which he means bad habits of mind that cause people to fall into error. Of these he enumerates five kinds. "Idols of the tribe" are those that are inherent in human nature; he mentions in particular the habit of expecting more order in natural phenomena than is actually to be found."Idols of the cave" are personal prejudices, characteristic of the particular investigator. "Idols of the market-place" are those that have to do with the tyranny of words and the difficulty of escaping from their influence over our minds. "Idols of the theatre" are those that have to do with received systems of thought; of these, naturally Aristotle and the scholastics afforded him the most noteworthy instances. Lastly there are "idols of the schools," which consist in thinking that some blind rule (such as the syllogism) can take the place of judgement in investigation.Although science was what interested Bacon, and although his general outlook was scientific, he missed most of what was being done in science in his day. He rejected the Copernican theory, which was excusable so far as Copernicus himself was concerned, since he did not advance any very solid arguments. But Bacon ought to have been convinced by Kepler, whose New Astronomy appeared in 1609. Bacon appears not to have known of the work of Vesalius, the pioneer of modern anatomy, or of Gilbert, whose work on magnetism brilliantly illustrated inductive method.Still more surprising, he seemed unconscious of the work of Harvey, although Harvey was his medical attendant. It is true that Harvey did not publish his discovery of the circulation of the blood until after Bacon's death, but one would have supposed that Bacon would have been aware of his researches. Harvey had no very high opinion of him, saying "he writes philosophy like a Lord Chancellor." No doubt Bacon could have done better if he had been less concerned with worldly success.Bacon's inductive method is faulty through insufficient emphasis on hypothesis. He hoped that mere orderly arrangement of data would make the right hypothesis obvious, but this is seldom the case. As a rule, the framing of hypotheses is the most difficult part of scientific work, and the part where great ability is indispensable. So far, no method has been found which would make it possible to invent hypotheses by rule. Usually some hypothesis is a necessary preliminary to the collection of facts, since the selection of facts demands some way of determining relevance. Without something of this kind, the mere multiplicity of facts is baffling.The part played by deduction in science is greater than Bacon supposed. Often, when a hypothesis has to be tested, there is a long deductive journey from the hypothesis to some consequence that can be tested by observation. Usually the deduction is mathematical, and in this respect Bacon underestimated the importance of mathematics in scientific investigation.The problem of induction by simple enumeration remains unsolved to this day. Bacon was quite right in rejecting simple enumeration where the details of scientific investigation are concerned, for in dealing with details we may assume general laws on the basis of which, so long as they are taken as valid, more or less cogent methods can be built up. John Stuart Mill framed four canons of inductive method, which can be usefully employed so long as the law of causality is assumed; but this law itself, he had to confess, is to be accepted solely on the basis of induction by simple enumeration. The thing that is achieved by the theoretical organization of science is the collection of all subordinate inductions into a few that are very comprehensive --perhaps only one. Such comprehensive inductions are confirmed by so many instances that it is thought legitimate to accept, as regards them, an induction by simple enumeration. This situation is profoundly unsatisfactory, but neither Bacon nor any of his successors have found a way out of it.第七章弗兰西斯·培根弗兰西斯·培根（Francis Bacon，1561-1626）是近代归纳法的创始人，又是给科学研究程序进行逻辑组织化的先驱，所以尽管他的哲学有许多地方欠圆满，他仍旧占有永久不倒的重要地位。