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Section 2 The Reliability of a Survey and Errors测量误差的可靠性Since every technique of measurement is subject to unavoidable error, surveyors must be aware of all sources and types of error and how they combine. If the accuracy of a measurement is defined as the nearness of that value to its true value (a quantity we can never know) then a surveyor must ensure that the techniques he chooses will produce a result that is sufficiently accurate. He must know, therefore, how accurate he needs to be, how to achieve this accuracy and how to check that the required accuracy has been achieved.由于每个测量技术是不可避免的误差，测量员必须知道的所有误差的来源和类型，以及它们是如何结合。
如果测量的准确性，其真正的值（我们可以永远不知道的数量）的接近程度，该值被定义为，然后测量员必须确保他选择的技术将产生一个结果，是足够精确的。
因此，他必须知道他需要的精度如何，如何实现这一目标的准确性和如何检查所要求的精度已经达到。
Accuracy requiredWhen surveying to produce a plan, the accuracy required is defined by the scale of the plot, since there should be no plottable error in the survey data. A good draughtsman can plot a length to within 0.25 mm and so, if a plan of an area is required at a scale of 1/1000, i.e., 1 mm on the plan represents 1 m on the ground, the smallest plottable distance is 0.25 m. Thus, for a survey at 1/1000 scale, all the measurements must be taken such that the relative positions of any point with respect to any other must be determined to 0.25 m or better.当测量一个平面时,精度通常是根据展图比例决定的，因为在绘图中不能有测量误差。
Table of ContentsUuit 1 What is Geomatics? （什么是测绘学） (2)Unit 2 Geodetic Surveying and Plane Surveying（大地测量与平面测量） (6)Unit 3 Distance Measurement（距离测量） (10)Unit 4 Angle and Direction Measurement（角度和方向测量） (14)Unit 5 Traversing （导线测量） (17)Unit 6 Methods of Elevation Determination（高程测量方法） (21)Unit 7 Robotic Total Station （智能型全站仪） (25)Unit 8 Errors in Measurement（测量工作中的误差） (29)Unit 9 Basic Statistical Analysis of Random Errors (32)Unit 10 Accuracy and Precision （准确度和精度） (35)Unit 11 Least-Squares Adjustment (38)Unit 12 Geodesy Concepts (40)Unit 13 Geoid and Reference Ellipsoid (42)Unit 14 Datums, Coordinates and Conversions (44)Unit 15 Map Projection (46)Unit 16 Gravity Measurment (48)Unit 17 Optimal Design of Geomatics Network (50)Unit 18 Construction Layout （施工放样） (53)Unit 19 Deformation Monitoring of Engineering Struvture (56)Unit 20 Understan ding the GPS（认识GPS） (59)Uuit 21 Understanding the GPS (II) 认识GPS(II) (62)Unit 22 Competition in Space Orbit（太空轨道上的竞争） (64)Unit 23 GIS Basics（GIS 的基础） (69)Unit 24 Data Types and Models in GIS GIS中的数据类型和模型 (75)Unit 25 Digital Terrain Modeling（数字地面模型） (79)Unit 26 Applications of GIS (83)Unit 27 Developments of photogrammetry (87)Unit 28 Fundamentals of Remote Sensing （遥感的基础） (90)Unit 29 Digital Image Processing and Its Applications in RS (94)Unit 30 Airborne Laser Mapping Technology（机载激光测图技术） (99)Unit 31 Interferometric SAR(InSAR) (102)Unit 32 Brief Introduction toApplied Geophysics (104)Unit 33 Origon of Induced Polarization (105)Unit 34 International Geoscience Organization (108)Unit 35 Prestigious Journals in Geomatics (110)Unit 36 Relevant Surveying Instrument Companies (115)Unit 37 Expression of Simple Equations and Scientific Formulsa (116)Unit 38 Professional English Paper Writing (119)Unit 39 Translation Techniques for EST (127)Uuit 1 What is Geomatics? （什么是测绘学）Geomatics Defined（测绘学定义）Where does the word Geomatics come from?（Geomatics－测绘或地球空间信息学，这个名词是怎么来的呢？）GEODESY+GEOINFORMATICS=GEOMA TICS or GEO- for earth and –MATICS for mathematical or GEO- for Geoscience and -MATICS for informatics. （大地测量学＋地理信息学＝GEOMATICS 测绘学或者geo 代表地球，matics 代表数学，或者geo 代表地球科学，matics 代表信息学）It has been said that geomatics is many things to many people.（据说测绘学这个词对不同的人有不同的理解）The term geomatics emerged first in Canada and as an academic discipline; it has been introduced worldwide in a number of institutes of higher education during the past few years, mostly by renaming what was previously called “geodesy” or “surveying”, and by adding a number of computer scienceand/or GIS-oriented courses.（这个术语【term 术语】作为一个学科【academic discipline 学科】第一次形成【emerge】于加拿大；在过去的几年里被全世界的许多高等教育研究机构所熟知，通常是以前的“大地测量学” 或“测量学”在引入了许多计算机科学和GIS 方向【或“基于GIS” 】的课程后重新命名的。
Unit 18 Construction Layout （施工放样）Engineering surveys are conducted to obtain data essential for planning, estimating, locating, and layout for the various phases of construction activities or projects.（工程测量是在施工活动或工程的不同阶段中为计划编制、估计、定位、和放样获取必需的【essential必需的】数据的行为【conduct这里是动词：处理，翻译时用名词行为代替】）After the necessary topographic maps are prepared and positions of the structures are established as well as the final plans for the project are available, the engineers, architects or building contractors need to know information about overall site grade and elevations to determine placement of site structures, or estimate the volume of dirt to be moved, and then to set the required horizontal and vertical positions for the structures.（在必要的地形图准备好、建筑物位臵已确定之后，同样项目的最终方案也是可用的，工程师、建筑师【architect】或承建者【building contractor承建者、承包者；contract合同】需要知道全部场地的坡度和高程来确定建筑场地的布臵或者土方估算【volume体积；estimate 估计】，然后放臵建筑物的设计【required要求的，这里指设计位臵】水平和竖直位臵）Construction surveying is the translation of construction plans into physical points on the ground that can be used as a basis for the actual construction.（施工测量【Construction surveying施工测量，不要翻译成建筑测量】是施工图【construction plan施工图】到地面上实地点位的转换【translation】，可以被用来作为实际施工的基础【或译为原理】。
测绘工程专业英语全文翻译（Unit20~30）Unit 20 Understan ding the GPS（认识GPS）What Is GPS?（什么是GPS）The global Positioning System (GPS) operated by the U .S. Department OF Defense (DOD)is a satellite-based system that can be used to locate positions anywhere on the earth（.全球定位系统（GPS），由美国国防部管理，是一个基于人造卫星的系统，可以用来在全球任何地方定位）GPS provides continuous (24 hours/day), real-time, 3-dimensional positioning, navigation and timing worldwide.（GPS 提供全世界范围内的全天候，实时，三维坐标，导航和授时的功能。
）Any person with a GPS receiver can access the system, and it can be used for anyapplication that requires location coordinates.（任何拥有一台GPS 接收机的人都可以使用这套系统，可以应用于任何需要位置坐标的工作中）The GPS system consists of three segments: ⑴the space segment: the GPS satellitesthemselves, ⑵the control segment, operated by the U .S. military, and ⑶the user segment,which includes both military and civilian users and their GPS equipments（.GPS 由三个部分组成：⑴太空部分：GPS 卫星自己，⑵地面控制部分，由美国军方控制，⑶用户部分，包括军方和民用用户和他们的装备。
测绘工程专业英语(全书翻译)Uuit1 What is Geomatics? （什么是测绘学）Geomatics Defined（测绘学定义）Where does the word Geomatics come from?（Geomatics－测绘或地球空间信息学，这个名词是怎么来的呢？）GEODESY+GEOINFORMATICS=GEOMATICS or GEO- for earth and – MATICS for mathematical or GEO- for Geoscience and -MATICS for informatics. （大地测量学＋地理信息学＝GEOMATICS 测绘学或者 geo 代表地球，matics 代表数学，或者 geo 代表地球科学，matics 代表信息学）It has been said that geomatics is many things to many people.（据说测绘学这个词对不同的人有不同的理解）The term geomatics emerged first in Canada and as an academic discipline; it has been introduced worldwide in a number of institutes of higher education during the past few years, mostly by renaming what was previously called “geodesy” or “surveying”, and byadding a number of computer sciences and/or GIS-oriented courses.（这个术语【term 术语】作为一个学科【academic discipline 学科】第一次形成【emerge】于加拿大；在过去的几年里被全世界的许多高等教育研究机构所熟知，通常是以前的“大地测量学”或“测量学”在引入了许多计算机科学和 GIS 方向【或“基于 GIS”】的课程后重新命名的。
Unit14 Datums, Coordinates and Conversions（已知坐标转换）A datum is the mathematical model of the Earth we use to calculate the coordinates and elevations on any map , chart, or survey system . Geodetic datum s define the size and shape of the Earth and the origin and orientation of the coordinate systems used to map the Earth . Hundreds of different datum s have been used to frame position descriptions since the first estimates of the Earth’s size were made by Aristotle . But all coordinates reference some particular set of numbers for the size and shape of the Earth . For example, the Global Positioning System (GPS) is based on the World Geodetic System 1984 (WGS-84) . Many countries use their own datums when they make their maps and surveys—what we call local datums .（基准是我们用来计算任何地图、海图或测量系统的坐标和海拔的地球的数学模型。
Section 2 The Reliability of a Survey and Errors测量误差的可靠性Since every technique of measurement is subject to unavoidable error, surveyors must be aware of all sources and types of error and how they combine. If the accuracy of a measurement is defined as the nearness of that value to its true value (a quantity we can never know) then a surveyor must ensure that the techniques he chooses will produce a result that is sufficiently accurate. He must know, therefore, how accurate he needs to be, how to achieve this accuracy and how to check that the required accuracy has been achieved.由于每个测量技术是不可避免的误差，测量员必须知道的所有误差的来源和类型，以及它们是如何结合。
如果测量的准确性，其真正的值（我们可以永远不知道的数量）的接近程度，该值被定义为，然后测量员必须确保他选择的技术将产生一个结果，是足够精确的。
因此，他必须知道他需要的精度如何，如何实现这一目标的准确性和如何检查所要求的精度已经达到。
Accuracy requiredWhen surveying to produce a plan, the accuracy required is defined by the scale of the plot, since there should be no plottable error in the survey data. A good draughtsman can plot a length to within 0.25 mm and so, if a plan of an area is required at a scale of 1/1000, i.e., 1 mm on the plan represents 1 m on the ground, the smallest plottable distance is 0.25 m. Thus, for a survey at 1/1000 scale, all the measurements must be taken such that the relative positions of any point with respect to any other must be determined to 0.25 m or better.当测量一个平面时,精度通常是根据展图比例决定的，因为在绘图中不能有测量误差。
Unit 20 Understan ding the GPS（认识GPS）What Is GPS?（什么是GPS）The global Positioning System (GPS) operated by the U .S. Department OF Defense (DOD)is a satellite-based system that can be used to locate positions anywhere on the earth（.全球定位系统（GPS），由美国国防部管理，是一个基于人造卫星的系统，可以用来在全球任何地方定位）GPS provides continuous (24 hours/day), real-time, 3-dimensional positioning, navigation and timing worldwide.（GPS 提供全世界范围内的全天候，实时，三维坐标，导航和授时的功能。
）Any person with a GPS receiver can access the system, and it can be used for anyapplication that requires location coordinates.（任何拥有一台GPS 接收机的人都可以使用这套系统，可以应用于任何需要位置坐标的工作中）The GPS system consists of three segments: ⑴the space segment: the GPS satellitesthemselves, ⑵the control segment, operated by the U .S. military, and ⑶the user segment,which includes both military and civilian users and their GPS equipments（.GPS 由三个部分组成：⑴太空部分：GPS 卫星自己，⑵地面控制部分，由美国军方控制，⑶用户部分，包括军方和民用用户和他们的装备。
Uuit1 What is Geomatics? （什么是测绘学）Geomatics Defined（测绘学定义）Where does the word Geomatics come from?（Geomatics－测绘或地球空间信息学，这个名词是怎么来的呢？）GEODESY+GEOINFORMATICS=GEOMATICS or GEO- for earth and – MATICS for mathematical or GEO- for Geoscience and -MATICS for informatics. （大地测量学＋地理信息学＝GEOMATICS 测绘学或者geo 代表地球，matics 代表数学，或者geo 代表地球科学，matics 代表信息学）It has been said that geomatics is many things to many people.（据说测绘学这个词对不同的人有不同的理解）The term geomatics emerged first in Canada and as an academic discipline; it has been introduced worldwide in a number of institutes of higher education during the past few years, mostly by renaming what was previously called “geodesy” or “surveying”, and by adding a number of computer scienceand/or GIS-oriented courses.（这个术语【term 术语】作为一个学科【academic discipline 学科】第一次形成【emerge】于加拿大；在过去的几年里被全世界的许多高等教育研究机构所熟知，通常是以前的“大地测量学” 或“测量学”在引入了许多计算机科学和GIS 方向【或“基于GIS” 】的课程后重新命名的。
Unit15 Map Projection(投影地图)Map projections are attempts to portray the surface of the Earth or a portion of the Earth on a flat surface . Some distortions of conformality , distance , direction , scale, and area always result from this process . Some projections minimize distortions in some of these properties at the expense of maximizing errors in others . So m e projections are attempts to only mode rately distort all of these properties . No projection can be simultaneously conformal and area-preserving .(地图投影是在平面上描绘地球或部分地球表面的投影。
保形、距离、方向、规模和地区总是有些扭曲，结果F 只读此过程。
一些预测最大限度地减少这些属性的扭曲，牺牲最大限度地在别人的错误。
所以我的预测是试图模式地歪曲一切这些属性。
没有投影可以同时保形和保面积。
)Conformality: When the scale of a map at any point on the map is the same in any direction, the projection is conformal . Meridians (lines of longitude) and parallels (lines of latitude) intersect at right angles . Shape is preserved locally on conformal maps .(协调：当规模的地图，在地图上的任何一点在任何方向上的投影是一样的，形。
Unit 9 Basic Statistical Analysis of Random Errors （随机误差的统计学基本分析）Random errors are those variables that remain after mistakes are detected and eliminated and all systematic errors have been removed or corrected from the measured values.（随机误差是在错误被察觉【detect】和消除【eliminate】后，并且所有系统误差被从测量值中移除或修正后，保留下的那些变量【variable变量、变化n.】）They are beyond the control of the observer.（它们是观测者无法控制的）So the random errors are errors the occurrence of which does not follow a deterministic pattern.（因此随机误差是不遵循某个确定性【deterministic 确定性的】模式【pattern】而发生的误差）In mathematical statistics, they are considered as stochastic variables, and despite their irregular behavior, the study of random errors in any well-conducted measuring process or experiment has indicated that random errors follow the following empirical rules:（在数理统计【mathematical statistics】中，它们被当成随机变量【stochastic variable】，尽管它们的行为无规律，在任一正确的【well-conducted原意为品行端正的，这里指测量实验和活动是无误的】测量活动和实验中，对的随机误差的研究显示【indicate】随机误差遵循以下经验法则【empirical rule】：）⑴A random error will not exceed a certain amount.（随即误差不会超过一个确定的值）⑵Positive and negative random errors may occur at the same frequency.（正负误差出现的频率相同）⑶Errors that are small in magnitude are more likely to occur than those that are larger in magnitude.（误差数值【magnitude量值、大小】小的比数值大的误差出现可能性大【be likely to 可能】）⑷The mean of random errors tends to zero as the sample size tends to infinite.（当【as】样本大小【sample size】趋近于无穷【infinite】时，随机误差的平均值趋近于0）In mathematical statistics, random errors follow statistical behavioral laws such as the laws of probability.（在数理统计中，随机误差遵循统计学的【statistical】行为【behavioral行为的】规律，如概率法则）A characteristic theoretical pattern of error distribution occurs upon analysis of a large number of repeated measurements of a quantity, which conform to normal or Gaussian distribution.（发生在一个量的大量重复观测分析【analysisn.】中的误差分布的一个特征理论模式，遵照【conform to遵照】正态或高斯分布）【在对一个量进行大量重复观测分析后，得到一个误差分布的理论特征——正态或高斯分布】The plot of error sizes versus probabilities would approach a smooth curve of the characteristic bell-shape.（误差大小与【versus与、与……的关系、与……相对】概率的关系图，接近一条光滑的特有的【characteristic 特有的】钟形曲线。
）This curve is known as the normal error distribution curve.（这条曲线被称为正态分布曲线）It is also called the probability density function of a normal random variable.（也叫做正态随机变量【normal random variable】的概率密度【probability density】函数）It is important to notice that the total area of the vertical bars for each plot equals 1.（需特别注意的是，每个图的条形图总面积为1。
）This is true no matter the value of n (the number of single combined measurements), and thus the area under the smooth normal error distribution curve is equal to 1.（无论【no matter】n（单一的联合的测量数目【独立观测数】）是多少，在光滑的误差正态分布曲线下的面积都是1。
）If an event has a probability of 1, it is certain to occur, and therefore the area under the curve represents the sum of all the probabilities of the occurrence of errors.（如果一件事的概率为1，它一定会发生，因此曲线下方的面积代表了所有误差发生的概率。
）A number of properties that relate a random variable and its probability density function are useful in our understanding of its behavior.（有许多工具【property】与随机变量和它的概率密度函数有关，有助于我们理解它的行为）Mean and standard deviation are two most popular statistical properties of a random variable.（平均值和标准偏差就是两个最常用的随机变量的统计工具【property】）Generally, a random variable which is normally distributed with a mean and standard deviation can be written in symbol form as N(μ,σ2).（一般地，一个通常由平均值和标准偏差描述的随机变量可以用符号【symbol】表示为N(μ,σ2)。
They can be explained as follows.（【它们可以】解释如下）Mean: The most commonly used measure of central tendency is the mean of a set of data (a sample).（平均值：最普遍应用的中心趋向的估计【measure】就是一系列数据（一个样本）的平均值）The concept of mean refers to the most probable value of the random variable.（平均值的概念【concept】涉及到随机变量的最或是值）It is also called by any of the several terms—expectation, expected value, mean or average. （还可以由其它几个术语来称呼它——期望、预期值、平均值或平均值）The mean is defined as （平均值定义为）Where xi are the observations, n is the sample size, or total number of observations in the sample, and x is the mean which is also called most probable value (MPV).（xi是观测值，n是样本大小，或者叫样本内观测值的总数，x是平均值，经常被称为最或是值（MPV）The MPV is the closest approximation to the true value that can be easily achieved from a set of data.（MPV是最接近真值的近似值【approximation】，可以很容易由一系列数据得到。
）It can be shown that the arithmetic mean of a set of independent observations is an unbiased estimate of the meanμof the population.（可以看出【It can be shown that】一系列独立【independent】观测值的算数平均值【arithmetic mean】是一个样本【population】的期望值μ的无偏估计【unbiased estimate】。
）Standard deviation is a numerical value indicating the amount of variation about a central value.（标准偏差是一个数值【numerical value】，指示【indicate】相对于中值的偏离）In order to appreciate the concept upon which indices【index的复数】of precision devolve one must consider a measure that takes into account all the values in a set of data.（考虑一系列数据的所有值精度指标必需顾及一个量，这个量考虑到【takes into account考虑】一组【a set of】数据的所有值）Such a measure is the deviation from the mean x of each observed value xi i.e. (xi- x), and the mean of the squares of the deviations may be used, and this is called the varianceσ2,（这个量是每个观测值xi相对于平均值x 的离差【deviation】，也就是，(xi- x)，离差的平方的平均值被采用，称之为方差σ2）Where μis the mean (expectation) of the population.（这里μ是对象总体【样本】的平均值（期望值）。
