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国际经济法名词解释国际经济法是指规范国际经济关系的法律体系，用来管理国家之间以及国家与国际组织之间的经济行为。
以下是一些国际经济法中常见的名词解释：1. 贸易自由化（Trade Liberalization）：指降低或取消贸易壁垒和限制，促进国际贸易的自由化和开放。
2. 关税（Tariff）：指进口和出口货物的税收，可以用来保护国内产业、调整贸易平衡和提供国家财政收入。
3. 关税壁垒（Tariff Barrier）：指国家通过设立关税来限制进口货物的流入，提高进口商品的价格，从而保护本国产业。
4. 非关税壁垒（Non-tariff Barrier）：指除了关税之外的其它限制进口货物的手段，如配额、进口限制和准入要求等。
5. 国民待遇（National Treatment）：指在国际贸易中，国家应当对本国和外国商品和服务一视同仁，不歧视外国商品和服务。
6. 最惠国待遇（Most-Favored Nation Treatment）：指对待某一国家最有利待遇的给予方式，在国际贸易中，一旦给予某一国家最惠国待遇，就必须对所有其他与之有贸易关系的国家同样给予最惠国待遇。
7. 限制性贸易政策（Restrictive Trade Policies）：指保护主义的贸易政策措施，包括关税壁垒、非关税壁垒等，旨在限制进口和保护本国产业。
8. 世界贸易组织（World Trade Organization，WTO）：是一个负责制定、监督和执行国际贸易规则的国际组织，旨在促进贸易自由化和促进全球经济发展。
9. 投资保护（Investment Protection）：指提供外国投资者在特定国家投资的法律和制度保护措施，保护投资者的权益和投资的安全。
10. 争端解决机制（Dispute Settlement Mechanism）：指解决国际经济争端的机制，包括世界贸易组织的争端解决机制和投资仲裁等。
以上是一些国际经济法中常见的名词解释，这些名词涉及到国际经济关系中的重要概念和原则，对于了解和研究国际经济法非常重要。
国际经济学第九版英文课后答案第8单元*CHAPTER 8 (Core Chapter)TRADE RESTRICTIONS: TARIFFSOUTLINE8.1 Introduction8.2 Partial Equilibrium Analysis of a T ariffCase Study 8-1: Average Tariff on Non-Agricultural Products in Major Developed CountriesCase Study 8-2: Average Tariff on Non-Agricultural Products in Some MajorDeveloping Countries8.2a Partial Equilibrium Effects of a Tariff8.2b Effects of a Tariff on Producer and Consumer Surplus8.2c Costs and Benefits of a TariffCase Study 8-3: The Welfare Effects of Liberalizing Trade in Some U.S. Products Case Study 8-4: The Welfare Effects of Liberalizing Trade in Some EU Products 8.3 The Theory of Tariff Structure8.3a The Rate of Effective Protection8.3b Generalization and Evaluation of the Theory of Effective ProtectionCase Study 8-5: Rising Tariff Rates with Degree of Domestic ProcessingCase Study 8-6: Structure of Tariffs on Industrial Products in U.S., EU, Japan, and Canada8.4 General Equilibrium Analysis of a T ariff in a Small Country8.4a General Equilibrium Effects of a T ariff in a Small Country8.4b Illustration of the Effects of a Tariff in a Small Country8.4c The Stolper-Samuelson Theorem8.5 General Equilibrium Analysis of a Tariff in a Large Country8.5a General Equilibrium Effects of a T ariff in a Large Country8.5b Illustration of the Effects of a Tariff in a Large Country8.6 The Optimum Tariff8.6a The Meaning of the Concept and Retaliation8.6b Illustration of the Optimum Tariff and RetaliationAppendix: A8.1 Partial Equilibrium Effects of a Tariff in a Large NationA8.2 Derivation of the Formula for the Rate of Effective ProtectionA8.3 The Stolper-Samuelson Theorem GraphicallyA8.4 Exception to the Stolper-Samuelson Theorem - The MetzlerParadoxA8.5 Short-run Effect of a Tariff on Factors' IncomeA8.6 Measurement of the Optimum T ariffKey TermsTrade or commercial policies Consumer surplusImport tariff Rent or producer surplusExport tariff Protection cost or deadweight loss of a tariff Ad valorem tariff Nominal tariffSpecific tariff Rate of effective protectionCompound tariff Domestic value addedConsumption effect of a tariff Prohibitive tariffProduction effect of a tariff Stolper-Samuelson theoremTrade effect of a tariff Metzler paradoxRevenue effect of a tariff Optimum tariffLecture Guide1.I would cover sections 1 and 2 and assign problems 1-2 in the first lecture. Themost difficult part of section 2 is the meaning and measurement of consumer and producer surplus. Since a clear understanding of the meaning and measurementof consumer and producer surplus is crucial in evaluating the effect of tariffs, Iwould explain t hese concepts very carefully.2.I would then cover section 3 and assign problems 3-6 in the second lecture. Thetheory of tariff structure is also very difficult and important, and so I would alsoexplain this concept very carefully. I found that the best way to explain it is byusing the simple example used in the text of the suit with and without importedinputs.3.The rest of the chapter can be skipped without loss of continuity by thoseInstructors who do not wish to cover the general equilibrium effects of tariffs. 4.For those Instructors who wish to cover the rest of the chapter, I would take upanother two lectures to do so. I would also assign and grade problems 8-14 tomake sure that students understand the material.5.In covering section 8.4, I would pay special attention to the explanation of Figure8-5 and to the Stolper-Samuelson theorem.6.In covering Section 8.6, please note that the optimum tariff can only be discussedintuitively without trade indifference curves (examined in Appendix A8.6). Answer to Problems1.a) Consumption is 70Y, production is 10Y and imports are 60Y (see Figure 1 onthe next page).b) Consumption is 60Y, production is 20Y and imports are 40Y (see Figure 1).c) The consumption effect is -10Y, the production effect is +10Y, the trade effectis -20Y and the revenue effect is $40 (see Figure 1).2. a) The consumer surplus is $245 without and $l80 with the tariff (see Figure 1).b)Of the increase in the revenue of producers with the tariff (as compared withtheir revenues under free trade), $l5 represents the increase in production costsand another $15 represents the increase in rent or producer surplus (see Figure1).c) The dollar value or the protection cost of the tariff is $l0 (see Figure 1).3. This will increase the rate of effective protection in the nation.4. a) g = 0.4 - (0.5)(0.4) = 0.4 - 0.2 = 0.2 = 40%1.0 - 0.5 0.5 0.55. a) g=60%b) g=80%c) g=0d) g=20%6. a) g=70%b) See the first paragraph of section 8.3b.7. See Figure 2.8.When Nation 1 (assumed to be a small nation) imposes an import tariff oncommodity Y, the real income of labor falls and that of capital rises.9.Py/Px rises for domestic producers and consumers. As production of Y (the K-intensive commodity) rises and that of X falls, the demand and income of K rises and that of L falls. Therefore, r rises and w falls.10.If Nation 1 were instead a large nation, then Nation 1's terms of trade rise and thereal income of L may also rise.India is more likely to restrict imports of K-intensive commodities in which India has a comparative disadvantage and this is likely to increase the return to capitaland reduce the return to labor according to the Stolper-Samuelson theorem.12. See Figure 3 on the previous page.13. See Figure 4.14. a) The volume of trade may shrink to zero (the origin of offer curves).App. 1. The more elastic S H and S F are, the lower is the free trade priceof the commodity and the lower is the increase in the domesticprice of the commodity as a result of the tariff.App. 2a. The supply curve of the nation for the commodity shifts upand to the left (as with the imposition of any tax); this does not affectthe consumption of the commodity with free trade, but it reducesdomestic production and increases imports of the commodity; italso increases the revenue effect and reduces producers' surplus.b)The imposition of a tariff on imported inputs going into the domestic productionof the commodity will have no effect on the size of the protection cost ordeadweight loss.App. 3. See Figure 5 (on the next page).App. 4. See Figure 6.App. 5. Real w will fall in terms of Y and rise in terms of X. On theother hand, r eal r will rise in terms of Y and fall in terms of X. Thiscan be seen by drawing a figure similar to Figure 8-10, but with theVMPLy curve shifting upward.App. 6a. See Figure 7.c) After Nation 1 has imposed an optimum tariff and Nation2 has retaliatedwith an optimum tariff of its own, the approximate terms of trade for Nation1 is 0.8, while the approximate terms of trade of Nation2 is 1.25.d) Nation 1's welfare declines from the reduction in the volume and in the termsof trade. Although nation 2's terms of trade are higher than under free trade,the volume of trade has shrunk so much that nation 2's welfare is also likelyto be lower than under free trade.Multiple-choice Questions1. Which of the following statements is incorrect?a. An ad valorem tariff is expressed as a percentage of the value of the traded commodityb. a specific tariff is expressed as a fixed sum of the value of the traded commodity.c. export tariffs are prohibited by the U.S. Constitution*d. The U.S. uses exclusively the specific tariff2. A small nation is one:a. which does not affect world price by its tradingb. which faces an infinitely elastic world supply curve for its import commodityc. whose consumers will pay a price that exceeds the world price by the amount of the tariff*d. all of the above3. If a small nation increases the tariff on its import commodity, its:a. consumption of the commodity increasesb. production of the commodity decreasesc. imports of the commodity increase*d. none of the above4.The increase in producer surplus when a small nation imposes a tariff is measured bythe area:*a. to the left of the supply curve between the commodity price with and without the tariffb. under the supply curve between the quantity produced with and without the tariffc. under the demand curve between the commodity price with and without the tariffd. none of the above.5. If a small nation increases the tariff on its import commodity:*a. the rent of domestic producers of the commodity increasesb. the protection cost of the tariff decreasesc. the deadweight loss decreasesd. all of the above6.Which of the following statements is incorrect with respect to the rate of effectiveprotection?a. for given values of ai and ti, g is larger the greater is tb. for a given value of t and ti, g is larger the greater is a ic. g exceeds, is equal to or is smaller than t, as t i is smaller than, is equal to or is larger than t*d. when a i t i exceeds t, the rate of effective protection is positive7. With a i=50%, t i=0, and t=20%, g is:*a. 40%b. 20%c. 80%d. 08. The imposition of an import tariff by a small nation:*a. increases the relative price of the import commodity for domestic producers and consumersb. reduces the relative price of the import commodity for domestic producers and consumersc. increases the relative price of the import commodity for the nation as a wholed. any of the above is possible9. The imposition of an import tariff by a small nation:a. increases the nation's welfare*b. reduces the nation's welfarec. leaves the nation's welfare unchangedd. any of the above is possible10. According to the Stolper-Samuelson theorem, theimposition of a tariff by a nation:a. increases the real return of the nation's abundant factor*b. increases the real return of the nation's scarce factorc. reduces the real return of the nation's scarce factord. any of the above is possible11. The imposition of an import tariff by a nation results in:a. an increase in relative price of the nation's import commodityb. an increase in the nation's production of its importable commodityc. reduces the real return of the nation's abundant factor*d. all of the above12. The imposition of an import tariff by a nation can be represented by a rotation of the: *a. nation's offer curve away from the axis measuring the commodity of its comparative advantageb. the nation's offer curve toward the axis measuring the commodity of its comparative advantagec. the other nation's offer curve toward the axis measuring the commodity of its comparative advantaged. the other nation's offer curve away from the axis measuring the commodity of its comparative advantage13. The imposition of an import tariff by a large nation:a. increases the nation's terms of tradeb. reduces the volume of tradec. may increase or reduce the nation's welfare*d. all of the above14. The imposition of an optimum tariff by a large nation:a. improves its terms of tradeb. reduces the volume of tradec. increases the nation's welfare*d. all of the above15. The optimum tariff for a small nation is:a. 100%b. 50%*c. 0d. depends on elasticities。
国际经济学名词解释isolation )：在生产和消费那一点上一国生产可能性曲线和社会无差异曲线公切线的斜率。
贸易条件下的相对均衡价格( equilibrium-relative commodity price withtrade )：两国贸易平衡时贸易双方共同的均衡价格。
不完全分工( incomplete specialization )：一国并不是花费所有的资源和技术生产其具有比较优势的产品，而是同时生产一部分不具有比较优势的产品。
提供曲线( offer curve )：反映了一国为了进口的某一需要的商品数量而愿意出口的商品数量。
它具备了需要和供给两方面的因素。
贸易条件( terms of trade )：一国出口商品的价格和进口商品价格的比值。
在两国条件下，一国的贸易条件是另一国贸易条件的倒数。
在不止两种商品的贸易世界中，贸易条件是指一国出口商品价格指数和进口商品价格指数的比值。
要素密集度( factor intensities )：是指生产一个单位某种产品所使用的生产要素的组合比例。
在资本与劳动两种生产要素的情形下，要素的密集度就是指生产一单位该产品所使用的资本-劳动比率。
要素丰裕度( factor abundance )：要素丰裕度是一国的资源拥有状况，即一国的要素禀赋状况。
派生需求( derived demand )：对一种生产要素的需求来自(派生自)对另一种产品的需求，其中该生产要素对这一最终产品会作贡献。
赫克歇尔-俄林定理( Hechscher-Ohlin theorem )：一国应该出口该国相对便宜和丰裕的要素密集型的产品，进口该国相对昂贵和稀缺的要素密集型的产品。
要素比例或要素禀赋理论( factor-proportions or factor-endowment theory )：一国应该出口该国相对便宜和丰裕的要素密集型的产品，进口该国相对昂贵和稀缺的要素密集型的产品。
要素价格均等定理( factor-price equalization (H-O-S )theorem )：国际贸易会使各国同质要素获得相同的绝对和相对收入。
克鲁格曼《国际经济学》（第8版）课后习题详解（第11章贸易政策中的争议）【圣才出品】第11章贸易政策中的争议一、概念题1．以邻为壑的政策（beggar-thy-neighbor policies）答：以邻为壑的政策是指以牺牲别国的利益来提高本国福利的政策，即当一个国家采取某种政策或行动的时候，事实上其得到的好处来自于另一个国家的损失，一个国家所得到的，最终会是另一个国家所失去的。
从货币角度来说，本国货币扩张会引起汇率贬值，净出口增加，从而增加产出与就业，但是本国增加净出口对应着国外贸易余额的恶化。
本国货币贬值使需求从国外商品转移到本国商品上，国外的产出与就业会因此下降。
正是由于这个原因，由贬值引起的贸易余额的变动就是以邻为壑的政策，它是输出失业，或以损害其他国家来创造本国就业的一种方式。
本国福利的提高是以牺牲别国利益为代价的，因此这一政策很容易引起别国的报复和贸易战的爆发，最终损害各方的利益。
从国际贸易角度来说，战略性贸易政策就是一种以邻为壑的政策。
战略性贸易政策通过鼓励国内特定产品的出口和限制国外特定产品的进口，来保持本国在世界市场上的竞争优势，虽然使本国受益，但使外国受到了损失，本国也面临着受到外国报复的问题。
反之，如果外国的净出口增加，相当于本国消费者购买了很多外国的商品。
这样，对本国该产业的产品需求的下降就是对本国的该产业的一个冲击。
这种冲击会阻碍对其进行的投资和经营，从而使得这个产业的状况变坏，进而影响本国经济。
总之，以邻为壑的政策将引发贸易战从而使得各方均受到损害。
2．外部性（externalities）答：外部性是指当某个企业的经济行为（或者某个人的消费行为），经过非价格手段，直接地、不可避免地影响了其他企业的生产（或者其他人的效用），并且成为后者自己所不能加以控制的情况时，对前者来说就存在着外部性问题。
外部性可以分为正外部性和负外部性。
正外部性是指某个经济行为主体的行为使他人或者整个社会受益，而受益者无须花费代价；负外部性是指某经济行为主体的行为引起他人成本的增加或者效用的减少。
Chapter 8The Instruments of Trade PolicyChapter OrganizationBasic Tariff AnalysisSupply, Demand, and Trade in a Single IndustryEffects of a TariffMeasuring the Amount of ProtectionCosts and Benefits of a TariffConsumer and Producer SurplusMeasuring the Costs and BenefitsOther Instruments of Trade PolicyExport Subsidies: TheoryCase Study: Europe’s Common Agricultural PolicyImport Quotas: TheoryCase Study: An Import Quota in Practice: U.S. SugarVoluntary Export RestraintsCase Study: A Voluntary Export Restraint in Practice: Japanese Autos Local Content RequirementsBox: American Buses, Made in HungaryOther Trade Policy InstrumentsThe Effects of Trade Policy: A SummarySummaryAppendix I: Tariff Analysis in General EquilibriumA Tariff in a Small CountryA Tariff in a Large CountryAppendix II: Tariffs and Import Quotas in the Presence of Monopoly The Model with Free TradeThe Model with a TariffThe Model with an Import QuotaComparing a Tariff with a QuotaChapter 8 The Instruments of Trade Policy 33Chapter OverviewThis chapter and the next three focus on international trade policy. Students will have heard various arguments for and against restrictive trade practices in the media. Some of these arguments are sound and some are clearly not grounded in fact. This chapter provides a framework for analyzing the economic effects of trade policies by describing the tools of trade policy and analyzing their effects on consumers and producers in domestic and foreign countries. Case studies discuss actual episodes of restrictive trade practices. An instructor might try to underscore the relevance of these issues by having students scan newspapers and magazines for other timely examples of protectionism at work.The analysis presented here takes a partial equilibrium view, focusing on demand and supply in one market, rather than the general equilibrium approach followed in previous chapters. Import demand and export supply curves are derived from domestic and foreign demand and supply curves. There are a number of trade policy instruments analyzed in this chapter using these tools. Some of the important instruments of trade policy include specific tariffs, defined as taxes levied as a fixed charge for each unit of a good imported; ad valorem tariffs, levied as a fraction of the value of the imported good; export subsidies, which are payments given to a firm or industry that ships a good abroad; import quotas, which are direct restrictions on the quantity of some good that may be imported; voluntary export restraints, which are quotas on trading that are imposed by the exporting country instead of the importing country; and local content requirements, which are regulations that require that some specified fraction of a good is produced domestically.The import supply and export demand analysis demonstrates that the imposition of a tariff drives a wedge between prices in domestic and foreign markets, and increases prices in the country imposing the tariff and lowers the price in the other country by less than the amount of the tariff. This contrasts with most textbook presentations which make the small country assumption that the domestic internal price equals the world price times one plus the tariff rate. The actual protection provided by a tariff willnot equal the tariff rate if imported intermediate goods are used in the production of the protected good. The proper measurement, the effective rate of protection, is described in the text and calculated for a sample problem.The analysis of the costs and benefits of trade restrictions require tools of welfare analysis. The text explains the essential tools of consumer and producer surplus. Consumer surplus on each unit sold is defined as the difference between the actual price and the amount that consumers would have been willing to pay for the product. Geometrically, consumer surplus is equal to the area under the demand curve and above the price of the good. Producer surplus is the difference between the minimum amount for which a producer is willing to sell his product and the price which he actually receives. Geometrically, producer surplus is equal to the area above the supply curve and below the price line. These tools are fundamental to the student’s understanding of the implications of trade polici es and should be developed carefully. The costs of a tariff include distortionary efficiency losses in both consumption and production. A tariff provides gains from terms of trade improvement when and if it lowers the foreign export price. Summing the areas in a diagram of internal demand and supply provides a method for analyzing the net loss or gain from a tariff.Other instruments of trade policy can be analyzed with this method. An export subsidy operates in exactly the reverse fashion of an import tariff. An import quota has similar effects as an import tariff upon prices and quantities, but revenues, in the form of quota rents, accrue to foreign producers of the protected good. Voluntary export restraints are a form of quotas in which import licenses are held by foreign governments. Local content requirements raise the price of imports and domestic goods and do not result in either government revenue or quota rents.34 Krugman/Obstfeld •International Economics: Theory and Policy, Eighth EditionThroughout the chapter the analysis of different trade restrictions are illustrated by drawing upon specific episodes. Europe’s common agricultural policy provides and example of export subsidies in action. The case study corresponding to quotas describes trade restrictions on U.S. sugar imports. Voluntary export restraints are discussed in the context of Japanese auto sales to the United States. The oil import quota in the United States in the 1960’s provides an example of a local content scheme.There are two appendices to this chapter. Appendix I uses a general equilibrium framework to analyze the impact of a tariff, departing from the partial equilibrium approach taken in the chapter. When a small country imposes a tariff, it shifts production away from its exported good and toward the imported good. Consumption shifts toward the domestically produced goods. Both the volume of trade and welfare of the country decline. A large country imposing a tariff can improve its terms of trade by an amount potentially large enough to offset the production and consumption distortions. For a large country, a tariff may be welfare improving.Appendix II discusses tariffs and import quotas in the presence of a domestic monopoly. Free trade eliminates the monopoly power of a domestic producer and the monopolist mimics the actions of a firm in a perfectly competitive market, setting output such that marginal cost equals world price. A tariff raises domestic price. The monopolist, still facing a perfectly elastic demand curve, sets output such that marginal cost equals internal price. A monopolist faces a downward sloping demand curve under a quota.A quota is not equivalent to a tariff in this case. Domestic production is lower and internal price higher when a particular level of imports is obtained through the imposition of a quota rather than a tariff.Answers to Textbook Problems1. The import demand equation, MD, is found by subtracting the home supply equation from the homedemand equation. This results in MD= 80 - 40 ⨯P. Without trade, domestic prices and quantities adjust such that import demand is zero. Thus, the price in the absence of trade is 2.2. a. Foreign’s export supply curve, XS, is XS=-40 + 40⨯P. In the absence of trade, the price is 1.b. When trade occurs, export supply is equal to import demand, XS=MD. Thus, using theequations from Problems 1 and 2a, P= 1.50, and the volume of trade is 20.3. a. The new MD curve is 80 - 40 ⨯ (P+ t) where t is the specific tariff rate, equal to 0.5. (Note: Insolving these problems, you should be careful about whether a specific tariff or ad valorem tariff is imposed. With an ad valorem tariff, the MD equation would be expressed as MD= 80 - 40 ⨯(1 + t)P.) The equation for the export supply curve by the foreign country is unchanged. Solving,we find that the world price is $1.25, and thus the internal price at home is $1.75. The volume of trade has been reduced to 10, and the total demand for wheat at home has fallen to 65 (from thefree trade level of 70). The total demand for wheat in Foreign has gone up from 50 to 55.b. andc. The welfare of the home country is best studied using the combined numerical andgraphical solutions presented below in Figure 8.1.Figure 8.1Chapter 8 The Instruments of Trade Policy 35where the areas in the figure are:a.55(1.75 - 1.50) -0.5(55 - 50)(1.75 - 1.50) = 13.125b. 0.5(55 - 50)(1.75 - 1.50) = 0.625c. (65 - 55)(1.75 - 1.50) = 2.50d. 0.5(70 - 65)(1.75 - 1.50) = 0.625e. (65 - 55)(1.50 - 1.25) = 2.50Consumer surplus change: -(a+ b+ c+ d) =-16.875. Producer surplus change: a= 13.125.Government revenue change: c+ e= 5. Efficiency losses b+ d are exceeded by terms of tradegain e. (Note: In the calculations for the a, b, and d areas, a figure of 0.5 shows up. This isbecause we are measuring the area of a triangle, which is one-half of the area of the rectangledefined by the product of the horizontal and vertical sides.)4. Using the same solution methodology as in Problem 3, when the home country is very small relativeto the foreign country, its effects on the terms of trade are expected to be much less. The smallcountry is much more likely to be hurt by its imposition of a tariff. Indeed, this intuition is shown in this problem. The free trade equilibrium is now at the price $1.09 and the trade volume is now$36.40.With the imposition of a tariff of 0.5 by Home, the new world price is $1.045, the internal home price is $1.545, home demand is 69.10 units, home supply is 50.90, and the volume of trade is 18.20.When Home is relatively small, the effect of a tariff on world price is smaller than when Home is relatively large. When Foreign and Home were closer in size, a tariff of 0.5 by home lowered world price by 25 percent, whereas in this case the same tariff lowers world price by about 5 percent. The internal Home price is now closer to the free trade price plus t than when Home was relatively large.In this case, the government revenues from the tariff equal 9.10, the consumer surplus loss is 33.51, and the producer surplus gain is 21.089. The distortionary losses associated with the tariff (areas b+ d) sum to 4.14 and the terms of trade gain (e) is 0.819. Clearly, in this small country example, the distortionary losses from the tariff swamp the terms of trade gains. The general lesson is the smaller the economy, the larger the losses from a tariff since the terms of trade gains are smaller.5. ERP = (200 ⨯ 1.50 - 200)/100 = 100%6. The effective rate of protection takes into consideration the costs of imported intermediate goods.Here, 55% of the cost can be imported, suggesting with no distortion, home value added would be 45%. A 15% increase in the price of ethanol, though, means home value added could be as high as 60%. Effective rate of protection = (V t-V w)/V w, where V t is the value added in the presence of trade policies, and V w is the value added without trade distortions. In this case, we have (60 - 45)/45 = 33% effective rate of protection.7. We first use the foreign export supply and domestic import demand curves to determine the newworld price. The foreign supply of exports curve, with a foreign subsidy of 50 percent per unit,becomes XS=-40 + 40(1 + 0.5) ⨯P. The equilibrium world price is 1.2 and the internal foreign price is 1.8. The volume of trade is 32. The foreign demand and supply curves are used to determine the costs and benefits of the subsidy. Construct a diagram similar to that in the text and calculate the area of the various polygons. The government must provide (1.8 - 1.2)⨯ 32 = 19.2 units of output to support the subsidy. Foreign producers surplus rises due to the subsidy by the amount of 15.3 units of output. Foreign consumers surplus falls due to the higher price by 7.5 units of the good. Thus, the net loss to Foreign due to the subsidy is 7.5 + 19.2 - 15.3 = 11.4 units of output. Home consumers and producers face an internal price of 1.2 as a result of the subsidy. Home consumers surplus rises by 70 ⨯ 0.3 + 0.5 (6⨯ 0.3) = 21.9, while Home producers surplus falls by 44 ⨯ 0.3 + 0.5(6 ⨯ 0.3) =14.1, for a net gain of 7.8 units of output.36 Krugman/Obstfeld •International Economics: Theory and Policy, Eighth Edition8. a. False, unemployment has more to do with labor market issues and the business cycle than withtariff policy.b. False, the opposite is true because tariffs by large countries can actually reduce world priceswhich helps offset their effects on consumers.c. This kind of policy might reduce automobile production and Mexico, but also would increase theprice of automobiles in the United States, and would result in the same welfare loss associatedwith any quota.9. At a price of $10 per bag of peanuts, Acirema imports 200 bags of peanuts. A quota limiting theimport of peanuts to 50 bags has the following effects:a. The price of peanuts rises to $20 per bag.b. The quota rents are ($20 - $10) ⨯ 50 = $500.c. The consumption distortion loss is 0.5 ⨯ 100 bags ⨯ $10 per bag = $500.d. The production distortion loss is 0.5 ⨯ 50 bags ⨯ $10 per bag = $250.10. The reason is largely that the benefits of these policies accrue to a small group of people and thecosts are spread out over many people. Thus, those that benefit care far more deeply about these policies. These typical political economy problems associated with trade policy are probably even more troublesome in agriculture, where there are long standing cultural reasons for farmers andfarming communities to want to hold onto their way of life, making the interests even moreentrenched than they would normally be.11. It would improve the income distribution within the economy since wages in manufacturing wouldincrease, and real incomes for others in the economy would decrease due to higher prices formanufactured goods. This is true only under the assumption that manufacturing wages are lower than all others in the economy. If they were higher than others in the economy, the tariff policies would worsen the income distribution.。
*CHAPTER 5(Core Chapter)TRADE RESTRICTIONS: TARIFFSOUTLINE5.1 Introduction5.2 Types of TariffsCase Study 5-1 Average Tariff on Industrial Products in Major Developed CountriesCase Study 5-2 Average Tariff on Industrial Products in Some Major Developing Countries 5.3 Effects of a Tariff in a Small Nation5.4 Effect of a Tariff on Consumer and Producer Surplus5.5 Costs and Benefits of a Tariff in a Small NationCase Study 5-3 The Welfare Effects of Liberalizing Trade in Some U.S. ProductsCase Study 5-4 The Welfare Effects of Liberalizing Trade in Some EU Products5.6 Costs and Benefits of a Tariff in a Large Nation5.7 The Optimum Tariff and Retaliation5.8 Theory of Tariff StructureCase Study 5-5 Rising Tariff Rates with Degree of Domestic ProcessingCase Study 5-6 Structure of Tariffs in the United States, EU, and CanadaAppendix: Optimum Tariff and Retaliation with Offer CurvesKey TermsTrade or commercial policies Revenue effect of a tariffsurplustariff ConsumerImportExport tariff Rent or producer surplustariff Protectioncost or deadweight loss of a tariff valoremAdSpecific tariff Terms of trade effect of the tarifftarifftariff OptimumCompoundConsumption effect of a tariff Prohibitive tariffProduction effect of a tariff Rate of effective protectionTrade effect of a tariffLecture Guide1. I would cover sections 1-4 in the first lecture. The most difficult part is Section 4 on themeaning and measurement of consumer and producer surplus. Since a clear understanding of the meaning and measurement of consumer and producer surplus is crucial in measuring the welfare effect of tariffs, I would explain these concepts very carefully.2. I would cover sections 5 and 6 in the second lecture. These are the most difficult sections inthe chapter and also the most important.3. The theory of tariff structure is also difficult and important. I found that the best way toexplain it is by using the simple example in the text on the suit with and without imported inputs. This section is likely to generate a great deal of discussion about the trade relations between developed and developing nations. If you do not plan to cover optional Chapter 8 on growth and development, you could spend a bit more time on this topic here , even though it will come up again in Chapter 6.Answer to Problems1. a. See Figure 1 on the next page.b. Consumption is 70X, production is 50X and imports are 20X.c. The consumption effect is –30X, the production effect is +30X, the trade effectis –60X, and the revenue effect is $30 (see Figure 1).2. a. The consumer surplus is $250 without and $l22.50 with the tariff (see Figure 1).b. Of the increase in the revenue of producers with the tariff (as compared with theirrevenues under free trade), $22.50 represents the increase in production costs andanother $22.50 represents the increase in rent or producer surplus (see Figure 1).c. The dollar value or the protection cost of the tariff is $45 (see Figure 1).3. The dollar value or the protection cost of the tariff is $45 (see Figure 2).4. The dollar value or the protection cost of the tariff is $45 (see Figure 3).5. The optimum tariff is the tariff that maximizes the net benefit resulting from theimprovement in the nation’s terms of trade against the negative effect resulting fromreduction in the volume of trade.X Fig 5.1X Fig 5.2XFig 5.36. a. When a nation imposes an optimum tariff, the trade partner’s welfare declines because ofthe lower volume of trade and the deterioration in its terms of trade.b. The trade partner is likely to retaliate and in the end both nations are likely to lose becauseof the reduction in the volume of trade.7. Even when the trade partner does not retaliate when one nation imposes the optimum tariff,the gains of the tariff-imposing nation are less than the losses of the trade partner, so that theworld as a whole is worse off than under free trade. It is in this sense that free trade maximizesworld welfare.8. a. The nominal tariff is calculated on the market price of the product or service. The rate ofeffective protection, on the other hand, is calculated on the value added in the nation. It isequal to the value of the price of the commodity or service minus the value of the importedinputs used in the production of the commodity or service.b. The nominal tariff is important to consumers because it determines by how much the priceof the imported commodity increases. The rate of effective protection is important fordomestic producers because it determines the actual rate of protection provided by thetariff to domestic processing.9. a. Rates of effective protection in industrial nations are generally much higher than thecorresponding nominal rates and increase with the degree of processing.b. The tariff structure of developed nations is of great concern for developing nationsbecause it discourages manufacturing production in developing nations.10. If a nation reduces the nominal tariff on the importation of the raw materials required toproduce a commodity but does not reduce the tariff on the importation of the finalcommodity produced with the imported raw material, then the effective tariff rates willincrease relative to the nominal tariff rate on the commodity.Multiple-choice Questions1. Which of the following statements is incorrect?a. an ad valorem tariff is expressed as a percentage of the price of the traded commodity.b. a specific tariff is expressed as a fixed sum of the value of the traded commodity.c. export tariffs are prohibited by the U.S. Constitution*d. the U.S. uses exclusively the specific tariff2. A small nation is one:a. which does not affect world price by its tradingb. which faces an infinitely elastic world supply curve for its import commodityc. whose consumers will pay a price that exceeds the world price by the amount of the tariff *d. all of the above3. If a small nation increases the tariff on its import commodity, its:a. consumption of the commodity increasesb. production of the commodity decreasesc. imports of the commodity increase*d. none of the above4. The increase in producer surplus when a small nation imposes a tariff is measured by the area: *a. to the left of the supply curve between the commodity price with and without the tariffb. under the supply curve between the quantity produced with and without the tariffc. under the demand curve between the commodity price with and without the tariffd. none of the above.5. If a small nation increases the tariff on its import commodity:*a. the rent of domestic producers of the commodity increasesb. the protection cost of the tariff decreasesc. the deadweight loss decreasesd. all of the above6. The imposition of an optimum tariff by a small nation:a. improves its terms of tradeb. reduces the volume of tradec. increases the nation's welfare*d. non of the above7. The optimum tariff for a small nation is:a. 100%b. 50%*c. 0d. depends on the elasticity of demand and supply for the import commodity in the nation8. The imposition of an optimum tariff by a large nation:a. improves its terms of tradeb. reduces the volume of tradec. increases the nation's welfare*d. all of the above9. The imposition of an optimum tariff by a large nation:a. improves the terms of trade of the trade partner*b. reduces the volume of tradec. increases the trade partner’s welfared. all of the above10. If two large countries impose an optimum tariff*a. the welfare of the both nations decreaseb. the welfare of the both nations increasec. the welfare of the larger nation will increase and that of the other nation decreasesd. the welfare of the larger nation will decrease and that of the other nation increases11. If one nation imposes an optimum tariff and the other nation does not retaliate*a. the welfare of the first nation increases and that of the welfare of the second nation fallsb. the welfare of the second nation increases and that of the welfare of the second nation fallsc. the welfare of both nations falld. the welfare of both nations increase12. If one nation imposes an optimum tariff and the other nation does not retaliatea. the welfare of the first nation increases more than the fall in the welfare of the secondnation*b. the welfare of the first nation increases more than the fall in the welfare of the secondnationc. the welfare of the second nation increases less than the fall in the welfare of the firstnationd. the welfare of the first nation increases by the same amount as the fall in the welfare of the second nation13. The nominal tariff is the tariff calculated on thea. price of the input used in the production of the commodity*b. price of the commodity or servicec. value addedd. all of the above14. The effective tariff rate is the tariff calculated on thea. price of the input used in the production of the commodityb. commodity or service*c. value added in the nationd. all of the above15. If the nominal tariff on a commodity is higher than the nominal tariff on the imported input used in the production of the commodity, then the rate of effective protection is*a. higher on the commodity than on the inputb. lower on the commodity than on the imported inputc. equal on the commodity and on the imported inputd. any of the above。
International Economics, 8e (Krugman)Chapter 8 The Instruments of Trade Policy1) Specific tariffs areA) import taxes stated in specific legal statutes.B) import taxes calculated as a fixed charge for each unit of imported goods.C) import taxes calculated as a fraction of the value of the imported goods.D) the same as import quotas.E) None of the above.Answer: B2) Ad valorem tariffs areA) import taxes stated in ads in industry publications.B) import taxes calculated as a fixed charge for each unit of imported goods.C) import taxes calculated as a fraction of the value of the imported goods.D) the same as import quotas.E) None of the above.Answer: C3) The excess supply curve of a product we (H) import from foreign countries (F) increases asA) excess demand of country H increases.B) excess demand of country F increases.C) excess supply of country H increases.D) excess supply of country F increases.E) None of the above.Answer: D4) Suppose the United States eliminates its tariff on ball bearings used in producing exports. Ball bearing pricesin the United States would be expected toA) increase, and the foreign demand for U.S. exports would increase.B) decrease, and the foreign demand for U.S. exports would increase.C) increase, and the foreign demand for U.S. exports would decrease.D) decrease, and the foreign demand for U.S. exports would decrease.E) None of the above.Answer: C5) A specific tariff provides home producers more protection whenA) the home market buys cheaper products rather than expensive products.B) it is applied to a commodity with many grade variations.C) the home demand for a good is elastic with respect to price changes.D) it is levied on manufactured goods rather than primary products.E) None of the above.Answer: A6) A lower tariff on imported steel would most likely benefitA) foreign producers at the expense of domestic consumers.B) domestic manufacturers of steel.C) domestic consumers of steel.D) workers in the steel industry.E) None of the above.Answer: C7) A problem encountered when implementing an "infant industry" tariff is thatA) domestic consumers will purchase the foreign good regardless of the tariff.B) the industry may never "mature."C) most industries require tariff protection when they are mature.D) the tariff may hurt the industry's domestic sales.E) None of the above.Answer: B8) Which of the following is a fixed percentage of the value of an imported product?A) specific tariffB) ad valorem tariffC) nominal tariffD) effective protection tariffE) None of the above.Answer: B9) A tax of 20 cents per unit of imported garlic is an example of a(n)A) specific tariff.B) ad valorem tariff.C) nominal tariff.D) effective protection tariff.E) None of the above.Answer: A10) A tax of 20 percent per unit of imported garlic is an example of a(n)A) specific tariff.B) ad valorem tariff.C) nominal tariff.D) effective protection tariff.E) None of the above.Answer: B11) Tariffs are not defended on the ground that theyA) improve the terms of trade of foreign nations.B) protect jobs and reduce unemployment.C) promote growth and development of young industries.D) prevent over-dependence of a country on only a few industries.E) None of the above.Answer: A12) The most vocal political pressure for tariffs is generally made byA) consumers lobbying for export tariffs.B) consumers lobbying for import tariffs.C) consumers lobbying for lower import tariffs.D) producers lobbying for export tariffs.E) producers lobbying for import tariffs.Answer: E13) What is a true statement concerning the imposition in the U.S. of a tariff on steel?A) It lowers the price of cheese domestically.B) It raises the price of cheese internationally.C) It raises revenue for the government.D) It will always result in retaliation from abroad.E) None of the above.Answer: C14) The tariff levied in a "large country" (Home), lowers the world price of the imported good. This causesC) domestic demand for imports to increase.D) foreign suppliers to produce less of the good on which was levied a tariff.E) None of the above.Answer: D15) In the country levying the tariff, the tariff willA) increase both consumer and producer surplus.B) decrease both the consumer and producer surplus.C) decrease consumer surplus and increase producer surplus.D) increase consumer surplus and decrease producer surplus.E) None of the above.Answer: C16) Refer to above figure. In the absence of trade, how many Widgets does this country produce and consume?Answer: 6017) Refer to above figure. In the absence of trade, what is the country's consumer plus producer surplus?Answer: $180, $18018) Refer to above figure. With free trade and no tariffs, what is the quantity of Widgets imported?Answer: 10019) Refer to above figure. With a specific tariff of $3 per unit, what is the quantity of Widget imports?Answer: 8020) Refer to above figure. The loss of Consumer Surplus due to the tariff equals ________.Answer: $23021) Refer to above figure. The lowest specific tariff which would be considered prohibitive is ________.Answer: $522) If a good is imported into (large) country H from country F, then the imposition of a tariff in country HA) raises the price of the good in both countries (the "Law of One Price").B) raises the price in country H and cannot affect its price in country F.C) lowers the price of the good in both countries.D) lowers the price of the good in H and could raise it in F.E) raises the price of the good in H and lowers it in F.Answer: E23) If a good is imported into (small) country H from country F, then the imposition of a tariff In country HA) raises the price of the good in both countries (the "Law of One Price").B) raises the price in country H and does not affect its price in country F.C) lowers the price of the good in both countries.Answer: B24) The effective rate of protection measuresA) the "true" ad valorum value of a tariff.B) the quota equivalent value of a tariff.C) the efficiency with which the tariff is collected at the customhouse.D) the protection given by the tariff to domestic value added.E) None of the above.Answer: D25) If the tariff on computers is not changed, but domestic computer producers shift from domestically producedsemiconductors to imported components, then the effective rate of protection in the computer industry willA) increase.B) decreaseC) remain the same.D) depend on whether computers are PCs or "Supercomputers."E) None of the above.Answer: A26) If a small country imposes a tariff, thenA) the producers must suffer a loss.B) the consumers must suffer a loss.C) the government revenue must suffer a loss.D) the demand curve must shift to the left.E) None of the above.Answer: B27) When a government allows raw materials and other intermediate products to enter a country duty free, thisgenerally results in a(an)A) effective tariff rate less than the nominal tariff rate.B) nominal tariff rate less than the effective tariff rate.C) rise in both nominal and effective tariff rates.D) fall in both nominal and effective tariff rates.E) None of the above.Answer: B28) Of the many arguments in favor of tariffs, the one that has enjoyed significant economic justification hasbeen theA) cheap foreign labor argument.B) infant industry argument.C) even playing field argument.D) balance of payments argumentE) domestic living standard argument.Answer: B29) The principle benefit of tariff protection goes toA) domestic consumers of the good produced.B) foreign consumers of the good produced.C) domestic producers of the good produced.D) foreign producers of the good produced.E) None of the above.Answer: C30) Should the home country be "large" relative to its trade partners, its imposition of a tariff on imports wouldlead to an increase in domestic welfare if the terms of the trade rectangle exceed the sum of theA) revenue effect plus redistribution effect.B) protective effect plus revenue effect.Answer: D31) The deadweight loss of a tariffA) is a social loss because it promotes inefficient use of national resources.B) is a social loss because it reduces the revenue of the government.C) is not a social loss because it merely redistributes revenue from one sector to another.D) is not a social loss because it is paid for by rich corporations.E) None of the above.Answer: A32) The fact that industrialized countries levy very low or no tariff on raw materials and semi processed goodsA) helps developing countries export manufactured products.B) has no effect on developing country exports.C) hurts developing country efforts to export manufactured goods.D) hurts developing country efforts to export raw materials.E) None of the above.Answer: C33) The change in the economic welfare of a country associated with an increase in a tariff equalsA) efficiency loss - terms of trade gain.B) efficiency gain - terms of trade loss.C) efficiency loss + tax revenue gain.D) efficiency loss + tax revenue gain + terms of trade gain.E) None of the above.Answer:34) The two deadweight triangles are the Consumption distortion and Production distortion losses. It is easy tounderstand why the Consumption distortion constitutes a loss for society. After all it raises the prices of goods to consumers, and even causes some consumers to drop out of the market altogether. It seems paradoxical that the Production distortion is considered an equivalent burden on society. After all, in this case, profitsincrease, and additional production (with its associated employment) comes on line. This would seem to be an offset rather than an addition to the burden or loss borne by society. Explain why the Production distortion is indeed a loss to society, and what is wrong with the logic that leads to the apparent paradox.Answer: The Production Distortion represents an inefficient shift of society's resources to produce a good, which it could not sell profitably at world prices. Since (with full employment assumed) these resources wereformerly used to produce export goods, which could compete profitably, the net result is a loss in realincome to the country.35) An important difference between tariffs and quotas is that tariffsA) raise the price of the good.B) generate tax revenue for the government.C) stimulate international trade.D) help domestic producers.E) None of the above.Answer: B36) Throughout the post-World War II era, the importance of tariffs as a trade barrier hasA) increased.B) decreased.C) remained the same.D) fluctuated wildly.E) demonstrated a classic random walk with a mean-reversion tendency.Answer: B37) In the exporting country, an export subsidy willD) help consumers but lower economic welfare of the exporting country.E) None of the aboveAnswer: C。
