何家弘法律英语词汇资料全

Lesson 1 法律制度Part One Featuers and Characteristics 第一部分特征与特点The United States is at once a very new nation and a very old nation.美国既是一个非常新的国家也是一个非常老的国家。

It is a new nation compared with many other countries, and it is new, too, in the sense that it is constantly being renewed by the addition of new elements of population and of new States.与许多别的国家相比它是一个新的国家。

同时，它还因新人口成分和新州的加入而持续更新，在此意义上，它也是新国家。

But in other senses it is old. It is the oldest of the "new" nations--the first one to be made out of an Old World colony.但是在其它的意义上它是老国家。

它是最老的“新”国家——第一个由旧大陆殖民地脱胎而出的国家。

It has the oldest written constitution, the oldest continuous federal system, and the oldest practice of self government of any nation.它拥有最古老的成文宪法、最古老的持续的联邦体制以及最古老的民族自治实践。

One of the most interes ting features of America’s youth is that the whole of its history belongs in the period since the invention of the printing press.美国的年轻（性）有一个很有意思的特点就是它的历史肇始于印刷机发明之后。

Lesson One: Legal System 法律制度Background背景自从哥伦布(Christopher Columbus)于1492年航行至美洲之后，大批欧洲人便开始拥向这片"新大陆"。

不过，人们通常把第一批英国定居者(the first English settlers)于1607年到达弗吉尼亚(Virginia)的詹姆斯顿(Jamestown)视为美国法律制度历史的起点。

美国法制史可以大体上分为两个时期，即英属殖民地时期(the Period of the English Colonies)和美利坚合众国时期(the Period of the United States)。

虽然美国的法律制度是在英国法律传统的基础上形成和发展起来的，但是在近四百年的历史进程中，美国的法律制度也形成了一些不同于英国法律制度的特点，如公诉制度(public prosecution)等。

美国属于普通法系(Common Law Legal System)国家，其法律制度有两个基本特点：其一是以分散制(decentralization)为原则；其二是以判例法(case law)为主体。

美国除联邦政府外，还有州政府、县政府、市政府、镇政府等等，而且这些政府都是相互独立的，各自在其管辖范围内享有一定的立法权和执法权。

因此，有人说美国是"一个有许多政府的国家"(a country of many governments)；而美国的法律体系则是一个"零散的无系统"(fragmental no system)。

诚然，美国现在也有很多成文法(written law)或制定法(statutory law)，但是其法律制度仍是以判例法为主体的。

换言之，"遵从前例"(stare decisis)仍然是美国司法活动中最重要的原则之一。

以上两点对于理解美国的法律制度具有重要意义。

AAbsolute'bslju:t proof 绝对证明absolute property 绝对财产权abstract of title 产权书摘要acceleration clause 提前偿还条款acceptance 承诺accident report 事故报告accident insurance 意外保险accusation 指控；控告accusatorial procedure 控告程序accusatorial process of proof 控告证明过程程序accusatorial system 控告或诉讼程序accused 被指控者accuser 控告人acknowledgement 认知书acquittal 无罪判决act 条例；作为Act for the prevention of Frauds and Perjuries 预防诈欺和伪证条例action 诉讼；作为actual losses 实际损失adjudication 裁决；裁定administrative law 行政法administrative law judge 行政法法官administrative procedure 行政程序administrator 管理人；监管人admissible 可采的admissibility 可采性admit 采用；允许adoption 收养adulterous conduct 通奸行为ad valorem property tax 从价财产税adversarial hearing 对抗式听证会adversarial process 对抗式程序adversary 对手adversary trial system 对抗式或抗辩审判制度advocacy 出庭辩护；诉讼代理advocate 辩护人；诉讼代理人affidavit 正式书面陈述affirm 维持原判affirmation 保证书；证词affirmative 确保的agency 行政机关agency action 机关行政机关agreed upon remedies 补救协议agreement 协议agreement-as-written 书面协议agreement -in-fact 事实协议alibi 阿里白不在犯罪场的证明alienation of affection 离间夫妻关系allegation 声称；指控allege 诉称；指控alleged offense 所控罪行alternate juror 替补陪审员amendment 修正案American Bar Association 美国律师协会American Law Institute 美国法学会analogy 类推Anglo-American Legal System 英美法系anonymous accusation 匿名控告appeal 上诉appear 出庭appellant 上诉人appellate action 上诉行为appellate court 上诉法院appellee 被上诉人appealer 上诉人appropriate 拨款appurtenant 附属物arbiter 仲裁人arbitrary武断的arbitration仲裁arraignment初审array 陪审员名单arrest 逮捕arrest warrant 逮捕令证arrestee 被捕人article 条款,文章article of authority 授权条款articles of confederation 联帮条例articles of incorporation 公司组织章程artificial person 法人Asian American legal defense andeducation fund亚裔美国人法律辩护与教育基金会assault 意图或威胁伤害assert 主张,宣称asset 资产assistant attorney 助理法官associate judge 副法官associate justice 副大法官assumption 违约合同,违约赔偿之诉assumption 假定attempt 意图,企图attempted escape 逃脱未遂attestation 证词attorney 代理人,律师attorney at law 律师attorney general 检察长authentication 鉴定authority 权力,法源,权威性依据automobile insurance 机动车保险automobile tort 机动车侵权行为autonomy 自治权B ban 禁令,禁止banishment 流放bankruptcy 破产bankruptcy discharge 破产债务解除bankruptcy judge 破产法官bar 律师职业bar association 律师协会barrister 出庭律师battery 殴打bench trial 法官审beneficiary 受益人benefit 收益,福得bigamy 重婚罪bill of lading 提单bill of right 人权法案bind over 具保,具结binder 临时保险单binding 有约束力binding contract 有约束力的合同binding force 约束力binding interpretation 有约束力的解释black-letter law 普通接受之基本原则的黑体字法black nation bar association 全美黑人律师协会blue sky law 蓝天法关于股票买卖控制的法律Board of GovernorsABA美国律师协会的董事会body of law 法体bond 债券；保释金bond instrument 债券契据branding 鞭笞breach 违约；破坏bride 贿赂bribery 贿赂罪bright-line test 明显界限检验标准broker 中间人brokerage fee 佣金；中介费brother-sister corporation 兄弟公司；姊妹公司Bulk Sales Act大宗销售条例burden 责任burden of going forward with the evidence 先行举证责任burden of persuasion 说服责任；证明责任burden of producing evidence 举证责任burden of proof 证明责任burglary入室盗窃罪business corporation实业公司business law 实业法business organization 实业组织buy-out agreement股权承买协议buy-sell agreement股权买卖协议bylaws内部章程CCalifornia Penal Code加州刑法典capital account 资本帐户capital crime 可判死刑罪capital punishment 死刑capital surplus 资本盈余capitation tax 人头税career criminal 职业罪犯career judiciary 职业法官case briefing 案情摘要case-in-chief 主诉case law 判例法case method 案例教学法case report 判决报告case reports 判例汇编casualty insurance 意外伤害保险catalog 商品目录单certificate 证书certificate of existence 实体存在证明书challenge 置疑；挑战challenge for cause有理回避chancery court 衡平法院charging instrument 控告文件checks and balances 制衡原则chief judge 首席法官chief justice 首席大法官child abuse 虐待儿童circuit court 巡回法院circuit judge 巡回法官circumstantial evidence 旁证；情况证据citation 引证cite 援引；传讯civil court 民事法civil forfeiture 民事罚没civil law 民法Civil Law Legal System 民法体系civil liability 民事责任civil Liberty 民事自由civil Litigation民事诉讼civil procedure 民事诉讼程序civil suit民事诉讼Civil trial 民事审判Civil right 民权Civil right law 民权法Civil War Income Tax Act 内战所得税条例Claim 诉讼请求,索赔Classification of law 法律分类Close corporation内部持股公司Closely held corporation 内部持股公司Closing 终结,成交,结帐Closing argument 最后论述Closing statement成交声明Code 法典Code of Judicial Conduct 法官行为准则Codify 编成法典Co-felon 共同重罪犯Cohabitation 同居Collateral contract 附属合同Collegiate bench 合议席Collegiate panel 合议庭Commercial clause 商务条款,贸易条款Commercial law 商法Commercial paper 商务文件Commission佣金Commit 交托,犯罪Commitment 犯罪,许诺,委托Commitment of financing 融资许诺Common law 普通法Common law damages 普通法赔偿金Common law legal systemfamily 普通法法系Common law marriage 普通法婚姻Common property 共同财产Common stock 普通股票Community property 共同财产Comparative law 比较法Comparative negligence 比较过失Compensation 赔偿金Compensatory damage 应予赔偿之损害Competence 管辖权限Competency 有效性Complaint 控告,申诉Comprehensive Drug Abuse Prevention and Control Act 滥用毒品的综合预防与控制条例Compulsory license 强制性许可Concur附条件地同意Concurring opinion 并存判决意见Confer 授与Conference 协商会议Confidential information 保密信息Confiscation 没收Conflict law 冲突法Congress 国会Consent 同意,认可Consideration 对价,约因Constitution 宪法Constitutional Convention 制宪会议Constitutional law 宪法Constitutional tort 宪法性侵权Constitutionality 合宪性Construction 法律的结构,解释Construe 解释,分析Consultation 磋商Consumer protection statute 消费者保护法律Consumption tax 消费税Continental Law Legal Systemor Family 大陆法系Contingent fee 胜诉酬金Continuance 诉讼延期Contract 合同Contract dispute 合同纠纷Contract formation 合同构成Contract interpretation 合同解释Contract law 合同法Contract performance 合同履行contractor 承包商contravence 触犯;违犯contributory negligence 共同过失controlling law 应适应之法律conversion 非法占有convey 转让conveyance 转让convertible bond 可转换债券conviction 有罪判决convincing evidence 使人信服的证据copyright 版权;着作权corporal punishment肉体刑corporate camsel 公司法律顾问corporate excise tax 公司执照税corporate law 公司法corporation 公司corporation aggregate 合有公司corporation code 公司法典corporation law 公司法corporation sole 独有公司corpus 尸体;本金Council on legal Education Opportunities 法律教育机会委员会counselor 法律顾问;律师counselor-at-law 律师court 法院;法官court decision 法院判决court fee 诉讼费court of appeals 上诉法院court of chancery 衡平法法院court of claims 索赔法院court of customs and Patent Appeals 关税及专利上诉法院court of domestic relations 家庭关系法院court opinion 法院判决意见courtroom 法庭coverage 保险范围crime 犯罪crime code 刑法典crime homicide 有罪杀人crime justice system 刑事司法系统crime law 刑法crime liability 刑事责任crime procedure 刑事诉讼程序cross-examination 交叉盘问;盘诘cruel and unusual punishment 残忍和非常的刑罚cumulative evidence 累计证据curative 临时监护的curriculum guide 课程指南custody 监护custom duty 关税customary law 习惯法customary practice 惯例customs court 关税法院Ddamage 损害;损伤damage claim 损害赔偿请求damages 损害赔偿金deadlocked jury 僵局陪审团death penalty 死刑death tax 遗产税debenture 债单券debt securities 债权证券decide a case 判案deed 契约deed book 文契汇编defamation 诽谤default 不履行;违约defendant 被告人defence 辩护defence attorney 辩护律师defense's case-in-chief 辩护方主讼deficiency judgment 不足额判决degrees of murder 恶意杀人罪的等级delegation 授权delegated legislation 授权立法deliberate intention 故意deliberation 陪审团评议demonstrative evidence 示意证据deprivation 剥夺derogatory treatment of the work 对作品的贬毁性处理或使用designs 设计detract 毁损;贬低developer 土地开发商dicta 判决附带意见dignity 尊严direct evidence 直接证据direct examination 直接盘问direct tax 直接税disability insurance 残疾保险disabled dependent child 无谋生能力的残疾儿童discharge 解雇;释放discount 贴现;折扣discovery 要求告知discrete risk transfer product 离散性风险转移保险产品discretion 自由裁量权discriminatory 歧视性税收dispense 执行;施行dispute 争议;纠纷disposition 处置权dissent 异议;反对dissenting opinion 异议;反对意见dissolution 解散distort 歪曲;误解district attorney 地区检查官database right 数据权dividend 股息division of title 产权分割divorce 离婚docket 备审案件目录doctrine 法则;原则doctrine of constitutional supremacy 宪法至上原则doctrine of Maranda Warnings 米兰达忠告原则document 文件;文书document of title 产权证书domant Commerce Clause 休眠的"贸易条款"domicile 住所地double jeopardy 一罪二审draft 起草;草拟draftman 起草者drug trade 毒品交易drug trafficking 毒品交易dry run 干转;排练due diligence 适当努力due process 正当程序Due Process Clause 正当程序条款due process test 正当程序检验标准duration 期限duress 强迫;胁迫duty 义务;关税duty of care 照看义务Eearnest money 定金easyment 地役权ecclesiastical court 宗教法庭economic law 经济法effective date 生效日期effective time 生效时间element of crime 犯罪要素件empower 授权enact 制定;颁布en banc 全体法官出庭审判encroachment 侵占encumbered property 抵押财产enforce 实施；执行enforceable 可强制执行的enforceability 可执行性enforcement of Law 执法English-American Legal System or Family 英吉利法系enjoin衡平强制令entail 限定继承entity 实体environmental impact statement 环境影响报告environmental Law 环境保护法Environmental protection AgencyEPA 环境保护局environmental quality 环境质量equal protection clause 平等保护条款equitable relief 衡平救济equity 衡平法equity Law 衡平法equity precedent 衡平法判例equity securities 产权证券；衡平证券error 过错escape 逃走；逃脱escrow 第三者保存合同essential justice 实质公正estate 财产；遗产estate tax 遗产税ＥＵDirective 欧盟指令evaluate 评价evict 逐出租户evidence 证据evidentiary presumption 证据推定evidentiary rule 证据规则ex aequo at bono 公平且善良examine 检查；盘问examination 检查；盘问exception 例外exception clause 例外条款excise tax 执照税exclude 排除exclusive listing 读家上市exclusive right 排他性权利exclusive tax situs 唯一征税地点excusable homicide 可宽恕之杀人execute 执行；签属execution 执行executive acts 行政条例executive branch 行政部门executive order 行政命令executor 遗嘱执行人executor of estate 遗产执行人exemption 免除；豁免exhibit 展示物证exigent circumstance 紧急情况existing securities 上市证券exparte 单方面的expectation damages 预期赔偿金expert 专家证人expert testimony 专家证言expert witness 专家证人express contract 明示合同express statutory provision 法律明文规定express warranty 明示保证保修ex rel 依据告发face amount 面颊face value 面植facilitate 促使：利于fact 事实fact in issue 争议事实factor 因素；代理商Factors Lien Act 代理商留置权条例Fair trial 公平审判false imprisonment 非法拘禁family law 家庭法fault 过错fault principle 过错原则feasibility study 可行性研究Federal Administrative Procedure Act 联邦行政程序Federal Antitrust Law 联邦犯托拉斯法federal convention 联邦制宪会议federal crime of murder 联邦杀人罪Federal Housing Act 联邦住房条例Federal Income Tax Act 联邦所得税条例federal judge 联邦法官Federal rules of civil procedure 联邦民事诉讼规则Federal rules of criminal procedure 联邦刑事诉讼规则Federal rules of evidence 联邦证据规则Federal securities act 联邦证券条例federal supremacy 联邦至上原则Federal tort claims act 联邦侵权索赔条例felon 重罪犯felony 重罪felony-murder 重罪杀人fiduciary 受托人file 档案；注册file a petition 呈交诉状；提出请求fine 罚金fingerprint 手印fire insurance 火灾保险fire protection 消防first degree murder 一级谋杀first instance 一审fixture 不动产附属物flogging 烙印force of law 法律效力forcible felony 暴力性重罪foreign exchange risk 外汇风险forfeiture 没收；罚没form contract 格式合同form of evidence 证据的形式formal adjudication 正式裁决formal rulemaking 正式规则制定formation 构成；鉴定franchise tax 特许经营税fraud 诈欺free enterprise system 自由企业制度free movement of goods 自由物流,货物的自由流通freedom of choice 选择自由frustrate 使受挫折fundamental law 基本法fundamental right 基本权利Ggeneral acceptance standard 科学证据的公认标准general partnership 一般合伙general property 一般财产权general provisions 总则gerontocratic 老人统治的gift tax 赠予税government tort 政府侵权行为grant of power 授权gross negligence 严重过失group insurance 团体保险guarantee 担保guardian 监护人guardianship 监护权guidelines for sentencing 量刑指南guilt 有罪guilty 有罪的guilty 有罪答辩Hhabitual offender 惯犯hail insurance 冰雹保险handcuff 手铐handwriting 笔迹health insurance 健康保险health regulation 卫生法规hearing 听证会hearing of jury 陪审团听审hearsay 传闻证据heir 继承人hierarchy 等级制度high crime 重罪hold 认定；裁定holding 认定；裁定holding device 拥有手段形式homicide 杀人罪homosexuality 同性恋house counsel 公司专职法律顾问husband-wife relationship 夫妻关系husband-wife tort 夫妻侵权行为IId. 同上identification 认定；确认身份；身份证ignore 忽视；驳回illegal 非法的；违法的immaterial 无实质性的immigration law 移民法immovable property 不动产immunity 豁免权impair 损害；削弱impeachment 弹劾；质疑implementation 实施；执行implied contract 默认合同implied warranty 默认保证保修imprisonment 监禁imputable 可归罪于……的imputation 归罪in re 关于；案由in recess 休庭in rem 对物的诉讼in session 开庭inadmissible evidence 不可采证据incarceration 禁闭；监禁incest 乱伦income tax 所得税Income Tax Act 所得税条例income tax on corporations 公司所得税income tax on individuals 个人所得税incompetence 无行为能力；无法律资格incompetent 无行为能力的；无法律资格的incorporation 法人；公司；组成公司incorporator 公司创办人independent regulatory agency 独立规制机构indicative list 指导性名单indictment 起诉书indirect evidence 间接证据indirect tax 间接税individual choice 个人选择权individual freedom 个人自由individual omni competence 个人全权individual proprietorship 个体业主individual right 个人权利ineffective 失效的inequality 不平等infamous 罪恶的；丑恶的inference 推理;推论infliction 处罚informal adjudication 非正式裁决informal rulemaking 非正式规则制定information 信息; 控告书infomer 耳目;情报员initial ruling 初步裁定injunction 禁令;强制令injunctive relief 强制救济injure 伤害injustice 不公正innocence 无罪innocent 无罪的;无罪者innocent owner defense 无过错所有人辩护inquiry 调查inquisitiorial system 纠问式诉讼制度insane 精神失常insanity defense 精神失常辩护inspection 检查;审查installment land vendor 分期付款的土地出售人installment plan agreement 分期付款购物协议instruction 指示instrument 文件insurable interest 可保利益insurable loss 可保损失insurance agent 保险代理商insurance binder 临时保单insurance broker 保险中间人insurance card 保险卡insurance coverage 保险范围insurance law 保险法insurance policy 保险单;险种insurance premium 保险费insurance proceeds 保险收益insurance product 保险项目insured 被保险人insurer 保险人intangible 无形的intangible damage 无形损害intangible property 无形财产intangible personal property 无形的人身财产权inter alia 除了别的以外interfere 干涉;侵犯interlocutory injunction 临时强制令;诉讼中间的强制令intermediate appellate court 中级上诉法院intermetional business 调解interrogation 国际商务intentional 故意的intentional tort 故意侵权行为interest 利息;权益;利益interest rate risk 利率风险interview 询问invalid 无效的;不合法的invalidate 使无效invasion of privacy 侵犯隐私权investigation 侦查;调查investment 投资investment portfolio risk 投资风险组合investment securities 投资证券irrelevancy 无相关性irrelevant 不相关的irrelevant evidence 无相关性证据irrevocable 不可撤销的irrevocable life insurance trust 不可撤销的人寿保险信托itinerant judge 巡回法官Jjoint tenancy 共同租借权joint venture 合资企业joint venture corporation 合资公司joint venture with Chinese and foreign investment中外合资企业judge 法官judge-made law 法官立法judge's chamber 法官室judge's charge to jury法官对陪审团的指令judge's instruction to jury 法官对陪审团的指示judgment判决,裁定judicial branch 司法部门judicial clerkship 法院书记员职位judicial decision 法官职位judicial district 司法区judicial interpretation 司法解释judicial notice 司法任职judicial opinion 法官判决意见judicial review 司法审查judicial scrutiny 司法检查judicial subjectivity 审判主观性judicial system 法院系统judiciary 法官jurisdiction 司法管辖区jurisprudence 法理学juror 陪审员jury 陪审团jury charge 法官对陪审团的指令jury pool待选陪审员库jury selection 挑选陪审员jury trial陪审团制justice 公正,大法官justice of the peace 治安法官justifiable homicide 正当杀人juvenile court 未成年人法庭juvenile delinquency 未成年人违法行为ＫKey man assurance 关键人保险Key person insurance关键人保险Kickbacks 回扣Kill杀人Killer 杀人者Know-how 技术秘密,商业秘密Ｌland use law 土地使用法last clear chance doctrine 最后明显机会法则law 法,法律law firm 律师事务所law merchant商业习惯法law of evidence证据法law reform 法律改革lawsuit 诉讼,官司lawyer 律师lawyer in government 政府律师；官方律师lawyer in private practice 私人开业律师lawyerette 律师娘lawman 外行人lay witness 普通证人；非专家证人lease 租赁lease agreement 租赁协议legacy 遗产legacy tax 遗产税legal 合法的legal advice 法律咨询legal commentary 法律评论legal education 法律教育legal effect 法律教育legal enforcement 法律效力legal English 法律英语legal family 法系legal history 法律史legal instrument 法律文件legal mechanism法律机制legal memorandum 法律备忘录legal methodology 法律方法论legal order 法律秩序legal problem 法律问题legal profession 法律职业legal protection 法律保护legal relationship 法律关系legal representative 法律代表legal safeguard 法律保障措施legal system 法律体系；法律制度legal theorist 法学理论家legal writing 法律文书写作legalese 法律涩语legality 法制legislation 立法legislative branch 立法部门legislative history 立法史legislature 立法机关legitimate 合法的levy 征收税liability 责任；债务liability insurance 责任保险liberty 自由license plate 车执照牌license tax 执照税lien 留置权life estate 终生财遗产life insurance 人寿保险limited partnership 有限合伙liquidated damages 预定违约金liquidity risk 流动资金风险literary property 着作产权litigant 诉讼当事人litigation 诉讼；打官司livestock insurance 家畜保险loan 贷款lord chancellor 英国大法官loss of rights 丧失权利MMagistrate 司法官Magna Charta of great Britain 英国大宪章mail order 邮购majority opinion 多数法官的意见malicious prosecution 恶意起诉malfeasance 渎职罪malpractice 渎职行为mandate 命令；授权mandatory insurance law 强制保险法manslaughter 非恶意杀人marine insurance 海上保险marital status 婚姻状况marital status classification 婚姻状况的分类maritime tort 海上侵权行为market economy 市场经济marriage 婚姻marriage ceremony 婚礼marriage certificate 结婚证书marriage law 婚姻法marriage relationship 婚姻关系marriage termination rule 残疾人领取社会保险补助的婚姻终止规则material 实质性的materiality 实质性maxims of equity law 衡平法准则Mayflower Compact “五月花号”公约medical malpractice 医生不当行为mental capacity 心智能力mental condition 精神状态mentor 辅导教师minor issue 枝节问题；未成年人问题Miranda Warning 米兰达忠警告misapply 错误适用misdemeanor 轻罪mislaid property 错置财产misrepresentation 虚假陈述mistrial 无效审判mock trial 模拟审判Model Business Corporation Act 标准实业公司条例Model Penal Code 标准刑法典Model State Administrative Procedure Act 标准洲行政程序条例modern commerce Power test 现代商务贸易权力检验标准modern delegation of power doctrine 现代授权法则monopolization 垄断monopoly right 专有权moot court 模拟法庭mortgage 抵押品motion 动议,请求movable property 动产multiple listing 多重上市；多重登记Multistate Bar Exam 多洲律师资格考试murder 恶意杀人；凶杀murderer 杀人犯mutilation 断肢NNational Association for the Advancement of Colored People 全国有色人种促进会National Conference of Black Lawyers 全国黑人律师大会National Conference of Commissioners on Uniform state Laws 统一各洲法律全国代表大会National Environmental Policy Act 全国环境政策条例National Institute of Minority Lawyers 全国少数民族律师学会National Law Journal 国家法律学报narcotics distribution 麻醉品供销narcotics trafficking 麻醉品交易narcotics violation 麻醉品违法行为natural justice 自然公正negative form of protection 否定或消极形式的保护negligence 过失negligent homicide 过失杀人negligent tort 过失侵权行为negotiable instrument 票据negotiation 谈判；协商New Deal 罗斯福“新政”no contest 无争辩no par share 无面值股票non-profit corporation 非营利公司norm 规范；标准not guilty plea 无罪答辩notice 通知notice of transfer 过户通知notification 通知；通报notion概念nullification process 无效程序Oobject 反对objection 反对；异议obligation 义务occupancy agreement 占用协议offender 犯罪人offense 罪行offer 要约；发盘offerofProof 提供证明Old Boy Network 老哥们关系网Omission不做为：不履行义务Omni competence有全部权利Opening statement开场陈述Opening testimony意见证言Oral contract口头合同Order命令；次序Pperforms' rights 表演权peril 危险perjure作伪证perjury伪证罪perpetrate犯罪perpetator犯罪人ordinance法令personal property动产outstanding balance未付款额personal right人身权利outstanding share已发行股票personal tort人身侵权overrule推翻；驳回persuasive authority劝导性发源ownership所有权petition申请ownership interest所有权力petty misdemeanor微罪physical exhibit展示物品physical injury身体伤害panel团或组plaintiff原告人par value面值plea答辩paramour奸夫plea of guilty有罪答辩parent child relation父子女关系plea of contest无争辩答辩parent corporation母公司plea of guilty无罪答辩parent unfitness父母不胜任police警察parole假释police magistrate警务法官partnership合伙police magistrate court警察法院passage of title产权转移police power警察权利passive investor消极投资人policy政策patent专利policy holder投保人paternity父亲身份poll tax人头税penal code刑法典portfolio of risk风险组合penalty刑罚possession占有权pending待决postponement延迟penitentiary监狱practice law从事律师工作penitentiary sentence监禁刑practicing lawyer开业律师penology刑法学practice of law律师事物per curiam依法院所定precedent判例peremptory challenge强制回避precedential support判例支持perform履行predeprivation hearing执行剥夺前的听证performance履行predictability可预见性performance bond履行保证金preept优先于Preferential claim优先索赔权Preferred stock优先股票Prejudice 偏见Preliminary exanimation预审Preliminary hearing预审听证会Preliminary injunction预先执行令Preliminary negotiation预谈判；初步协商Premises房屋；上述房屋Premium保险费；红利；溢价prenticed seizure 通知前扣押preponderance of proof优势证明preponderant evidence优势证据prescription 时效；规定presentation 陈述persistence investigation 量刑前调查presidential Assassination Statute 暗杀总统法presumption innocence 无罪推定pretrial motion 审前动议prevailing doctrine优势法则；流行学说prevail 优先适用prima facie 表面的；初步的prima facie evidence 有表面证据之案prima facie evidence 表面证据primary authority 主要法源principle of legality 法制原则privacy 隐私权private corporation 私有公司private law 私法private property 私有财产private prosecution 私诉privilege 特权；特许权；特免权privileges and immunities clause 特权与豁免条款prose自己；亲自probable cause 可能理由；合理原因probate court 遗嘱检验法院probation 缓刑probation officer 缓刑官probative value 证明价值probativeness 证明性procedural history 程序史procedural regime 诉讼制度procedural safeguard 程序保障procedure 程序proceedings 诉讼；程序product liability 产品责任profit 利润profit corporation 营利公司progeny 后代prohibition 禁止promise 许诺promulgation 颁布proof证明proof beyond a reasonable doubt 超出合理怀疑的证明property 财产property law 财产法property right 财产权利property tax 财产税property tort财产侵权行为proponent 支持者；提议者proprietor 个体业主proprietorship 个体企业proscription 禁止；剥夺公权prosecuting attorney 公诉律师；检察官prosecution 起诉prosecutor 检察官；起诉人prosecutor’s case-in-chief 检方主诉prospective juror 将任陪审员prostitute 妓女protective tariff 保护性关税prove 证明Provision 规定,条款Provisions of Oxford 牛津条例Psychiatrist 精神病学家Public charge 受政府救济者、Public corporation 公有公司Public defender 公共辩护律师Public good 公益Public law 公法Public offense 公罪侵犯公共利益的犯罪Public property 公共财产Public prosecution 公诉Public prosecutor 公诉人,检察官Public utilities 公共事业Public held corporation 公众持股公司Punishable 可处罚的Punishment 刑罚Punitive sanction 惩罚性处分Purpose 目的,宗旨Pursuant to law 依法QQualified property 有限制财产Quantum meruit 无合同规定时按合理价格支付,合理给付Quasi tort 准侵权行为Quote 引用,引证RRacial discrimination 种族歧视Racial segregation 种族隔离Rain insurance 雨水保险Rarnpant 猖獗的Rape 强奸Ratify 认可Rational relationship test 合理关系检验标准Real estate 不动产Real Estate Settlement Procedure Act 不动产纠纷解决程序条例Real evidence 实在证据Real property 不动产Reasonable basis 合理根据Reasoning 论证,推论Rebuttable presumption 可驳回推定Rebuttal evidence 反驳证据Recess 休庭Reciprocal exemption statutes 互免税法律Reckless conduct 疏忽大意行为Reckless homicide 疏忽大意杀人Recourse 追索权,求偿权Recovery 追索,补偿Redemption 赎回Redress 矫正,赔偿Registration sticker 注册贴签Regulation 法规,规章Rehearing 复审Reinstatement 权利恢复Reinstatement fee 恢复费Release 释放Relevancy 相关性Relevant evidence 相关证据Relief 救济Remand 发回重审Remedy 补救Repeal 废止,撤消Repealer 废止议案Repeat offender 累犯Representation 代理Res ipsa loquitur 不言自明的Reservation of power 权利保留Reserve 储备金保险预备金Reserve portfolio of risk 预备金组合风险Resolution 决议,解决Rest 停止陈述Restatements of law 法律注释汇编Restitution 恢复原状Restitutionary relief 恢复原状的救济Restraint 约束；限制retain 连任retire 退休；退庭retroactive 有溯及力的retroactive effect 溯及力revenue 税收revised uniform limited partnership act 统一有限合伙修订条例revocable trust 可撤销的信托revocation 撤回right 权利right to privacy 隐私权rigid procedure 刚性程序risk 风险risk transfer 风险转移robbery 抢劫罪roman law 罗马法roman law legal systemor family 罗马法系roster 花名册；专门人员名单rule of evidence 证据规则rule of law 法治；法律规则rulemaking 规章制定；规则制定ruling 裁定ruling on evidence 关于证据的裁定SSafety responsibility law 安全责任法Sales tax 销售税Sanction 制裁；处分；罚则sanitary code 卫生条例search 搜查search warrant 搜查令second instance 二审secondary authon`ty 次要法源secondary benefit 次位补助金secondary financing 间接融资secondary party 间接当事人；次位当事人secret service 联邦保密署secretary of state 州务部长secured debt 担保债务securities 证券Securities and Exchange Commission 证券交易委员会securities exchange act 证券交易条例securities law 证券法security 担保；保安；证券seductive 诱人堕落的seize 扣押seizure 扣押seizure warrant 扣押令状self-defense 自卫；正当防卫self-identification 自我认定self-incrimination 自我归罪seminar 研讨班；研讨会；研讨课程separate 分立；分局separate legal entity 独立法律实体separate property 分有财产separation of powers 三权分立settlement agreement 清偿协议settler 财产授予者share 股份；股票share holder 股东shell corporation 空壳公司shoplifting 商店偷拿行为short title 简称shyster 讼棍sickness insurance 疾病保险simulation 模拟练习slander 诽谤social security act 社会保险条例social security benefit 社会保险补助金social security tax社会保险税solicitor 诉状律师source 渊源sovereign power 主权special court 特别法院；专门法院special property 特别财产specific performance 特别履行specimen 样本stamp tax 印花税standard of proof 证明标准standing 依据stare decisis 遵从前例state attorney 洲检察官state property 国家财产statd capital 设定资产statute 制定法；法律statute-like norm 准法律规范statute of frauds 诈欺条例；反诈欺法statutory authority 制定法法源statutory crime 制定法规定之犯罪；法定犯罪statutory law 制定法statutory measure 法定措施statutory offense 制定法规定之犯罪；法定犯罪statutory provision 法律规定stay 延缓审判或执行stock 股票stock exchange 股票交易stock retirement plan 退股计划stock transfer tax 股票过户税strategy 战略；策略strict liability tort 严格责任侵权strike insurance 罢工保险sub judice 在审判中；尚未判决subject 主体；标的subject matter 主题事项；标的subject property 标的财产subject to financing clause 融资条件条款subpoena 传唤令subsidiary corproration 子公司；附属公司subsistence allowance 生活津贴substantial evidence 实质体证据substantail law 实体法substantive due process 实体性正当程序substantive law 实体法sue 起诉；诉sufficient evidence 充足证据suit 诉讼summary judgment 即决判决supervisor 监察；监委support 供养；抚养supreme court 最高法院supreme law 最高法律宪法suspect 嫌疑人suspicion 嫌疑；怀疑sustain 维持；认可Ttangible 有形的tangible evidence 实物证据tangible property 有形财产tarriff 关税task force 专项研究组；专案组tax 税；税收tax assessment procedure 税额评定程序tax court 税收法院tax evasion 逃税tax law 税法taxation 税收；税务taxation law 税收法；税务法tenant 承租人term 条款；期限testamentary trust 遗嘱委托testator 立遗嘱人testify 作证testimonial evidence 言词证据testimony 证言the Dispute Settlement BodyDSB 争端解决机构the European Intellectual Property Review 欧洲知识产权评论the Fleet Street Reports舰队街判例汇编title 产权书title insurance 产权保险title insurer 产权保险人title plant 产权书库tort 侵权行为tort claim 侵权索赔请求tort feasor 侵权行为人tort law 侵权法tortions 侵权行为的trade mark 商标traffic accidents 交通事故traffic ticket 交通违章罚款通知单tranquility安宁transaction 交易transfer 转让,过户travel accident insurance 旅行意外保险treason 叛国罪treaty 条约trespass 侵犯,侵害trial 审判trail by judge 法官审判trail by jury 陪审团审判trail court 审判法院,初审法院trail process 审判程序trust 信托,托拉斯trustee 托管人truth-in-ending form 真实借贷表two-house legislature 两院制立法机关type of evidence 证据类型umpire 仲裁人unanimous 意见一致unanimous court 合意意见一致的法庭unanimous verdict一致裁决unauthorized practice laws有关无授权开业活动的法律unclaimed property无主财产,无人认领财产unconscionability显示公平unconstitutional 违宪undercover 秘密的,化妆的undercover narcotics purchase 化妆购买麻醉品underpinnings 理论基础underwrite 下签,承保underwriting portfolio of risk 承保风险组合unemployment insurance 失业保险unemployment tax 失业税。

L e s s o n O n e:L e g a l S y s t e m法律制度英属殖民地时期the Period of the English Colonies和美利坚合众国时期the Period of the United States..公诉制度public prosecution美国属于普通法系Common Law Legal System分散制decentralization为原则；以判例法case law为主体.."零散的无系统"fragmental no system..成文法written law或制定法statutory law;遵从前例"stare decisisPart OneThe United States is at once a very new nation and a very old nation. It is a new nation compared with many other countries; and it is new; too; in the sense that it is constantly being renewed by the addition of new elements of population and of new States. But in other senses it is old. It is the oldest of the "new" nations--the first one to be made out of an Old World colony. It has the oldest written constitution; the oldest continuous federal system; and the oldest practice of self government of any nation.美国既是一个非常新的国家也是一个非常老的国家..与许多别的国家相比它是一个新的国家..同时;它还因新人口成分和新州的加入而持续更新;在此意义上;它也是新国家..但是在其它的意义上它是老国家..它是最老的“新”国家——第一个由旧大陆殖民地脱胎而出的国家..它拥有最古老的成文宪法、最古老的持续的联邦体制以及最古老的民族自治实践..One of the most interesting features of America s youth is that the whole of its history belongs in the period since the invention of the printing press. The whole of its history is; therefore; recorded: indeed; it is safe to say that no other major nation has so comprehensive a record of its history as has the United States; for events such as those that are lost in the legendary past of Italy or France or England are part of the printed record of the United States. And the American record is not only comprehensive; it is immense. It embraces not only the record of the colonial era and of the Nation since 1776; but of the present fifty States as well; and the intricate network of relationships between States and Nation. Thus; to take a very elementary example; the reports of the United States Supreme Court fill some 350 volumes; and the reports of some States are almost equally voluminous: the reader who wants to trace the history of law in America is confronted with over 5;000 stout volumes of legal cases.美国的年轻性有一个很有意思的特点就是它的历史肇始于印刷机发明之后..因此它的整个历史都得以记录下来：确实可以很有把握地说;任何其它国家都没有像美国这样全面的历史记录;因为像在意大利、法国或者英国过去的传说中湮没的那样的事件在美国都成了有文字记载的历史之一部分..而且其记录不仅全面;还非常浩繁..不仅包括这个国家自1776年以来的殖民时期的记录;还有当前五十个州以及各州和联邦nation之间错综复杂的关系网络的历史记录..因此;据一个非常简单的例子;美国最高法院判例汇编有大约350卷;而一些州的判例汇编也几乎有同样多的卷数：想研究美国法律史的读者要面对的是超过5000巨卷的司法案例..No one document; no handful of documents; can properly be said to reveal the character of a people or of their government. But when hundreds and thousands of documents strike a consistent note; over more than a hundred years; we have a right to say that is the keynote. When hundreds and thousands of documents address themselves in the same ways; to the same overarching problems; we have a right to read from them certain conclusions which we can call national characteristics.我们不能说一个文件或几个文件就能揭示出一国人民或其政府的特性..但如果横跨一百多年的千百万个文件敲出始终如一的音调;我们就有理由说这就是其主调..当千百万个文件都以同样的方式去解决同样的中心问题;我们就有理由从中得出可以被称为国民特定的确定结论..Part TwoThe American legal system; like the English; is methodologically mainly a case law system. Most fields of private law still consist primarily of case law and the extensiveand steadily growing statutory law continues to be subject to binding interpretation through case law. Knowledge of the case law method as well as of the technique of working with case law therefore is of central importance for an understanding of American law and legal methodology.同英国一样;美国法律制度从方法论上来说主要是一种判例法制度..许多私法领域仍然主要是由判例法构成;广泛而不断增长的制定法一直受制于有约束力的解释制定法的判例法..因此;判例法方法的知识以及使用判例法的技巧对于理解美国法律和法律方法是极其重要的..The Common Law is historically the common general law -- with supremacy over local law--which was decreed by the itinerant judges of the English royal court. The enforcement of a claim presupposed the existence of a special form of action; a writ; with the result that the original common law represented a system of "actions" similar to that of classical Roman law. If a writ existed in 1227 a claim could be enforced; there was no recourse for a claim without a writ; the claim did not exist. This system became inflexible when the "Provisions of Oxford" 1258 prohibited the creation of new writs; except for the flexibility which the "writ upon the case" allowed and which later led to the development of contract and tort law.从历史的角度来看;普通法就是由英国皇家法院的巡回法官的判决所得出的普通的一般法——优于地方法..采纳或执行某项诉讼请求是以存在法院令状这种特殊形式的诉为前提的;而这就使最初的普通法表现为由类似于古罗马法的“诉”所构成的体系..如果存在令状于1227年;诉讼请求就可以被采纳或执行；没有法院令状为前提的诉讼请求就没有追索权;因而该诉讼请求也不存在..“牛津条例”1285年禁止创设除了“个案令状”之外的新令状;这种“个案令状”使该制度变得较为灵活了;而且导致了后来合同和侵权法的发展..The narrow limits of the forms of action and the limited recourse they provided led to the development of equity law and equity case law. "Equity"; in its general meaning of doing "equity"; deciding ex aequo et bono; was first granted by the King; and later by his Chancellor as "keeper of the King's conscience"; to afford relief in hardship cases. In the fifteenth century; however; equity law and equity case law developed into an independent legal system and judiciary Court of Chancery which competed with the ordinary common law courts. Its rules and maxims became fixed and; to a degree; inflexible as in any legal system. Special characteristics of equity law include: relief in the form of specific performance in contrast to the common law award of compensatory damages; the injunction a temporary or final order to do or not to do a specific act; the development of so called maxims of equity law which permeated the entire legal system and in many cases explain the origin of modern legal concepts. However; equitable relief regularly will lie only when the common law relief is inadequate. For instance; specific performance for the purchase of real property will be granted because common law damages are deemed to be inadequate since they cannot compensate the buyer in view of the uniqueness attributed to real property 对于诉的形式的严格限制及由此产生的对追索权的限制导致了衡平法和衡平判例法的发展..“衡平”的一般意义就是寻求“公平”;即公平且善良地裁决;它最初是由国王;后来由作为“国王良知守护人”的大法官颁行;以便在艰难的案件中提供救济..但是到了十四世纪;衡平法和衡平判例法发展成了一个独立的法律制度和与一般的普通法法院一争高下的司法系统衡平法院..其规则和格言变得非常固定而且在某种程度上不像在其它法律制度中一样灵活..衡平法的特点有：以特定履行或实际履行的方式提供救济与普通法提供补偿性损害赔偿金的救济方式形成对照；强制令为或者不为某项具体行为的临时或者最终法令；渗透了整个法律制度并且能在许多场合下揭示现代法律概念的起源的所谓的衡平法格言的发展..不过;一般都是只有在普通法救济不充分时;才会出现衡平法救济..比如;优于普通法损害赔偿金被认为是不充分的;这是因为考虑到不动产所具有的唯一性;这些赔偿金无法补偿不动产购买人的损失;就可能判以特定履行购买不动产..As the common law; equity law became part of American law either through judicial acceptance or through express statutory provision. Today; both legal systems have been merged in many American jurisdictions beginning with New York in 1848; with theresult that there is only one form of civil suit in these jurisdictions as well as in federal practice. Only few States continue to maintain a separate chancery court. Nevertheless; the reference to the historical development is important because; on the one hand; it explains the origin and significance of many contemporary legal concepts for instance the division of title in the law of property and; on the other hand; it is still relevant for the decision of such questions whether; for instance; there is a right to a trial by jury only in the case of common law suits; in other cases only before the judge. In addition; the differentiation will determine whether the "ordinary" common law relief of damages applies or whether the "extraordinary" equity remedy of specific performance is available.与普通法一样;衡平法通过司法接纳或通过明确的制定法条款;成了美国法律的一部分..目前;这两个法律制度在许多美国司法管辖区中得以融合始于1848年的纽约;因而;在这些司法管辖区以及联邦的实践中只存在一种形式的民事诉讼..只有为数很少的州还保留着单独的衡平法院..尽管如此;提及这一历史演变仍然是很重要的;因为它一方面解释了许多当代法律概念如财产法中的所有权分割的起源和意义;另一方面;它仍然与做出某些裁决有一定的关联;比如是否有权获得陪审团的审理这仅发生与普通法的讼案中;在其它案件中仅由法官审理..另外;这种区别将决定“通常的”普通法赔偿金救济是否适用或者是否可以使用“特别的”衡平法特定履行救济.."Case law"describes the entire body of judge made law and today includes common law and equity precedents. In imprecise and confusing usage the terms "common law" and "case law" are often used synonymously; with the term "common law" in this usage connoting judge made law in general as contrasted with statutory law. "Case law" always connotes judge made law; while "common law" in contrast--depending on the meaning intended--describes either the judge made law in common law subject matters or; ore extensively; all judge made law.“判例法”代表了整个的法官造法体系;而且在现代还包括了普通法和衡平法先例..在不准确的和令人迷惑的用法中;“普通法”和“判例法”这两个术语通常被当作同义词来使用;在这里;“普通法”这个术语一般代表着法官制定的法;以示区别制定法..“判例法”总是代表着法官制定的法律;而“普通法”则相对来说;根据想表达的意思不同;要么代表普通法主题事项即具体问题上法官制定的法律;要么在更广范围内指所有法官制定的法律..Lesson Two：Legal Profession 法律职业Part One： The BarThe regulation of the legal profession is primarily the concern of the states; each of which has its own requirements for admission to practice. Most require three years of college and a law degree. Each state administers its own written examination to applicants for its bar. Almost all states; however; make use of the Multistate Bar Exam; a day long multiple choice test; to which the state adds a day long essay examination emphasizing its own law. A substantial fraction of all applicants succeed on the first try; and many of those who fail pass on a later attempt. In all; over forty thousand persons succeed in passing these examinations each year and; after an inquiry into their character; are admitted to the bar in their respective states. No apprenticeship is required either before or after admission. The rules for admission to practice before the federal courts vary with the court; but generally those entitled to practice before the highest court of a state may be admitted before the federal courts upon compliance with minor formalities.法律职业的规范主要是各州的事务;每一各州对于执业许可都有其自己的要求..大多数州都要求三年的学业和法律学位..各州自行管理本州申请律师资格的书面考试..不过;几乎所有的州都利用“多州律师资格考试”;这是一种长达一天的多项选择测试;在这项考试之外;各州还会再增加一次主要是关于其本州法律的时长一天的论文考试..大多数申请人都可以通过第一次考试;而且许多失败者都会在下一次考试中通过..每年有四万多人通过这些考试;在经过人品调查之后;他们便可获准在相应的州执业许可..在获得许可之前或之后都不要求实习..到各联邦法院执业的许可规则互不相同;但一般来讲;那些获准在州最高法院执业的律师在办理一些无关紧要的手续之后即可获准在联邦法院执业..A lawyer's practice is usually confined to a single community for; although a lawyer may travel to represent clients; one is only permitted to practice in a state where one has been admitted. It is customary to retain local counsel for matters in other jurisdictions. However; one who moves to another state can usually be admitted without examination if one has practiced in a state where one has been admitted for some time; often five years.律师执业范围通常仅限于一个地区;因为尽管律师可以代表当事人到其它地区办理事务;但是一个人只能在其获得许可的州内执业..人们习惯雇用本州的律师办理其它洲的事务..但是;只要一个人已经在其获得职业资格的州执业达一定时间通常是五年;那么他移居到另外一个州时通常无需考试便可获得执业许可..A lawyer may not only practice law; but is permitted to engage in any activity that is open to other citizens. It is not uncommon for the practicing lawyer to serve on boards of directors of corporate clients; to engage in business; and to participate actively in public affairs. A lawyer remains a member of the bar even after becoming a judge; an employee of the government or of a private business concern; or a law teacher; and may return to private practice from these other activities. A relatively small number of lawyers give up practice for responsible executive positions in commerce and industry. The mobility as well as the sense of public responsibility in the profession is evidenced by the career of Harlan Fiske Stone who was; at various times; a successful New York lawyer; a professor and dean of the Columbia School of Law; Attorney General of the United States; and Chief Justice of the United States.律师不仅可以从事法律事务;还允许从事任何其他公民能从事的事务..执业律师在企业客户的董事会中工作、从事商业或者积极参与公共事务都是很平常的事情..律师即使在成为法官、政府或者私人企业集团的雇员或者法律教师之后仍然是律师协会的会员;他们可以辞掉这些其它事务;回头开始私人执业..为了在工商业中担任重要的执行职务而放弃执业的律师人数相对较少..这一职业中的流动性和公共责任感的一个例证是哈兰·菲斯克的职业生涯;他曾多次成为一名纽约州律师、一名教授和哥伦比亚法学院院长、美国总检察长和美国最高法院首席大法官..There is no formal division among lawyers according to function. The distinction between barristers and solicitors found in England did not take root in the United States; and there is no branch of the profession that has a special or exclusive right to appear in court; nor is there a branch that specializes in the preparation of legal instruments. The American lawyer s domain includes advocacy; counselling; and drafting. Furthermore; within the sphere broadly defined as the "practice of law" the domain is exclusive and is not open to others. In the field of advocacy; the rules are fairly clear: any individual may represent himself or herself in court but; with the exception of a few inferior courts; only a lawyer may represent another in court. Nonlawyers are; however; authorized to represent others in formal proceedings of a judicial nature before some administrative agencies. The lines of demarcation are less clear in the areas of counselling and drafting of legal instruments; as for example between the practice of law and that of accounting in the field of federal income taxation. However; the strict approach of most American courts is indicated by a decision of New York s highest court that a lawyer admitted to practice in a foreign country but not in New York is prohibited from giving legal advice to clients in New York; even though the advice is limited to the law of the foreign country where the lawyer is admitted. A foreign lawyer may; however; be admitted to the bar of one of the states and may; even without being admitted; advise an American lawyer as a consultant on foreign law律师并不按照职责进行正式的划分..在英国对诉讼律师和非诉律师的区分并没有移植到美国;既不存在拥有特别或者专有出庭权的职业群体;也没有专门制作法律文书的职业群体..美国律师的业务范围包括出庭辩护、咨询和起草文书..另外;在被广泛地成为“法律执业”的范围之内;律师的业务范围是专有性的;不对其他人开放..在出庭辩护领域;这种规则非常清楚：任何个人都可以代表其自己出庭;但除了一些基层法院之外;只有律师可以代表他人出庭..不过;律师不得代表他人参与一些行政机关设立的具有司法性质的正式程序当中..在咨询和起草法律文书领域的界限并不是太清晰;比如在在联邦所得税领域的法律执业和会计执业之间就是如此..但是;纽约最高法院的一个裁决表明了大多数美国法院的严格标准;该裁决认为;一个获准在外国执业单位获准在纽约执业的律师不得在纽约对客户提供法律咨询;即使该意见仅限于该律师获准执业的该外国的法律..但是;一个外国律师可能获准在一个州执业;而且无需获得许可便可以以一个外国法律顾问的身份向美国律师提供法律咨询..Part Two： Lawyers in Private PracticeAmong these fifteen lawyers in practice; nine; a clear majority; are single practitioners. The remaining six practice in law firms; which are generally organized as partnerships. Four or five of these six are partners and the others are associates;a term applied to salaried lawyers employed by a firm or another lawyer. This trend toward group practice is of relatively recent origin. Throughout most of the nineteenth century law practice was general rather than specialized; its chief ingredient was advocacy rather than counselling and drafting; and the prototype of the American lawyer was the single practitioner. Marked specialization began in the latter part of that century in the large cities near the financial centers. With the growth of big business; big government; and big labor; the work of the lawyer accomodated itself to the needs of clients for expert counselling and drafting to prevent as well as to settle disputes. The best lawyers were attracted to this work and leadership of the bar gravitated to persons who rarely if ever appeared in court and who were sought after as advisors; planners; and negotiators. Today the lawyer regards it as sound practice to be continuously familiar with clients business problems and to participate at all steps in the shaping of their policies. Major business transactions are rarely undertaken without advice of counsel.第二部分私人执业中的律师每十五个执业律师中有九个明显的多数都是单独执业者..剩下六个在律师事务所执业;这些所一般是合伙制..这六个律师中有四到五个都是合伙人;其余的为非合伙律师雇佣律师..这种集体执业的趋势只是在近年来才开始出现..十九世纪的大多数时间内;律师执业都是非专业化的;其主要内容是辩护而不是咨询和起草法律文书;因此美国律师的最早形式是单独执业..明显的专业化出现于十九世纪后期金融中心附近的大城市里..随着出现大型的企业、庞大的政府和大规模的劳工;律师的工作本身要适应客户对解决争端以及专业咨询和起草法律文书等预防性法律事务的需要..出类拔萃的律师都被吸引到这一领域;而且律师职业领导的重心转向了那些很少出庭的从事顾问、做计划以及从事谈判的人..现在;律师认为不断熟悉客户的业务问题并参与其政策制定的各个步骤已经成了一种正常、合理的执业形式..Part Three: House CounselOut of every twenty lawyers; two are employed by private business concerns; such as industrial corporations; insurance companies; and banks; usually as house or corporate counsel in the concern s legal department. The growth of corporations; the complexity of business; and the multitude of problems posed by government regulation make it desirable for such firms to have in their employ persons with legal training who; at the same time; are intimately familiar with the particular problems and conditions of the firm. In large corporations the legal department may number one hundred or more. The general counsel; who heads the office; is usually an officer of the company and may serve on important policy making committees and perhaps even on the board of directors. House counsel remain members of the bar and are entitled to appear in court; though an outside lawyer is often retained for litigation. However; it is the house counsel s skill as advisor rather than as advocate that is a valued asset. Constantly in touch with the employer s problems; house counsel is ideally situated to practice preventive law and may also be called upon to advise the company on its broader obligation to the public and the nation.第三部分专职法律顾问每二十个律师当中有两个受雇于私人企业;如工业公司、保险公司和银行..他们通常在企业的法律部门工作;作为专职或者企业法律顾问..公司规模的扩大、业务的复杂以及政府管制所产生的问题的多样化使得这类企业需要在企雇员中有受过法律培训的人员;这些人同时还非常熟悉企业的具体问题和情况..在一些大公司中;法律部的人数可能超过百人..该部门的主任;也叫总法律顾问;通常是公司的一名高级职员;可能供职于重要的决策委员会;甚至是董事会成员..专职法律顾问也是律师协会的成员并有权出庭代理诉讼;尽管公司打官司通常还是回请外部律师担任诉讼代理人..但是;专职法律顾问的特长是咨询而不是诉讼代理;这是他的一种宝贵资产..由于不断接触雇主的各类问题;专职法律顾问的理想定位是预防性法律事务;它还可以根据要求向公司就其对公众和国家更为广泛的义务提供咨询..Part Four： Lawyers in GovernmentA parallel development has taken place in government and two out of twenty lawyers are now employees of the federal; state; county; and municipal governments; exclusive of the judiciary. Many of those entering public service are recent law graduates who find government salaries sufficiently attractive at this stage of their careers and seek the training that such service may offer as a prelude to private practice. Limitations on top salaries; however; discourage some from continuing with the government. The majority serves by appointment in the legal departments of a variety of federal and state agencies and local entities. The United States Department of Justice alone employs more than two thousands; and the Law Department of the City of New York more than four hundreds. Others are engaged as public prosecutors. Federal prosecutors; the United States attorneys and their assistants; are appointed by the President and are subordinate to the Attorney General of the United States. State prosecutors; sometimes known as district attorneys; are commonly elected by each county and are not under the control of the state attorney general. As a rule; lawyers in government are directly engaged in legal work; since law training is infrequently sought as preparation for general government service. However; a small but important minority that constitutes an exception to this rule consists of those who have been appointed to high executive positions and those who have been elected to political office. Though the participation of lawyers in government has declined recently; for two centuries lawyers have made up roughly half of the Congress of the United States and of the state governors. These figures bear out the comment of Chief Justice Stone that; "No tradition of our profession is more cherished by lawyers than that of its leadership in public affairs."第四部分政府律师律师职业在政府中也出现了同样的发展;目前每二十个律师中有两个不包括法官受雇于联邦、州、县和市镇政府..进入公共服务领域的人许多是认为在其工作生涯的这一阶段政府工资有吸引力和寻求锻炼机会并将这种锻炼作为私人执业前奏的法学毕业生..他们大多数都是通过任命而供职于联邦和州的各级政府机关以及劳工组织中的法律部门..仅美国司法部一家就雇佣了两千多名律师;纽约市的法律部雇的人数超过四千..其他律师的角色是公诉人..联邦公诉人;即美国的检察官及其助理由总统任命;受美国总检察长领导..州公诉人;有时是地区检察官;通常由各县选举产生;并且不受州检察长的控制..作为一种规则;政府律师都是直接从事法律工作;因为法律培训很少作为一般的政府服务的准备工作..但是;那些被任命为高级行政职务和被选举担任政治官职的人是这一规则的一个少数但却很重要的例外..尽管近来律师参与政府工作在减少;但两个世纪以来律师已经构成了美国国会和各州州长的大约半数..这些数字证明了斯通大法官的话：“在我们的职业传统中;没有一个能像其担任公共事务领导的传统那样受到律师们的钟爱..”Lesson Three: Legal Education 法律教育必修课Required Course为主;包括合同法Contract Law、侵权法Tort Law、财产法Property Law、刑法Criminal Law、民事诉讼Civil Procedure和法律文书写作Legal Writing等；选修课Elective Course 批判性思维critical thinking案例教学法Case Method和问答式即苏格拉底式教学法Socratic Method..In 1983; over 125;000 law students were studying in more than 170 ABA accredited law schools including public law schools supported in part by government funds; private law schools supported by contributions from individuals and foundation funds; and local or national schools offering full time or part time legal study programs. As virtually the only way to prepare for membership in the legal profession; law schools in the United States fulfill several functions including professional training and socialization of future lawyers and screening and gatekeeping for entrance to the profession. Since there is no central institution where all lawyers practice; the only institutional experience which lawyers have in common is law school.1983年;在170多所经美国律师协会认可的法学院里就读的法学学生有125000多名..这些法学院包括由部分由政府资助的公立法学院、靠个人和基金会捐助维持的私立法学院、以及提供全日制或者业余法律学习课程的地方性和全国性学校..作为事实上的走向法律职业的唯一途径;美国的法学院履行着许多职能;包括开展职业培训、使未来的律师具备社交能力以及对准备进入法律职业的人进行筛选和把关等..由于没有一个供所有律师进行实习的中心机构;律师共同拥有的机构性经历只能是法学院..The criticisms which range from "mild to caustic" of the way in which law schools have carried out these functions and of the functions themselves have been persistent; diverse and rooted in the historical and political development of the profession. These criticisms have focussed on the curriculum and the dominance of the case method; the distribution of power and prestige reflected in the hierarchy within and among the law schools; and the imbalance in terms of women and minorities in the student body and faculty in the law schools那些关于法学院行使这些功能的方式以及这些功能本身的从温和到刻薄的批评是持续的、多样化的;而且根植于该职业的历史和政治发展之中..这些批评集中于课程和以案例教学法为主导方面、在法学院内部和法学院之间的等级制度上的权力和声望的分配方面以及在法学院的学生中和教师中的女性和少数民族成员的不平衡问题..Part One： Curriculum and the Case MethodThe traditional first year program offered in virtually all American law schools includes contracts; torts; property; criminal law and civil procedure. Duncan Kennedy has described the traditional first year curriculum as basically teaching the ground rules for late 19th century laissez faire capitalism. The second year and third year course expound the moderate reformist New Deal program and the administrative structure of the modern regulatory state. The peripheral subjects; if they are offered; include legal philosophy; legal history; legal process; and clinical education; a "kind of playground or finishing school for learning the social art of self presentation as a lawyer".第一部分课程与案例教学法实际上在所有的美国法学院中都开设传统的一年级课程;包括合同、侵权、财产、刑法和民事程序等..Duncan Kennedy认为这些传统的一年级课程基本上是讲授19世纪晚期自由资本主义的基础性规则..二年级和三年级课程讲述的是温和改革主义的“新政”课程和现代法治管制国家的行政结构..可能开设的边缘学科包括法哲学、法律史、法律程序以及诊所式教育;即“一种学习作为律师所应具备的自我表达社交艺术的操练场和精修学校”..However; as new areas of the law continue to develop in response to contemporary issues and problems; some law schools have expanded curricula to include courses and clinical programs in environmental law; housing and urban development; women s rights; health in the workplace; welfare rights and consumer protection. There are also increasing efforts to teach law in interdisciplinary contexts; drawing on other disciplines such as history; psychology; sociology; medicine; and economics.但是由于新的法律领域随着当代问题的出现而不断发展;一些法学院将课程予以扩展;包括环境法方面的课程和诊所式课程;住房和城市发展、女权、工作场所的健康、福利权以及消费者保护等..并且还越来越多地以交叉学科的背景讲授法律;向其他学科靠近;如历史、心理学、社会学、医学以及经济学等..。

Lesson One: Legal System 法律制度英属殖民地时期(the Period of the English Colonies)和美利坚合众国时期（the Period of the United States）.公诉制度（public prosecution) 美国属于普通法系（Common Law Legal System)分散制（decentralization）为原则；以判例法(case law)为主体。

”零散的无系统"（fragmental no system）。

成文法(written law)或制定法(statutory law)，遵从前例"（stare decisisPart OneThe United States is at once a very new nation and a very old nation。

It is a new nation compared with many other countries，and it is new，too, in the sense that it is constantly being renewed by the addition of new elements of population and of new States. But in other senses it is old. It is the oldest of the "new" nations—-the first one to be made out of an Old World colony。

It has the oldest written constitution，the oldest continuous federal system, and the oldest practice of self government of any nation。

Lesson One: Legal System 法律制度英属殖民地时期(the Period of the English Colonies)和美利坚合众国时期(the Period of the United States)。

公诉制度(public prosecution)美国属于普通法系(Common Law Legal System)分散制(decentralization)为原则；以判例法(case law)为主体。

"零散的无系统"(fragmental no system)。

成文法(written law)或制定法(statutory law)，遵从前例"(stare decisisPart OneThe United States is at once a very new nation and a very old nation. It is a new nation compared with many other countries, and it is new, too, in the sense that it is constantly being renewed by the addition of new elements of population and of new States. But in other senses it is old. It is the oldest of the "new" nations--the first one to be made out of an Old World colony. It has the oldest written constitution, the oldest continuous federal system, and the oldest practice of self government of any nation.美国既是一个非常新的国家也是一个非常老的国家。

法律英语翻译-何家弘Lesson One: Legal System 法律制度英属殖民地时期(the Period of the English Colonies)和美利坚合众国时期(the Period of the United States)。

公诉制度(public prosecution) 美国属于普通法系(Common Law Legal System) 分散制(decentralization)为原则；以判例法(case law)为主体。

"零散的无系统"(fragmental no system)。

成文法(written law)或制定法(statutory law)，遵从前例"(stare decisisPart OneThe United States is at once a very new nation and a very old nation. It is a new nation compared with many other countries, and it is new, too, in the sense that it is constantly being renewed by the addition of new elements of population and of new States. But in other senses it is old. It is the oldest of the "new" nations--the first one to be made out of an Old World colony. It has the oldest written constitution, the oldest continuous federal system, and the oldest practice of self government of any nation.美国既是一个非常新的国家也是一个非常老的国家。

Lesson 1 法律制度Part One Featuers and Characteristics 第一部分特征与特点The United States is at once a very new nation and a very old nation.美国既是一个非常新的国家也是一个非常老的国家。

It is a new nation compared with many other countries, and it is new, too, in the sense that it is constantly being renewed by the addition of new elements of population and of new States.与许多别的国家相比它是一个新的国家。

同时，它还因新人口成分和新州的加入而持续更新，在此意义上，它也是新国家。

But in other senses it is old. It is the oldest of the "new" nations--the first one to be made out of an Old World colony.但是在其它的意义上它是老国家。

它是最老的“新”国家——第一个由旧大陆殖民地脱胎而出的国家。

It has the oldest written constitution, the oldest continuous federal system, and the oldest practice of self government of any nation.它拥有最古老的成文宪法、最古老的持续的联邦体制以及最古老的民族自治实践。

One of the most interes ting features of America’s youth is that the whole of its history belongs in the period since the invention of the printing press.美国的年轻（性）有一个很有意思的特点就是它的历史肇始于印刷机发明之后。

Lesson One：Legal System 法律制度英属殖民地时期（the Period of the English Colonies)和美利坚合众国时期（the Period of the United States）。

公诉制度（public prosecution) 美国属于普通法系（Common Law Legal System）分散制（decentralization)为原则；以判例法（case law)为主体。

"零散的无系统"（fragmental no system)。

成文法(written law)或制定法(statutory law），遵从前例”（stare decisisPart OneThe United States is at once a very new nation and a very old nation。

It is a new nation compared with many other countries, and it is new, too, in the sense that it is constantly being renewed by the addition of new elements of population and of new States. But in other senses it is old. It is the oldest of the "new” nations--the first one to be made out of an Old World colony. It has the oldest written constitution, the oldest continuous federal system, and the oldest practice of self government of any nation.美国既是一个非常新的国家也是一个非常老的国家。