《国际商务英语-商务英语谈判》商务,英语,书籍.doc

商务英语参考书籍以下是商务英语的参考书籍：1. 《商务英语实用教程》（A Course in Business English）：作者梁宏达，是一本常用的商务英语教材，涵盖了商务日常用语、商务信函写作、商务谈判技巧等内容。

2. 《商务英语口语从入门到精通》（Business English Spoken Master）：作者李川，通过对商务英语口语的分析和提炼，帮助学习者掌握商务英语对话的技巧和常用词汇。

3. 《商务英语应用技巧与策略》（Mastering Business English）：作者布莱尔·尼科尔森，深入介绍了商务英语的应用技巧和策略，包括跨文化交际、商务会议、商务演讲等方面。

4. 《商务英语写作与沟通技巧》（Business English Writing and Communication Skills）：作者伊莲·格什，重点介绍了商务英语写作的规范、技巧和沟通技巧，是一本很好的商务英语写作指南。

5. 《国际商务英语》（International Business English）：作者彼得·史特林，介绍了国际商务交流的要点、技巧和习惯用语，适合有一定商务英语基础的学习者。

6. 《商务英语口译实战》（Business English Interpretation Practice）：作者张红梅，通过大量商务英语口译练习，提高学习者的口译技巧和理解能力。

7. 《商务英语应用书信写作》（Business English Correspondence Writing）：作者拉里·布雷德利，主要介绍了商务英语书信的写作格式、常用表达和礼仪，适合需要提升商务英语书信写作能力的学习者。

以上是一些建议的商务英语参考书籍，希望对你有所帮助。

Lesson 17 The International Monetary System and ExchangeRateThe earliest internationalchange their paper currencies into gold when requested to do so. The gold standard created a fixed exchange rate system as each country pegged (fix挂钩) the value of its currency to gold to establish its par value (平价/票面价值) (face value). For most of the 19th century till the end of the First World War,major trading countries followed this system and the British Pound was the most important currency in international business as a result of the economic, political and military power of the United Kingdom, hence the term sterling-based gold standard. (pound sterling)The pressure caused by the First World War on economy coupled with(together with连同) the impact of the Great Depression (大萧条)put an end to(结束)the fixed exchange rate system. The Bank of England was no longer able to redeem (赎回，兑换)itspaper currency for gold at par value(以面值) (无力将其纸币以平价兑换成黄金) and allowed its value to be determined by supply and demand (market). With Britain abandoning (放弃)the gold standard, there appeared different areas in the world. Some countries pegged their currencies to the sterling(英镑), some countries to the US dollar and some to the French Franc, forming the “sterling area”, “dollar area” and “franc area”. This period witnessed the degeneration(衰落)of the international monetary system as some major countries vied(vie -compete)to(竞相)devaluate their currencies to make their export goods more competitive.(竞争性贬值) (这一时期，世界货币体系不断恶化，各主要贸易国家竞相将其货币贬值以提高他们出口物品的竞争力) The be nefits brought about by their devaluation were, needless to say (不用说), offset(抵消)by what their competitors did. International trade con t racted (shrink收缩) and economic conflict finally led to the Second World War.Towards the end of the Second World War (1944) representativesof 44 countries gathered at Bretton Woods (布雷顿森林)to renew(更新)the gold standard on a greatly modified basis(在修改较大的基础上). One important fruit of the conference is the creation (establishment创立) of the International Bank for Reconstruction and Development (IBRD)and the International Monetary Fund. (1944)The Bretton Woods Conference established a US dollar based gold standard. Because of the dominating (主导性的) economic and political influenceof the United States, the dollar replaced the sterling(英镑)as the major vehicle(工具)for international settlement(国际结算). 由于美国在国际经济、政治中的统治性影响，美元替代英镑成了国际结算中的主要工具。

国际商务谈判英语口语书本国际商务谈判英语口语是从事跨国商务活动必备的技能之一，因此相关的书籍在市场上颇受欢迎。

以下是一些关于国际商务谈判英语口语的经典书籍，供您参考：1、《国际商务谈判英语口语大全》：这本书由国内知名商务英语专家编写，内容涵盖了国际商务谈判的各个方面，包括谈判技巧、语言表达、实用范例等，对于想要提高商务英语口语水平的读者来说非常实用。

2、《商务英语谈判实战指南》：这本书从实用的角度出发，详细介绍了商务谈判的基本原则、技巧和方法，同时提供了大量的实例和案例分析，有助于读者更好地掌握商务谈判的精髓。

3、《商务英语谈判口语教程》：这本书以商务谈判的实际场景为基础，通过模拟对话、案例分析等形式，帮助读者掌握商务谈判中的语言表达和沟通技巧，同时提高商务英语口语水平。

4、《国际商务谈判理论与实践》：这本书从理论和实践两个角度出发，系统介绍了国际商务谈判的基本概念、原则和方法，同时结合案例分析，深入探讨了国际商务谈判中的策略和技巧。

5、《实用商务英语谈判》：这本书以实用为宗旨，详细介绍了商务英语谈判的各个环节和技巧，包括商务礼仪、沟通技巧、报价还价等方面的内容，非常适合想要提高商务英语谈判实战能力的读者。

以上书籍从不同的角度介绍了国际商务谈判英语口语的相关知识，对于想要在这个领域有所建树的读者来说，选择一本适合自己的书籍，认真学习和实践，相信会有很大的收获。

当然，除了以上书籍之外，还有很多其他优秀的国际商务谈判英语口语书籍可供选择，读者可以根据自己的需求和兴趣进行选择。

在阅读这些书籍时，可以结合实际情况进行实践和应用。

例如，可以模拟实际的商务谈判场景进行对话练习，或者在实际的商务场合中尝试运用所学的语言表达和谈判技巧。

同时，还可以通过参加相关的商务英语培训课程、加入商务英语交流群组等方式，与志同道合的人一起学习和分享经验，进一步提高自己的国际商务谈判英语口语水平。

Lesson 1 International Business（国际商务）★International business refers to transaction between parties（当事人、参与者）from different countries.Sometimes business across the borders of different customs areas （关税区）of the same country is also regarded as import and export, such as business between Hong Kong and Taiwan.International business involves more factors and thus is more complicated than domestic business. The followings(下列各项) are some major differences between the two:★ 1. The countries involved often have different legal systems（不同的法律体系）, and one or more parties will have to adjust themselves to operate in compliance with（遵照、遵从） the foreign law.2. Different countries usually use different currencies（不同的货币） and the parties will have to decide which currency to use and do everything necessary as regards（关于） conversion （兑换） etc. Uncertainties and even risks are often involved in the use of a foreign currency.3.including language, customs,traditions, religion, value, behavior etc. often constitute challenges and even traps for people engaged in international business. 4. Countries vary in natural and economic conditions and may have different policies towards foreign trade and investment, making international business more complex than domestic business.With the development ofeconomic globalization（经济全球化）,few people or companies can completely stay away from（置身于外）international business. Some knowledge in this respect（方面） is necessary both for the benefit of enterprises and personal advancement（个人进步）.International business first took the form of commodity trade（商品贸易）,.（即）exporting andimporting goods produced or manufactured in one country for consumption or resale(消费或转售) in another. This form of trade is also referred to as（被称为）visible trade（有形贸易）. Later a different kind of trade in the form of transportation, communication, banking, insurance, consulting（咨询）, information（信息业） etc. gradually became more andmore important. This type of trade is called invisible trade（无形贸易）. Today, the contribution of service industries(服务业) of the developed countries constitutes over 60% of their gross domestic products（国内生产总值）and account for(占…) an increasing proportion of world trade. ★Another important form of international business is supplying capital byresidents of one country to another, known ascan be classified into two categories. The first kind of investments, foreign direct investments（外国直接投资）or FDI for short is made for returns（回报）through controlling the enterprises or assets invested in in a host country(东道国).The host country is a foreigncountry where the investor operates, while the country where the headquarters of investor is located is called the home country（投资国）. The second kind of investment, portfolio investment（证券投资）, refers to purchases of foreign financial assets（金融资产） for a purpose other than controlling.Such financial assets may be stocks（股票）, bonds（债券）or certificate of deposit（大额存单）. Stocks are also called capital stocks or bonds（股本或股份）.★Bonds are papers issued by a government or a firm with promise to pay back the money lent or invested together with interest. The maturity period（到期时间）of a bond is at least one year, often longer, for example five, or even ten years. Certificates of deposit generally involve large amounts, say 25thousand US dollars.★Besides trade and investment, international licensing（国际许可）and franchising（特许经营） are sometimes taken as a means of entering a foreign market. In licensing, a firm leases（出租）the right to use its intellectual property（知识产权） to a firm in another country. Such intellectual property may be trademarks （商标）, brand names（品牌）,patents（专利）, copyrights （版权） or technology（技术）. Firms choose licensing is because they don’t have to make cash payment to start business, and can simply receive income in the form of royalty（知识产权/专利使用费）. Besides, they can benefit from locational advantages of foreign operation(当地经营优势) without any obligation in ownership or management. Theuse of licensing is particularly encouraged by high customs duty（关税） and non-tariff barriers（非关税壁垒） on the part of the host country. However it is not advisable to use licensing agreement in countries with weak intellectual property protection（知识产权保护）since the licensor（许可方）may have difficulty in enforcing licensing agreement（执行许可协议）.Franchising can be regarded as a special form of licensing. Under franchising, a firm, called the franchisee （特许使用方）, is allowed to operate in the name of another, called the franchiser（特许授予方） who provides the former with trademarks, brand names, logos（公司标志）, and operating techniques（经营技巧） for royalty（特许使用费）. In comparison with therelation between the licenser（许可授予方） and the licensee（许可使用方）, the franchiser has more control over and provides more support for the franchisee.★The franchiser can develop internationally and gain access to useful information about the local market with little risk and cost, and the franchisee can easily get into a businesswith established（已获认可的）products or services. Franchising is fairly popular especially in hotel and restaurant business. Other forms for participating in international business are management contract（管理合同）, contract manufacturing （生产合同）, and turnkey project（“交钥匙”工程）. Under a management contract, one company offersmanagerial or other specialized services to another within a particular period for a flat payment（固定费用） or a percentage of the relevant business volume(相关业务总价值). ★Sometimes bonuses（分红）based on profitability or sales growth are also specialized (注明) in management contracts. When a government forbids foreign ownership in certainindustries it considers to be of strategic importance but lacks the expertise for operation, management contracts may be a practical （切实可行的）choices enabling a foreign company to operate in the industry without owning the assets. By contract manufacturing, a firm can concentrate on their strongest part in the value chain（价值链）, e. g. marketing, while contractingwith foreign companies for the manufacture of their products. Such firms can reduce the amount of their resources devoted to manufacture and benefit from location advantages(当地优势) from production in host counties. ★However, loss of control over the producing process may give rise to（产生） problems in respect of quality and time of delivery （交货期）.For an international turnkey project, a firm signs a contract with a foreign purchaser and undertakes all the designing, contracting and facility equipping before handing it over to the latter upon completion.Such projects are often large and complex and take a long period to complete. Payment for a turnkey project may be made at a fixed total price or on a cost plus basis（在实际成本之外收取一定费用）. The latter way of payment shifts the burden of possible additional cost over the original budget onto the purchaser.★BOT（建设、经营、移交）is a popular variant of the turnkey project where B stands for build, O for operate and T for transfer. For a BOT project, a firm operates a facility for a period of time after buildingit up before finally transferring it to a foreign company. Making profit from operating the project for a period is the major difference between BOT and the common turnkey project. Needless to say, the contractor has to bear the financial and other risks that may occur in the period of operation.。

国际商务英语课⽂电⼦版lesson（10）Lesson10 International Payment Generally speaking, it is not very difficult for buyers and sellers in domestic trade to get to know each other’s financial status and other information, and payment is likely to be made in a straightforward manner,say（for example）by remittance or by debiting the debtor’s account. In international trade, however, things are far more complicated. Purchase and sale of goods and services are carried out beyond national boundaries, which make it ratherdifficult for the parties concerned in the transaction to get adequate information about each other’s financial standing and creditworthiness (资信；信誉). Therefore, mutual trust is hard to build. Both the exporter and importer face risks as there is always the possibility that the other party may not fulfill the contract.For the exporter there is the risk of buyer default（不按期付款）. The importer might fail to pay in full for the goods. He might go bankrupt.His government might, for various reasons, ban（禁⽌）trade with the exporting country or ban imports of certain commodities. The buyer might run into difficulties getting the foreign exchange to pay for the goods. It is even possible that the buyer is not reliable and simply refuses to pay the agreed amount on various excuses.On the part of the importer, there is the risk that the shipment will be delayed, and he might only receive them long after payment.The delay may be caused by problems in production or transportation, and such delays may lead to loss of business. There is also a risk that wrong goods might be sent as a result of negligence（疏忽⼤意）of the exporter or simply because of his lack of integrity （honesty）.Political risks such as war, quotas, foreign exchange control; commercial risks like market change and exchange rate fluctuations(波动); and even language barriers all add upto（increase）the problems in international trade. Because of these problems and risks, exporters are hesitant to release their goods before receiving payment, while importers prefer to have control over the goods before parting with their money. Various methods of payment have been developed to cope with different situations in international trade. When the political and economic situation in the importing country makes payment uncertain or when the buyer’s credit standing isdubious (doubtful), the exporter may prefer cash in advance or partial cash in advance. In this case, the importer has no guarantee that the exporter will fulfill his obligations once he has made payment by cash. If the buyer and the seller know each other well, they may decide to trade on open account. This means that no documents are involved and that legally (in terms of law) the buyer can pay anytime. The seller loses all control over the goods once they have been shipped. Sales on thisbasis are usually paid for by periodic payment, and obviously the exporter must have sufficient financial strength经济实⼒to carry the cost of the goods until receiving payment. If the exporter wishes to retain（保留）title or ownership（所有权）to the goods, he can enter into consignment transactions. This means the exporter has to send his goods abroad and will not get payment until the goods are sold. If not sold, the goods can be shipped back. Therefore, this arrangementshould only be made with full understanding of the risks involved and is preferably to be limited to stable countries where the exporter has a trusted agent to look after his interest.A lot of international transactions are paid for by means of the draft（汇票）, which, also referred to as the bill of exchange, is an unconditional（⽆条件的）order to a bank or a customer to pay a sum of money to someone on demand（⽴即）or at a fixed time in the future.The person who draws（开⽴）the draft,usually the exporter, is called the drawer（出票⼈）, and the person to whom the draft is drawn is called the drawee（受票⼈）. There is yet another party payee（收款⼈）, i.e. the person receiving the payment, who and the drawer are generally but not necessarily the same person, as the drawer can instruct the drawee either to pay “to the order of ourselves” or to the order of someone else, for instance, the bank.A draft is either a sight draft ora usance draft (also called tenor draft or term draft). The former calls for （needs）immediate payment on presentation(提⽰) to the drawee while the latter is payable at a later date, e.g. 30, 45, 60, or 90 days after sight or date. A draft is either clean (clean draft 光票) (without documents) or documentary (documentary draft跟单汇票). In the latter case, the draft is accompanied （attached）by the relevant documents such as the bill of lading, the invoice, the insurance policy etc.In documentary collection ( 跟单托收), the exporter sends the draft and the shipping documents运输单据representing title tothe goods to his bank, which forwards (sends)them to another bank in the importer’s country, which in turn contacts the customer (importer). In the case of documents against payment (D/P)付款交单, documents will not be released to the importer until payment is effected执⾏. There are D/P at sight and D/P after sight. The former requires immediate paymentby the importer to get hold of the documents. The latter gives the importer a certain period after presentation of the documents, but documents are not released to him until he actually pays for the merchandise货物. In the case of documents against acceptance (D/A)承兑交单, documents are handed over to the importer upon his acceptance（承兑）of the bill of exchange drawn by the exporter. Payment will not be made until a later date. D/A is always after sight.So far as the exporter’s interest is concerned, D/P at sight is more favorable than D/P after sight, and D/P is more favorable than D/A. In actual trade, payment by collection should be accepted with discretion （⼩⼼）. It is usually used when the financial standing of the importer is sound（良好的）, or when the exporter wishes to push the sale of his goods, or when the transaction involves only a small quantity. Otherwise, the letter of credit is generally preferred.。

InternationalBusinessEnglish国际商务英语（英文版）International Business English国际商务英语Lesson 1 International Business第一课国际商务*International business refers to transaction between parties from different countries. Sometimes business across the borders of different customs areas of the same country is also regarded as import and export, such as business between Hong Kong and Taiwan.*International business involves more factors and thus is more complicated than domestic business. The following are some major differences between the two.1). The countries involved often have different legal systems, and one or more parties will have to adjust themselves to operate in compliance with the foreign law.2). Different counties usually use different currencies and the parties concerned will have to decide which currency to use and do everything necessary as regards conversion etc. Uncertainties and even risks are often involved in the use of a foreign currency.3).Cultural differences including language, customs, traditions, religion, value, behaviour etc. often constitute challenges and even traps for people engaged in international business.4). Countries vary in natural and economic conditions and may have different policies towards foreign trade and investment, making international business more complex than domestic business.*With the development of economic globalisation, fewpeople or companies can completely stay away from international business. Some knowledge in this respect is necessary both for the benefit of enterprises and personal advancement.*International business first took the form of commodity trade, i.e. exporting and importing goods produced or manufactured in one country for consumption or resale in another. This form of trade is also referred to as visible trade. Later a different kind of trade in the form of transportation, communication, banking, insurance, consulting, information etc. gradually became more and more important. This type of trade is called invisible trade. Today, the contribution of service industries of the developed countries constitutes over 60% of their gross domestic products and account for an increasing proportion of world trade. *Another important form of international business is supplying capital by residents of one country to another, known as international investments.Such investments can be classified into two categories. The first kind of investments, foreign direct investments or FDI for short is made for returns through controlling the enterprises or assets invested in in a host country.*The host country is a foreign country where the investor operates, while the country where the headquarters of the investor is located is called the home country. The second kind of investment, portfolio investment, refers to purchases of foreign financial assets for a purpose other than controlling. Such financial assets may be stocks, bonds or certificates of deposit.Stocks are also called capital stocks or bonds. Bonds are papers issued by a government or a firm with promise to pay back the money lent or invested together with interest. Thematurity period of a bond is at least one year, often longer, for example five, or even ten years. Certificates of deposit generally involve large amounts, say 25 thousand US dollars *Besides trade and investment, international licensing and franchising are sometimes taken as a means of entering a foreign market. In licensing, a firm leases the right to use its intellectual property to a firm in another country. Such intellectual property may be trademarks, brand names, patents, copyrights or technology. Firms choose licensing because they do not have to make cash payments to start business, and can simply receive income in the form of royaltyBesides, they can benefit from locational advantages of foreign operation without any obligations in ownership or management. The use of licensing is particularly encouraged by high customs duty and non-tariff barriers on the part of the host country. However it is not advisable to use licensing in countries with weak intellectual property protection since the licensor may have difficulty in enforcing licensing agreement.*Franchising can be regarded as a special form of licensing. Under franchising, a firm, called the franchisee, is allowed to operate in the name of another, called the franchiser who provides the former with trademarks, brand names, logos, and operating techniques for royalty. In comparison with the relation between the licenser and the licensee, the franchiser has more control over and provides more support for the franchisee.*The franchiser can develop internationally and gain access to useful information about the local market with little risk and cost, and the franchisee can easily get into a business with established products or services. Franchising is fairly popular especially in hotel and restaurant business.*Other forms for participating in international business are management contract, contract manufacturing, and turnkey project.*Under a management contract, one company offers managerial or other specialized services to another within a particular period for a flatpayment or a percentage of the relevant business volume. Sometimes bonuses based on profitability or sales growth are also specified in management contracts.Government policies often have a lot to do with management contracts. When a government forbids foreign ownership in certain industries it considers to be of strategic importance but lacks the expertise for operation, management contracts may be a practical choice enabling a foreign company to operate in the industry without owning the assets *By contract manufacturing, a firm can concentrate on their strongest part in the value chain, e.g. marketing, while contracting with foreign companies for the manufacture of their products. Such firms can reduce the amount of their resources devoted to manufacture and benefit from location advantages from production in host countries. However, loss of control over the production process may give rise to problems in respect of quality and time of delivery.*For an international turnkey project, a firm signs a contract with a foreign purchaser and undertakes all the designing, contracting and facility equipping before handing it over to the latter upon completion. Such projects are often large and complex and take a long period to complete. Payment for a turnkey project may be made at fixed total price or on a cost plus basis. The latter way of payment shifts the burden of possibleadditional cost over the original budget onto the purchaser *BOT is a popular variant of the turnkey project where B stands for Build, O for operate and T for transfer. For a BOT project, a firm operate a facility for a period of time after building it up before finally transferring it to a foreign company. Making profit from operating the project for a period is the major difference between BOT and the common turnkey project. Needless to say, the contractor has to bear the financial and other risks that may occur in the period of operation.*Some Words and Expressionscustoms area 关税区in compliance with 遵从，遵照conversion n.货币兑换visible trade 有形贸易resale n.转售invisible trade 无形贸易gross domestic product 国内生产总值for short 缩写为account for 占……比例headquarters n.总部trap n.陷阱，圈套portfolio investment 证券投资stocks n.股票bonds n.债券maturity n.（票据等）到期，到期日certificate of deposit 大额存单other than 而不是licensing n.许可经营franchising n.特许经营n.商标advisable adj.可行的，适当的patent n.专利royalty n.专利使用费，许可使用费，版税copyright n.版权licensor n.给予许可的人licensee n.接受许可的人franchiser n.给予特许的人franchisee n.接受特许的人logo n.标识，标记management contract 管理合同expertise n.专门知识bonus n.红利，奖金，津贴flat adj.一律的，无变动的contract manufacturing 承包生产value chain 价值链turnkey project 交钥匙工程BOT(Build, Operate, Transfer）建设，经营，移交Stand for 表示，代表variant n.变形，变体Lesson twoIncome Level and the World Market第二课收入水平和世界市场This lesson discusses the relation between the income level and the market potential, and the features of high income, middle income and low income markets.Special analyses are made on Triad, i.e. the markets of North America, European Union and Japan, as well as other markets that are closely related with China.The first two paragraphs mainly deal with GNP and GDP, two important concepts usedto indicate the total size of an economy. GDP, Gross Domestic Product, stresses the place of production while GNP, Gross National Product, on the ownership of production factors.GDP is used by most countries now where as GNP was morepopular before the 1990s. The actual figures of a country’s GNP and GDP are, however, quite similar in most cases and we can use whichever figure that is available.TEXT:In assessing the potential of a market, people often look at its income level since it provides clues about the purchasing power of its residents. The concepts national income and national product have roughly the same value and can be used interchangeably if our interest is in their sum total which is measured as the market value of the total output of goods and services of an economy in a given period, usually a year. The differenceis only in their emphasis. The former stresses the income generated by turning out the products while the latter, the value of the product s themselves. Gross National Product, GNP, and Gross Domestic Product, GDP, are two important concepts used to indicate a country’s total income. GNP refers to the market value of goods and services produced by the property and labor owned by the residents of an economy. This term was used by most governments before the 1990s国民生产总值(GNP)是最重要的宏观经济指标,它是指一个国家地区的国民经济在一定时期（一般1年）内以货币表现的全部最终产品（含货物和服务）价值的总和。

Lesson 21WTO and ChinaAfter 15 long years of hard negotiations, China became a formal member of the World Trade Organization on Dec. 11, 2001. People may wonder whether it pays(值得be worthwhile) for China to devote such a lot of time and efforts for accession to加入the organization. So some knowledge about the WTO as well as the opportunities it provides and the challenges it poses to China is quite necessary.The origin of the WTO can be traced back to(date back) the early post World War II years. To guard against the threat of trade wars, major trading nations sent their representatives to Havana in 1947 to create an International Trade Organization for the promotion of international trade. That objective was, however, not realized for controversy（争议）over the extensiveness of the powers of the proposed ITO（拟成立的ITO）（这一目标由于对拟成立的ITO 的权力广泛性有争议而没能实现）, mainly for the refusal by the UnitedStates to ratify（批准approve by signing）the charter of the stillborn organization. Nevertheless,the General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade(GATT) was formed as a conduit（channel渠道）for multilateral negotiations on a variety of international trade issues.Headquartered in Geneva, GATT provides a framework within which international negotiations are conducted toward creating global trade rules and a consultative mechanism for resolving differences and settling disputes under those rules. It alsoprovides technical assistance to developing countries in the form of seminars and training courses on trade policy issues.T he general aims of GATT are the improvement of standards of living, full employment, a large and steadily growing volume of real income and effective demand, the full use of the world’s resources, and the expansion of production and international trade. It is the specific task of GATT to contribute to the attainment of these objectives through arrangements directed to the substantial reduction of tariffsand other trade barriers and to the elimination of discrimination.Initially, GATT consisted of only three basic parts. In part 1 the basic obligations which are to be fulfilled by the contracting parties are laid down —the most-favored nation clause and the schedules of tariff concessions.In the years followed, the text of the General Agreement was revised, numerous amendments were reached relating mainly to the expansion of exports of less-developed countries and a part 4 was added. In the new part, thecontracting parties agree that the attainment of the general aims is particularly urgent where less-developed countries are concerned. In the interest of the less-developed countries, endeavors (efforts) must also be made to ensure the stabilization of commodity prices, better access to the markets of the developed countries, and the diminution 减少of the burdens which the developing countries assume承担in the interest of their economic development.The Generalized System ofPreferences (GSP) is meant to assist developing countries in their economic development efforts. It was established in 1968 after years of endeavors by developing countries in the UNCTAD and the GATT. Under the system, developed countries grant (give) developing countries favorable lower tariffs without granting them to developed members. And the developing countries do not have to reciprocate (exchange; give in return) such favorable treatment to the developed countries. So the GSP is an important exception tothe non-discriminate principle of MFN.A number of tariff negotiating conferences were held under the auspices of GATT during the course of the years GATT was functioning. Altogether 8 rounds of protracted yet fruitful multilateral trade negotiations were held since GATT entered into force in 1947 till the end of 1993 when the last round, the Uruguay Round finally concluded. The cumulative effect of the 8 rounds realized substantial reduction of tariffs. Tariff rate by the developed countries fell from anaverage of over 40 percent to about 3 percent in 1995.Despite GATT’s success in coordinating international trade policy, it is only an interim body without a fully defined institutional structure and with little legal enforcement power. So a big decision was made at the last Round to establish a permanent organization, the World Trade organization, to take the place of GATT.On January 1, 1995 the WTO established on the basis of the document signed before theconclusion (完成) of the Uruguay Round by the ministers of 97 countries started its operation and began its administrative work, taking over all the unfinished work left by GATT and continuing to carry out the agreements reached during the Uruguay Round. Being a new, improved replacement of GATT, the WTO is a permanent international organization to which all the members of GATT automatically become members. It is the organization’s aim to facilitate the creation of an optimal environment for international tradeand further strengthen the multilateral trading system.The WTO has three major objectives: 1. To promote free trade by encouraging members to adopt nondiscriminatory歧视, predictable trade polices; 2. To further reduce trade barriers through multilateral negotiations; 3. To establish more effective trade dispute settlement procedures.Instead of being a mere replacement of GATT, the WTO differs from its predecessor/ successor in several prominent dimensions (aspects). Firstly, as thename suggests (indicates), the GATT is only an agreement, or more exactly an interim secretariat, rather than an organizational entity in the true sense, while the WTO is a full-fledged (机构完善的) permanent organization, with the biennial ministerial meeting as its supreme decision-making body, affording it more political clout (influence) and a higher international profile (image). And its subsidiary bodies specialize in different areas. Secondly, the WTO has a much broader mandate. In addition to promoting commoditytrade which used to be the focus of GATT, the WTO is also responsible for service trade, international intellectual property protection a nd trade-related investment. Thirdly, the WTO has far greater enforcement powers. Unlike GATT，the new organization has a clearly defined dispute settlement mechanism. Its verdict is binding （有约束力的）on all its members. In this respect, the WTO is akin to （similar to）an international court of justice for world trade with the institutional strength and legal mandate (power) to implement itsdecisions.China’s efforts to gain accession to the WTO can be divided into two periods. During the GATT days, China made strenuous endeavors for the restoration (恢复) of its status as a contracting party. Though the goal was not realized, the work laid some foundation for negotiations in the second period after the WTO came into being. At the turn of the century when China was on the threshold of the WTO, the pros and cons of entry into the organization was a subject of topical interest.There were worries as well as great expectations. Now that three years have passed since China’s accession to the WTO, it is time to review China’s performance as a WTO member.As a responsible large nation, China has been doing a lot in honoring its commitments兑承诺for entering the WTO. In a short span of three years, China amended over 2300 laws and regulations of which over 800 were abolished. The overall tariff level was lowered from about 40% to 10.5%. Non-tariff measures including quotaand import license were removed step by step. The sector of service trade has been opened further and protection of intellectual property right considerably strengthened. All these efforts have produced positive results both for the other members of the WTO and for China itself who has made good use of the opportunities offered by the organization.China’s total volume of import and export doubled from 500 billion US dollars in 2001 to over 1.1 trillion US dollars in 2004, ranking the third in the world, onlyafter the United States and Germany. For three consecutive years, the country remained the largest recipient（destination）of foreign direct investment with the average yearly figure exceeding 50 billion US dollars, showing the improvement of its investment environment in line with 符合the requirement of the WTO. Contrary to the worry of some people that there would be trade deficit after entry into the WTO, China still enjoys a favorable balance of trade of 12 billion US dollars. And China’s foreign exchange reserveincreased to 550 billion US dollars, being the second largest foreign exchange reserve next only to that of Japan. The sensitive industries liable (likely) to the impact of the WTO entry such as agriculture, automobile, retail business, banking, insurance, and telecommunication all registered (获得) encouraging development.Despite all the achievements, China still faces big challenges. The first is the protectionist measures prevalent in some countries that place various barriers to trade. They intensified 加剧的anti-dumpingand countervailing measures to restrict the export expansion of other countries. Among the anti-dumping investigations, as many as 380 are directed（targeted）against China, constituting about one seventh of the total, making China the largest victim of such investigations. With the complete removal of textile quotas from January 1st 2005, antidumping investigations against China will be further intensified, and we must get mentally prepared and endeavor to reduce the negative effects.The second is the increasingcompetition faced by commercial banks and insurance enterprises from their foreign counterparts. The foreign banks already enjoy national treatment in China and they have offered over 100 items of services, tripling those by domestic banks. From Dec. 1st 2004, the number of cities where foreign banks are allowed to handle Reminbi business for enterprises increased from 13 to 18. And from 2006 Reminbi business for individuals will also be open to foreign banks. As for foreign insurance companies, all thoseentering the Chinese market are well-known enterprises with a long history and rich experience, constituting formidable competition against domestic insurance companies.The third is the challenge faced by agriculture. China committed itself for entry into the WTO not to provide any export subsidy for its agricultural produce, and ultimately lower its import tariff for farm produce to about 15%. Tariff quota will be applicable to the import of bulk produce, but the quotas are fairly large and thetariff rates within the quotas are as low as 1% to 10%. All those form great pressure on China’s agricultural production and market.。