The $gamma^ p$ total cross section and elastic diffraction

核能专业英语公司内部档案编码：[OPPTR-OPPT28-OPPTL98-OPPNN08]第一课词汇：•Concept概念, conception概念, conceive构想、理解•Isotope同位素, isomer同质异能素•element, atom, nucleus, nucleon–element, elements,–molecule, molecules, molecular–atom, atoms, atomic,–nucleus['nju:klis，'nu:klis]原子核, nuclei, nuclear,–nucleon['nju:klin]核子, nucleons, nucleonic核子的–particle, particles,•fissile易裂变的, fissionable可以发生裂变的•fertile可裂变的，fertile materials增殖材料•fission, fusion, decay•inner, innermost / outer, outermost•chain reaction•fragment碎片Expression：•times–A is ten times B.•varies inversely as•E equals m times c squared. E = mc2•the n-th power of a: an•result in / result from•is accompanied by / correspond to•The discovery of fission was made in Germany in 1938 by Hahn......•Be composed of 由…组成•Binding energy 结合能•Discrete excited states 不连续的激发态•Electromagnetic radiation 电磁辐射•Ev：electron-volt•Conservation of mass/energy 质量/能量守恒练习：•电子带负电，质子带正电。

CASS命令新建图形文件...new打开已有图形...open图形存盘...qsave图形改名存盘...saveas电子传递...etransmit网上发布...publishtoweb输出...export图形核查...audit修复破坏的图形...recover清理图形......purge编组....managroup页面设置...pagesetup打印机管理器...plottermanager打印样式管理器...stylesmanager打印预览...preview打印...plot宗地图表批量打印.....zdtbplot图形属性....dwgpropsCASS6.1参数配置.....setparaCASS6.1系统配置文件.....setsimboldef AutoCAD系统配置.....preferences操作回退......U取消回退......redo物体捕捉....OSNAP捕捉圆心点......CEN端点......endp插入点......ins交点......int中间点 (i)最近点......nea节点......nod垂直点......per四分圆点......qua切点......tan取消捕捉............non前方交会......qfjh边长交会......intersu方向交会......angdist支距量算......zhiju画直线........line徒手画........sketch画弧..........arc画圆..........circle画椭圆........ellipse;画多边形......polygon画点..........point画曲线........quxian画复合线......pline多功能复合线..Pdjf3画圆环........donut制作图块......wblock插入图块......ddinsert批量插入图块..plinsert插入光栅图象..image光栅图象纠正..rectify光栅图象赋予..imageattach光栅图象剪裁..imageclip光栅图象调整..imageadjust光栅图象质量..imagequality光栅图象透明度...transparency 光栅图象框架....imageframe写文字...dtext编辑文字...ddedit批量写文字..mtext沿线条注记...linetext插入文本文件..rtext炸碎文字......TXTEXP MTEXTTEXT...MTEXTTOTEXT文字消隐......textmask取消文字消隐..textunmask查找替换文字..find定义字型......style变换字体... fonts1查询列图形表..list查询工作状态..status编缉文本文件..notepad对象特性管理..properties图元编辑......ddmodify图层设定yer目标实体层ymch当前层ycur仅留实体所在层yiso冻结实体所在层yfrz关闭实体所在层yoff锁定实体所在层ylck解锁实体所在层yulk转移实体所在层ymrg删除实体所在层ydel打开所有图层yon解冻所有图层ythw图层叠放顺序.....draworder删除多重目标选择..erase删除单个目标选择..erase;_si; 删除上个选定目标...erase;_l; 删除实体所在图层...scsd删除实体所在编码...scdaima延伸 ....extend修剪 ....trim对齐 ....align移动 ....move旋转 ....rotate比例缩放....scale伸展 ....stretch阵列 ....array复制 ....copy镜像 ....mirror圆角 ....nfillet偏移拷贝....offset局部偏移....partoffset批量选目标..mssx修改性质....change修改颜色....scsc炸开实体....explode重画屏幕....redraw显示缩放....zoom鹰眼....dsviewer视口........+vports 1命名视图....view平面视图....plan文本窗口....textscr工具栏......toolbar查看实体编码...GETP加入实体编码...PUTP生成用户编码...changecode编辑实体地物编码...modifycode 生成交换文件...INMAP读入交换文件...OUTMAP屏幕菜单功能切换...PP导线记录....ADJRECORD导线平差....ADJUST读取全站仪数据...totalstation微机-E500....stran微机-南方NTS-320...r_nts320;微机-拓普康GTS-211...r_gts211;微机-拓普康GTS-602...r_gts602;微机-索佳SET系列.....r_set500;微机-宾得PCS-300 CSV.R_PCS300;南方RTK格式..NGK300;南方GPS后处理格式...gpshcl;南方S-CASS GRP格式...s_cass;南方S-CASS HTT格式...readhtt;索佳SET2C LST格式....SET2C;索佳SET2C DAT格式....SET2CDAT;索佳POWERSET坐标格式.SET2010;索佳POWERSET SDR2X格式..POWERSDR;杰科全站数据格式........JIEKE测图精灵格式转换读入...readspda转出...writespda原始测量数据录入需要控制点坐标文件...inputsource;1;不需控制点坐标文件...inputsource;2; 原始数据格式转换需要控制点坐标文件...data;1;不需控制点坐标文件...data;2;批量修改坐标数据.....CHDATA数据合并.......SJHB数据分幅.......SJFF坐标显示与打印.......SHOWGPS设置..............jihuo实时GPS跟踪..........gpsin定显示区..........HTCS改变当前图形比例尺...gbblc1展高程点.........zhkzd;1;高程点建模设置...gcddtm;高程点过滤.......gcdguolv水上高程点一般注记法.......zhkzd;2旋转注记.........xiewater海图注记法.......zhkzd;3;打散高程注记.....explodegcd合成打散的高程注记....resumegcd展野外测点点号.....zhdm;2;展野外测点代码.....zhdm;3;展野外测点点位.....zhdm;4;切换展点注记.......changezdh;展控制点.......drawkzd;编码引导....bmyd;简码识别....bmsb;图幅网格(指定长宽).....tfwg;加方格网...............hfgw;方格注记...............FGZJ;建立格网...............fenfu;批量输出...............fenfuout;普通分幅...............plxietf;700米公路分幅..........fenfu700;标准图幅 (50X50cm).....tfzs;2;标准图幅 (50X40cm).....tfzs;1;任意图幅...............tfzs;3;小比例尺图幅...........XBLTF;倾斜图幅...............tfzs;4;工程0 号图框...........HZTK;0;工程1 号图框...........hztk;1;工程2 号图框...........hztk;2;工程3 号图框.........hztk;3;图纸空间图幅youtprint;1; youtprint;2;任意图幅youtprint;3; 图形梯形纠正......ROTA地籍参数设置.....CADAPARA绘制权属线.......JZLINE权属合并.........QSHB由图形生成.......HANDQS由复合线生成.....PLINEQS由界址线生成.....JIEZHIQS;权属信息文件合并......UNITEQS;依权属文件绘权属图....hqst;修改界址点号..........JZNUMBER重排界址点号..........requeuejzp设置最大界址点号......setmaxjzd修改界址点号前缀......setprefix删除无用界址点........delunusejzd注记界址点点名注记..............zjzdm删除..............delzjzdm界址点圆圈修饰剪切.........xiushijzd;1;消隐.........xiushijzd;2;调整宗地内界址点顺序......arrangejzd界址点生成数据文件........jzptofile;查找宗地..............zhizong查找界址点............zhijzp宗地合并..............joinjzx宗地分割..............splitjzx;宗地重构..............regenzd;修改建筑物属性设置结构和层数.............jzwxx注记建筑物边长.............bianchang计算宗地内建筑面积.............jmdmj注记建筑占地面积.............jsmj;4建筑物注记重构.............regenbuildtext修改宗地属性.............setjiezhi修改界址线属性.............jzxinfo修改界址点属性.............jzdinfo输出宗地属性.............zdinfomdb绘制地籍表格界址点成果表.............hjzdb界址点成果表(excel).............jzdcgb_excel界址点坐标表.............jzdzb以街坊为单位界址点坐标表.............jzdtable以街道为单位宗地面积汇总表.............huizong城镇土地分类面积统计表.............chenzhen街道面积统计表.............TONGJI;1街坊面积统计表.............TONGJI;2面积分类统计表.............FENLEI;1街道面积分类统计表.............FENLEI;2街坊面积分类统计表.............FENLEI;3绘制宗地图框32开单块宗地.............hzdtk;1批量处理.............pltf;116开单块宗地.............hzdtk;4批量处理.............pltf;4A4竖单块宗地.............hzdtk;2批量处理.............pltf;2A4横单块宗地.............hzdtk;5批量处理.............pltf;5A3竖单块宗地.............hzdtk;3批量处理.............pltf;3A3横单块宗地.............hzdtk;6批量处理.............pltf;6自定义尺寸单块宗地.............hzdtk;0批量处理.............pltf;0土地详查行政区村界绘制.............drawxzq;1村界内部点.............xzqinsert;1乡镇界绘制.............drawxzq;2乡镇界内部点.............xzqinsert;2县区界绘制.............drawxzq;3县区界内部点.............xzqinsert;3权属区绘制.............qsline内部点生成.............qsinside图斑绘图生成.............dljline内部点生成.............dljinside统计面积.............dljarea线状地类.............linedlj零星地类.............pointdlj地类要素属性修改.............dljinfo线状地类扩面.............fromlinedlj检查线状地类.............checklinedlj分级面积控制.............areacontrol统计土地利用面积.............statdlj等高线(&S)建立DTM.............LINKSJX图面DTM完善.............APPENDSJX删除三角形_erase过滤三角形.............filter_sjx增加三角形.............jsjw三角形内插点.............insert_sjx删三角形顶点.............erase_sjx重组三角形.............re_sjx加入地性线.............valley删三角网.............delsjx三角网存取写入文件.............writesjw读出文件.............readsjw修改结果存盘.............ssjw绘制等高线.............dzx绘制等深线.............dsx等高线内插.............CONTOUR等值线过滤.............dgxguolv删全部等高线.............deldgx查询指定点高程.............height等高线修剪批量修剪等高线.............pltrdgx切除指定二线间等高线.............trtwoline切除指定区域内等高线.............tregion取消等高线消隐.............(arxload "wipeout");erasewipeout 等高线注记单个高程注记.............GCZJ沿直线高程注记.............GCSPZJ;1单个示坡线.............spzj沿直线示坡线.............GCSPZJ;2等高线局部替换已有线.............dgxsegment新画线.............dgxsegment1复合线滤波.............jjjd三维模型绘制三维模型.............vshow低级着色方式.............SHADE;高级着色方式.............RENDER;返回平面视图.............VEND;坡度分析颜色配置.............slopeconfig颜色填充.............slopecolor低级着色方式.............SHADE;高级着色方式.............RENDER;地物编辑(&A)重新生成.............recass;线型换向.............huan修改墙宽.............wallwidth修改坎高.............askan电力电信 >.............$i=dldxx $i=*--植被填充稻田 .............tian;211100;211102旱地 .............tian;211200;211202菜地 .............tian;211400;211402果园 .............tian;212100;212102桑园 .............tian;212200;212202茶园 .............tian;212300;212302橡胶园 .............tian;212400;212402其他园林.............tian;212500;212502有林地 .............tian;213100;213102灌木林 .............tian;213201;213204疏林 .............tian;213300;213302未成林 .............tian;213400;0苗圃 .............tian;213500;213502迹地 .............tian;213600;0竹林 .............tian;213901;213903天然草地.............tian;214100;214102改良草地.............tian;214200;0人工草地.............tian;214300;214302芦苇地 .............tian;215100;215102半荒植物地.............tian;215200;215202植物稀少地.............tian;215300;215302花圃 .............tian;215400;215402水生经济作物地.............tian;211300;211302土质填充肥气池.............tian;153901;0沙地 .............tian;206100;0石块地.............tian;206300;206302盐碱地.............tian;206400;206402小草丘地.............tian;206502;206504龟裂地.............tian;206600;206602能通行沼泽地.............tian;206701;0不能通行沼泽地.............tian;206702;0小比例房屋填充.............tian;141103;0图案填充.............sotian--符号等分内插.............neicha批量缩放文字 .............ctext符号 .............cblock圆圈 ircle复合线处理批量拟合复合线.............plind批量闭合复合线.............plbihe批量修改复合线高.............changeheight批量改变复合线宽.............linewidth--线型规范化.............pludd--复合线编辑............._pedit复合线上加点.............polyins复合线上删点.............erasevertex移动复合线顶点.............movevertex--相邻的复合线连接.............polyjoin;分离的复合线连接.............sepapolyjoin;重量线轻量线.............tolwpoly;--直线复合线.............linetopline;圆弧复合线.............arctopline;SPLINE复合线.............splinetopline;椭圆复合线.............ellipsetopline;图形接边.............mapjoin--图形属性转换图层图层单个处理.............cetoce;1批量处理.............cetoce;2图层编码单个处理.............cetoce;3批量处理.............cetoce;4编码编码单个处理.............bmtobm;1批量处理.............bmtobm;2编码图层单个处理.............bmtobm;3批量处理.............bmtobm;4编码颜色单个处理.............bmtobm;5批量处理.............bmtobm;6编码线形单个处理.............bmtobm;7批量处理.............bmtobm;8编码图块单个处理.............bmtobm;9批量处理.............bmtobm;10图块图块单个处理totk;1批量处理totk;2图块图层单个处理totk;3批量处理totk;4图块编码单个处理totk;5批量处理totk;6线形线形单个处理.............xxtoxx;1批量处理.............xxtoxx;2线形图层单个处理.............xxtoxx;3批量处理.............xxtoxx;4线形编码单个处理.............xxtoxx;5批量处理.............xxtoxx;6字型字型单个处理.............zxtozx;1批量处理.............zxtozx;2字型图层单个处理.............zxtozx;3批量处理.............zxtozx;4--坐标转换.............transform测站改正.............modizhan二维图形.............toplane房檐改正.............changeeaves直角纠正整体纠正.............rightangle单角纠正.............singleangle--批量删剪窗口删剪.............cksj依指定多边形删剪.............plsj批量剪切窗口剪切.............ckjq依指定多边形剪切.............pljq局部存盘窗口内的图形存盘.............savet;2多边形内图形存盘.............savet;1--打散独立图块.............explodeblock打散复杂线型.............explodeline检查入库(&G)地物属性结构设置.............attsetup编辑实体附加属性.............modiappinfo--图形实体检查.............checkdwg--过滤无属性实体.............guolv删除伪结点.............check_node删除复合线多余点.............jjjd;2删除重复实体.............check_repeat--等高线穿越地物检查.............checkdgxcross等高线高程注记检查.............checkdgxtext等高线拉线高程检查.............checkfromline等高线相交检查.............checkdgxinter--坐标文件检查.............check_datfile点位误差检查.............checkcoorderror边长误差检查.............checksideerror--输出ARC/INFO SHP格式.............casstoshp输出MAPINFO MIF/MID格式.............mifmid输出国家空间矢量格式.............vctout工程应用(&C)查询指定点坐标.............CXZB查询两点距离及方位.............distuser查询线长.............getlength查询实体面积.............areauser计算表面积根据坐标文件.............surfacearea;1根据图上高程点.............surfacearea;2 --生成里程文件由纵断面线生成新建.............hdmcreate添加.............hdmadd变长.............hdmlength剪切.............hdmtrim设计.............hdmdesign生成.............fromzdline由复合线生成普通断面.............plptdm隧道断面.............plsddm由等高线生成.............dmfromdgx;1由三角网生成.............dmfromdgx;2由坐标文件生成.............getlicheng--DTM法土方计算根据坐标文件.............DTMTF;1根据图上高程点.............DTMTF;2根据图上三角网.............tstf;--计算两期间土方.............twosjw断面法土方计算道路设计参数文件.............roadpara;--道路断面.............transect;1;场地断面.............transect;2;任意断面.............transect;3;--图上添加断面线.............appenddmx--修改设计参数.............designpara编辑断面线.............editdmx修改断面里程.............chglicheng图面土方计算.............mapretf--二断面线间土方计算.............betweendmx方格网法土方计算.............fgwtf;等高线法土方计算.............dgxtf;区域土方量平衡根据坐标文件.............tfbalance;1根据图上高程点.............tfbalance;2--绘断面图根据已知坐标.............dmt_dat根据里程文件.............dmt_licheng根据等高线.............dmt_dgx;1根据三角网.............dmt_dgx;2--绘设计线.............sjline计算断面面积.............dmarea查询断面点.............dmpoint--公路曲线设计单个交点处理.............pointcurve;--要素文件录入.............putroadata;要素文件处理.............roadcurve;--计算指定范围的面积.............jsmj统计指定区域的面积.............tjmj指定点所围成的面积.............parea--线条长度调整.............linefy面积调整调整一点.............movept调整一边.............mjfy在一边调整一点.............ptatside--指定点生成数据文件.............shzht高程点生成数据文件有编码高程点.............LINKSJX1无编码高程点.............gcdtodat控制点生成数据文件.............kzdtodat等高线生成数据文件.............datincontour图幅管理(&M)图幅信息操作.............MAPMANAGE图幅显示.............SELMAP图幅列表.............MAPBAR--绘超链接索引图.............hypertfgl移动............._move镜像............._mirror旋转............._rotate缩放............._scale拉伸............._stretch基点.............base复制.............copy参照.............reference放弃.............._u特性............._properties转至 ................_gotourl退出................_exit剪切............._cutclip复制............._copyclip带基点复制............._copybase粘贴............._pasteclip粘贴为块............._pasteblock粘贴到原坐标............._pasteorig放弃(&U)............._u重做..............._redo平移................pan缩放.............._zoom--快速选择................_qselect查找................_find选项................_options剪切............._cutclip复制............._copyclip带基点复制............._copybase粘贴............._pasteclip粘贴为块............._pasteblock粘贴到原坐标............._pasteorig--删除............._erase移动..................move复制选择..............copy缩放................._scale旋转................._rotate全部不选(&A).............(ai_deselect)--快速选择(&Q)................_qselect查找(&F)................_find特性(&S)............._properties平移.......................pan缩放......................_zoom标注对象的上下文菜单标注文字位置在尺寸线上............._ai_dim_textabove置中............._ai_dim_textcenter默认位置............._ai_dim_texthome单独移动文字............._aidimtextmove _2与引线一起移动............._aidimtextmove _1 与尺寸线一起移动............_aidimtextmove _0精度0............._aidimprec _00.0............._aidimprec _10.00............._aidimprec _20.000............._aidimprec _30.0000............._aidimprec _40.00000............._aidimprec _50.000000............._aidimprec _6标注样式(&D)另存为新样式(&S)................_aidimstyle _S 标注样式 MRU1............._aidimstyle _1标注样式 MRU2............._aidimstyle _2标注样式 MRU3............._aidimstyle _3标注样式 MRU4............._aidimstyle _4标注样式 MRU5............._aidimstyle _5标注样式 MRU6............._aidimstyle _6其他......................_aidimstyle _O视口对象的上下文菜单视口剪裁(&V)............._vpclip显示视口对象是............._-vports _on _p;; 否............._-vports _off _p;;显示锁定是(&Y)............._-vports _lock _on _p否(&N)............._-vports _lock _off _p消隐出图(&H)是(&Y)............._-vports _hide _on _p否(&N)............._-vports _hide _off _p外部参照对象的上下文菜单外部参照剪裁(&I)............._xclip外部参照管理器(&N)................_xref多行文字对象的上下文菜单编辑多行文字(&I)................_mtedit文字对象的上下文菜单编辑文字(&I)................_ddedit图案填充对象的上下文菜单编辑图案填充................_hatchedit多段线对象的上下文菜单编辑多段线............._pedit样条曲线对象的上下文菜单编辑样条曲线............._splinedit多段线对象的上下文菜单编辑多段线............._pedit标注线性标注............_dimlinear对齐标注............._dimaligned坐标标注............._dimordinate--半径标注............._dimradius直径标注............._dimdiameter角度标注.............._dimangular--快速标注............._qdim基线标注............._dimbaseline连续标注............._dimcontinue快速引线............._qleader公差............._tolerance圆心标记............._dimcenter--编辑标注............._dimedit编辑标注文字............._dimtedit标注更新............._-dimstyle _apply 标注样式...............dimstyle绘图直线............._line构造线............._xline多线............._mline多段线............._pline正多边形............._polygon矩形............._rectang圆弧............._arc 圆............._circle样条曲线............._spline椭圆............_ellipse椭圆弧............_ellipse _a块创建块............._block 点.................point图案填充............._bhatch面域............._region多行文字............._mtext查询距离........................dist面积..............area面域/质量特性............._massprop列表......................_list点坐标 (i)插入插入块............._insert外部参照............._xref图像............._image输入............._importOLE 对象............._insertobj布局新建布局....................._layout _n 来自样板的布局............._layout _t页面设置............._pagesetup显示“视口”对话框............_vports修改删除............._erase复制对象........................copy)镜像.............................mirror) 偏移............._offset阵列............_array移动..............move旋转..............rotate缩放..............scale拉伸..............stretch拉长............._lengthen修剪............._trim延伸............._extend打断于点............._break \f \@打断............._break倒角............_chamfer圆角............._fillet分解............._explode修改_II显示顺序............._draworder--编辑图案填充............._hatchedit编辑多段线............._pedit编辑样条曲线............._splinedit编辑多线............._mledit--编辑属性............._eattedit块属性管理器............._BattMan同步属性............._AttSync属性提取............._EAttExt对象特性将对象的图层置为当前............_ai_molc图层yer 上一个图层............._LayerP对象捕捉临时追踪点............................tt 捕捉自..................from捕捉到端点................endp捕捉到中点 (i)捕捉到交点................int捕捉到外观交点............appint捕捉到延长线 (x)捕捉到圆心................cen捕捉到象限点..............qua捕捉到切点................tan捕捉到垂足................per捕捉到平行线..............par捕捉到插入点..............ins捕捉到节点................nod捕捉到最近点..............nea无捕捉....................non对象捕捉设置..............dsettings 2三维动态观察器三维平移..................3dpan三维缩放".................3dzoom三维动态观察...............3dorbit三维连续观察...............3dcorbit三维旋转...................3dswivel三维调整距离...............3ddistance三维调整剪裁平面...........3dclip前向剪裁开/关............._dview后向剪裁开/关............._dview着色二维线框...............shademode _2三维线框...............shademode _3消隐...................shademode _h平面着色...............shademode _f体着色.................shademode _g带边框平面着色.........hademode _l带边框体着色...........shademode _o参照编辑编辑块或外部参照............._refedit;向工作集添加对象..............refset _add从工作集删除对象..............refset _rem放弃对参照的修改..............refclose _disc 将修改保存到参照..............refclose _sav参照外部参照............_xref附着外部参照............._xattach外部参照剪裁............._xclip外部参照绑定............._xbind外部参照剪裁边框......xclipframe 1--图像.................image附着图像............imageattach图像剪裁.............imageclip图像调整............._imageadjust图像质量"............._imagequality图像透明............._transparency图像边框............._imageframe渲染消隐............._hide渲染............._render场景............._scene光源............._light材质............_rmat材质库............._matlib贴图............._setuv背景............._background雾化............._fog新建配景............._lsnew编辑配景............._lsedit配景库............._lslib--渲染系统配置............._rpref统计信息................._stats实体长方体............._box球体............._sphere圆柱体............._cylinder圆锥体............._cone楔体............._wedge圆环............._torus拉伸............._extrude旋转............._revolve剖切............._slice切割............._section干涉............._interfere设置图形............._soldraw设置视图"............._solview设置轮廓............._solprof实体编辑并集............._union差集............._subtract交集............._intersect拉伸面............._solidedit _face _extrude 移动面............._solidedit _face _move偏移面............._solidedit _face _offset 删除面............._solidedit _face _delete 旋转面............._solidedit _face _rotate 倾斜面............._solidedit _face _taper 复制面............._solidedit _face _copy着色面............._solidedit _face _color --复制边............._solidedit _edge _copy着色边............._solidedit _edge _color --压印............._solidedit _body _imprint 清除............._solidedit _body _clean分割............._solidedit _body _separate 抽壳............._solidedit _body _shell检查............._solidedit _body _check标准新建............._new打开............._open保存............._qsave打印............._plot打印预览............._preview查找和替换............._find剪切到剪贴板............._cutclip复制到剪贴板............._copyclip从剪贴板粘贴............._pasteclip特性匹配................_matchprop--放弃............._u重做............._redo--今日............._Today三维动态观察器.......3dorbit实时平移.............._pan实时缩放.............zoom标准配置标准............._Standards检查标准............._CheckStandards图层转换............._LayTrans曲面二维填充............._solid三维面............._3dface--长方体表面............._ai_box楔体表面............._ai_wedge圆锥面............._ai_cone球面............._ai_sphere上半球面............._ai_dome下半球面............._ai_dish圆环面............._ai_torus-- 边............_edge三维网格............._3dmesh旋转曲面............._revsurf平移曲面............._tabsurf直纹曲面............._rulesurf边界曲面............._edgesurf文字多行文字............._mtext单行文字............._dtext编辑文字............._ddedit查找和替换............._find文字样式................style缩放文字............._scaletext对正文字............._justifytext在空间之间转换距离...._spacetransUCSUCS............._ucs显示 UCS 对话框............._+ucsman 0上一个 UCS............._ucs _p--世界 UCS............._ucs _w对象 UCS............._ucs _ob面 UCS"............._ucs _fa视图 UCS............._ucs _v原点 UCS............._ucs _oZ 轴矢量 UCS............._ucs _zaxis 三点 UCS............._ucs _3X 轴旋转 UCS............._ucs _xY 轴旋转 UCS............._ucs _yZ 轴旋转 UCS............._ucs _z应用 UCS............._ucs _apply显示 UCS 对话框............._+ucsman 0移动 UCS 原点............._ucs _move视图命名视图", "ICON_16_DDVIEW", "ICON_16_DDVIEW")............._view俯视图", "ICON_16_VIETOP", "ICON_16_VIETOP")............._-view _top仰视图", "ICON_16_VIEBOT", "ICON_16_VIEBOT")............._-view _bottom左视图", "ICON_16_VIELEF", "ICON_16_VIELEF")............._-view _left右视图", "ICON_16_VIERIG", "ICON_16_VIERIG")............._-view _right主视图", "ICON_16_VIEFRO", "ICON_16_VIEFRO")............._-view _front后视图", "ICON_16_VIEBAC", "ICON_16_VIEBAC")............._-view _back西南等轴测视图", "ICON_16_VIESWI", "ICON_16_VIESWI")............._-view _swiso 东南等轴测视图", "ICON_16_VIESEI", "ICON_16_VIESEI")............._-view _seiso 东北等轴测视图", "ICON_16_VIENEI", "ICON_16_VIENEI")............._-view _neiso 西北等轴测视图", "ICON_16_VIENWI", "ICON_16_VIENWI")............._-view _nwiso 相机", "ICON_16_CAMERA", "ICON_16_CAMERA")............._camera视口显示“视口”对话框............._vports单个视口.......................-vports剪裁现有视口 ............._vpclipWEB后退..........................._hyperlinkBack前进..........................._hyperlinkFwd停止浏览......................._hyperlinkStop浏览 Web......................._browser缩放窗口缩放.........................zoom _w动态缩放.........................zoom _d比例缩放.........................zoom _s中心缩放.........................zoom _c放大.............................zoom 2x缩小.............................zoom .5x全部缩放.........................zoom _all范围缩放.........................zoom _e标准工具栏图层管理yer把对象的图层置为当前.............ai_molc线型管理.........................linetype 编组选择关.......................PICKSTYLE 0 编组选择开.......................PICKSTYLE 1 打开老图.............open图形存盘.............qsave重画屏幕.............redraw平移.................pan缩放.................zoom窗选.................zoom _w全图.................zoom _e前图.................zoom _p回退.................u取消回退.............redo对象特性.............properties设计中心.............adcenter删除.................erase移动.................move复制.................copy修剪............._trim延伸............._extendCASS实用工具栏查看实体编码.............getp加入实体编码.............putp重新生成.............recass批量选目标线型换向.............huan修改坎高.............askan查询坐标.............cxzb查询距离和方位角.............distuser注记文字.............wzzj多点房屋.............drawddf四点房屋.............fourpt依比例围墙...........drawwq陡坎.................drawdk自然斜坡等...........xp交互展点.............drawgcd图根点...............drawtgd电力线...............drawdlx道路.................drawdl地籍地籍参数设置.............CADAPARA绘制权属线.................JZLINE权属线生成依权属文件绘权属图.............hqst修改界址点号.............JZNUMBER重排界址点号.............requeuejzp设置最大界址点号.............setmaxjzd 删除无用界址点号.............delunusejzd 注记界址点点名界址点圆圈修饰.............xiushijzd调整界址点顺序.............arrangejzd界址点生成数据文件.............jzptofile 查找指定宗地.............zhizong查找指定界址点.............zhijzp宗地合并.............joinjzx宗地分割.............splitjzx宗地重构.............regenzd--修改宗地属性.............setjiezhi修改界址线属性.............jzxinfo修改界址点属性.............jzdinfo输出宗地属性.............zdinfomdb等高线由数据文件建立.............LINKSJX图面DTM完善.............APPENDSJX删除三角形.............._erase过滤三角形.............filter_sjx增加三角形.............jsjw三角形内插点.............insert_sjx删三角形顶点.............erase_sjx重组三角形.............re_sjx删三角网.............delsjx三角网存取修改结果存盘.............ssjw绘制等高线.............dzx绘制等深线.............dsx等高线内插.............CONTOUR等值线过滤.............dgxguolv删全部等高线.............deldgx查询指定点高程.............height等高线修剪切除穿建筑物等高线.............plsx切除穿坡坎等高线.............trkan切除穿围墙等高线.............trwall切除指定二线间等高线.............trtwoline切除指定区域内等高线.............tregion切除穿控制点注记等高线.............kzdtrim消隐穿独立地物等高线.............(ARXLOAD "WIPEOUT");blockmask 切除穿独立地物等高线.............blocktrim消隐穿文字注记等高线.............(ARXLOAD "WIPEOUT");textmask 取消穿注记等高线消隐.............(arxload "wipeout");textunmask 切除穿文字注记等高线.............btxt单个示坡线...............spzj沿直线示坡线.............GCSPZJ;2复合线滤波...............jjjd三维模型绘制三维模型.............vshow低着色方式.............SHADE;高级着色方式.............RENDER;返回平面视图.............VEND;地物编辑修改墙宽.............wallwidth修改坎高.............askan图案填充.............sotian符号等分内插.............neicha线型规范化.............pludd图形接边.............mapjoin坐标转换.............transform测站改更.............modizhan质量控制打散独立图块.............explodeblock。

latex中$的用法-回复LaTeX是一种专业的排版软件，常用于学术论文、书籍和技术文档的编辑和排版。

在LaTeX中，美元符号（）具有特殊的用法。

本文将一步一步地回答关于LaTeX中美元符号的用法。

第一步：引入数学环境在LaTeX中，美元符号用于引入数学环境。

数学环境允许用户输入各种数学公式、方程式和符号。

为了在文档中使用美元符号，并启用数学环境，我们需要使用两个美元符号将数学公式包裹起来。

例如：y = mx + b上述代码会在文档中显示为一个行间数学公式，其中y = mx + b是一条直线的方程。

使用美元符号将数学公式括起来，告诉LaTeX我们要在这里输入数学内容。

第二步：展示行内和行间公式在LaTeX中，数学公式可以显示为行内公式或行间公式。

行内公式显示在正文的行内，并与周围的文本混合在一起。

行间公式独立显示在文本行的中间，并带有自己的编号。

美元符号的使用方式区分了这两种类型的公式。

为了显示行内公式，我们需要在美元符号内输入公式，例如：The equation E = mc^2 states the relationship between energy and mass.上述代码会在文档中显示为：“The equation E = mc^2 states the relationship between energy and mass.”其中E = mc^2是一个行内公式，与周围的文本混合在一起。

为了显示行间公式，我们需要使用两个美元符号来包裹公式，例如：The Pythagorean Theorem is represented by the equation a^2 + b^2 = c^2上述代码会在文档中显示为："The Pythagorean Theorem is represented by the equationa^2 + b^2 = c^2其中a^2 + b^2 = c^2是一个行间公式，独立显示在一行中。

3Dmax中英文对照表A2-sided 双面渲染Absolute Map Bias 绝对贴图偏离Active 激活Active Degradation 激活降级Active Grid 活动网格Adaptive 适合，默认选项AdaptiveDegradtion 适应性降级Adjust Pivot 调整转轴Affect Diffuse 影响扩散光Affect Pivot Olny 只影响转轴Affect Specular 影响高光Affect 影响Align 排列，对齐Align Selected Left 左齐所选Align Selected Right 右齐所选Align to Object 对齐对象Align to Pivot 对齐转轴Align to World 对齐全局Alignment 对齐Alike 相同的，相像的All Viewports 所有视图Ambient 环境光Amount 量Amplitude 幅度Angle 角度Anti-Aliasing 图形抗锯齿处理Apply To 应用于Apply to Face withID 用 ID 号赋予面Arc 圆弧Arc Rotate 圆弧形旋转Array 阵列Asp 长宽比例Asset Manager 图库管理器Assign Controller 指定控制器Assign Material to selection 指定材质给所选物体Atmosphere 环境Atmospheric Apparatus 环境帮助器Attach 附加Attach Multiple 附加复合物体Atten.Mlut. 衰减强度Attenuate Lights 在视图中显示光衰减效果Attenuation 衰减Attenuation Color 衰减颜色Auto 自动Auto Backup 自动备份Auto-Reflect 自动反射Axis 轴BBackspace 退格键Back 后面Background 背景Background Anti-Aliasing 背景抗锯齿Backup Interval 自动备份间隔时间Backup on Save 保存文件时备份Bank 倾斜Basic Parameters 基本参数Bend 弯曲Bend Axis 弯曲轴向Bevel 倒角变形命令Bezier 贝兹尔光滑节点Bezier Corner 贝兹尔尖角节点Bind 关联，约束Bitmap 位图Bitmap Fit... 位图适配Blow-up 放大（局部渲染）Boolean 布尔（运算命令）Bottom 底部Box 长方形Break 断开Brightness 亮度Browse 浏览Bumpy 凹凸（贴面）Bevel 斜角CCameras 摄像机Cancel 取消Cap End 覆盖端面Capping 封闭Capsule 胶囊状物体Cast Shadows 生成阴影Center to Object 对齐物体中央Center to Pivot 对齐转轴中央Centimeter 厘米ChamferBox 倒角长方体ChamfevCyl 倒角圆柱体Choose 选择Cylinder 圆柱体Circle 圆形Circumscribed 外接的Clip Manually 自定义剖面Clipping Planes 剖面形Clone 复制Close 闭合Color 颜色Command Line Options 命令行选项Compound Objects 复合物体Combustion 燃烧Combustion Parameters 燃烧参数Cone 锥形体Conform 顺从Constant 连续Contrast 对比度Coordinates 坐标Copy 拷贝复制Corner 尖角节点Corner Radius 圆角半径Creat 创建Creation Method 创建方法Cube 立方体Custom 自定义cut 剪切Cylindrical 圆柱体DDecay 衰减Default Lighting 默认照明Default Ambient Color 默认的环境光色Default Projection Distance 默认的投影距离Deformations 放样变形命令deg 度Delete 删除Density 密度Depth 深度Detach 分离Devices 设备Diffuse 散射光Direction 方向Directional Light 定向光Disable Textures 使贴图无效Displace 错位Displacement 错位Display 显示Distortion 扭曲Divisions 分部数Dolly Camera 伸缩镜头Draft 草稿Dummy 虚拟物体Duplicates 重复数EEdge 边Edit 编辑Edit spline 编辑曲线Ellipse 椭圆End 结束Environmental Gizmos 环境控制器Environment 环境设置对话框Environment Color Map 环境色贴图Environment Opacity Map 环境透明度贴Environment Ranges 环境范围Exclude 择除除……之外Export 导出Extend All 最大显示全部Extended primitves 扩展模型Extrude 拉抻FFace 面Fade 退色，暗淡Fall off On 打开衰减Fall off 衰减Far 远距Far Clip 远距剖面Far Range 远距范围Fetch 拿，调入File 文件Fit 适配Flat Mirror 平面镜像Flip 反转Fog Background 雾背景Fog 雾Fonts 字体Force 2-Sided 强制双面（渲染）Force Wireframe 强制线框（渲染）FOV 镜头视区角度Fractal Noise 不规则杂彼Fragment 碎片Free 自由FreeCamera 自由镜头摄像机FreeDirect 自由定向光FreeSpot 自由聚光灯From/To 从/到Front 前视图GG-Buffer 渲染缓冲器General 总体常规General Parameters 总体参数Generate Path 生成路径Gengon 倒角棱柱Geometry 几何体Get Material From 材质来源Get Path 获取路径Get Shape 取得截面造型Gizmo 小玩意控制器Gradient Type 渐变类型Group 编组HHandle 手柄Hedra 星形物体Height 高Helix 缧旋线Helpers 帮助器Hemisphere 半球度Hide 隐藏Hide Selected 隐藏所选Hide By Hit 隐藏所单击对象Hierarchy 分层，层次High 高Hold 暂时存放Horizon Noise 水平杂波Hotspot 聚光区IIcon 图标Illumination 自发光，照明亮度Image 图形Image Alpha 图形Alpha通道Image Size 图像大小Import 导入Import Multiple 导入复合物体Inactive Modifier 激活/冻结修饰器开关Include 包括Input Gamma 输入文件的Gamma值Insert 插入Instance 关联Instance G eometry 关联几何体Instancing P arameters 关联参数Inverse Select 反向选择Inverse Square 反向方形Invert 反向型Iterations 迭代次数Illuminance Center 亮度中心JJPEG File 一种压缩位图格式文件KKerning 字距调整Keyboard Entry 键盘输入LLathe 车削Layered 分层的Layout 视图布局Left 左视图Llens Effect Highlight 镜头高光效果Length 长Lens 镜头Levels 等级L-Ext L形物体Lid 壶盖Lights 灯光Limited 受限范围Line 画线Local 局部坐标系Location 位置Lock H andles 锁定手柄Lock Selection 锁定选择Locks 锁定Loft 放样Loft Object 放样对象MMain UI 主用户界面Make Controller Unique 使控制器独有Make Default 使用默认设置Make First 变为第一个节点Make Preview 生成预览Map 贴图MapBias 贴图示偏离Mask 遮罩掩膜Material 材质Material Editor 材质编辑器Material Lib 材质库MAX Default Scanline A-Buffer MAX 默认扫描线渲染缓冲器（参数展卷栏）MAX Light 最强光MAX Toggle 切换最大化显示Medit Materials 材质编辑器材质Medium 中等Merge 合并Mesh 网格Min Light 最弱光Mirror 镜像Mode 模式Modifier 修饰器Modifier S tack 修饰器堆栈Modify 修饰More... 更多的Morph 变形Move 移动Move Control Point 移动控制点Multi 多，复合Multi/Sub-Oject 多/子材质Multiplier 强度（倍数）NNear 近距Near Clip 近距剖面Near Range 近距范围Negative 负片New 新建Next 下一步Noise 杂波，噪声，杂音Noise Threshold 杂波阈值None 无Non-uniform Scale 不一致缩放Normal 法线（与面垂直的线）OObject 物体Object Parameters 对象参数Object Type 对象类型Oil Tank 油罐状物体Omni 泛光灯On 开关Opacity 不透明度Open 打开Opening 开启度Optimize 优化Options... 选项Orientation 定方向Orthographic Projection 正投影Out 出来Outline 轮廓线Output 输出Output Gamma 输出文件的Gamma值Overshoot 透射PPan 平移窗口Parameter 参数Parent--Child “父--子”优先方式Paste 粘贴Path 路径Path Follow 路径跟随Path Parameters 路径参数Path Steps 路径步幅Percent of Output Resolution 输出清晰度百分比Perspactive 透视图Perspactive User View 用 FOV值设置用户透视图焦距长度，默认值为 45 度Pick Object 选择物体Pick Operand 选择布尔运算对象Pick Path 选择路径Pick Target 选取目标Pin Stack 针式堆栈Pivot 转轴Planar 平面Point Curve 控制点曲线Points （控制）点Preference 预设PrintScreen 拷贝屏幕图形健Projector 投影Projector Parameters 投影参数Properties 属性QQuickRender 快速渲染RRadius 半径Range 范围RayTrace 光线追踪Rectangle 方形Reference 参考复制Refine 精细化Reflection 反射Refraction 折射Region 区域Remove B immp 除去位图Remove Modifier 除去修饰Render 渲染Render Atmospheric E ffects 渲染大气效果Render Hidden Objects 渲染隐藏对象Render L ast 渲染上次视图Render Options 渲染选项Render Termination Alert 渲染结束提示Render to Fields 渲染到区段Render Type 渲染类型Render View 渲染场景Render Viewport 渲染视图Renderable 可渲染Renderer 渲染器Rendering Ierations 渲染相互反射/折射点Rendering Method 渲染方式Rendering Progress 渲染进程Reorient 重新定位Reset 重新设置Reset Item 恢复所设置的选项为默认值RGB 红绿蓝HSV 颜色的色相、纯度和明度Right 右面Ripple 波纹RollCamera 卷动镜头Rotation 旋转Roughness 粗糙度SSave 保存Save As 另存为Scale 缩放Scatter 分散Scene 场景Screen 屏幕坐标Seed 种子，随机参数初始值Segment 线段Sides 边数Select 选择Select All 选择所有对象Select and Link 选择并链接Select and Move 选择并移动Select and Non-uniform Scale 选择并不一定缩Select and Rotate选择并旋转Select and Rotate Controlpoints 选择并旋转控制点Select and Scale 选择并缩放Select and Translate Cross Section 选择并移动截面Select by Color 按物体颜色选择对象select by Name 按名字选择对象Select Invert 反向选择Select None 不选择任何物体Selected 所选Selected Objects 选中的对象Selected Objects Only 只对所选对象有效Selection 选择Set Defaults 设置默认值Sets 设置Setup 设置Shadow Parameters 阴影参数Shadows 阴影Shape Merge 合并图形Shapes 二维造型Spherical 球状Shift 切换键Shin.Strenght 反射强度Show 显示Show Cone 显示锥形Show End Result 显示最终（材质）效果Show Horizon 显示地平线Show Map in the Scene 在视图中显示贴图Shrink Wrap 热塑变形Silver Deep 深银灰色（材质）Size 大小Skew 歪斜Skin 表层Skin Parameter 皮肤参数Slice On 打开切片Slice to 切片到... Smooth 光滑，光滑节点Smooth + Highlighted 光滑+高光（显示）Smp Range 取样范围Special 特别的Sphere 球体Sphere Gizmo 球形 GizmoSpherical 球形Spindle 纺锤状物体Spinner Precision 滑动条精度Spinner Shap 磁性捕捉限制Spinners 滚动条Spline 曲线Spot lght 聚光灯Spout 壶嘴Squash 挤压Stack 堆栈Standard 标准Standard Fog 标准雾Standard Primitives 标准模型Stand off Distance 离开距离Star 星形Stert New Shape 开始一个新造型Step 步幅，步数Step size 步幅大小Stock Lenses 镜头种类Strength 强度Strength 伸缩Sub-Material 子材质Sub-Object 子对象Subtraction 减法运算Sunlight 太阳光Surface 表面Surface Approximation 表面精度Surface Parameter 表面参数System Umit Scale 系统单位尺寸TTaper 削尖、挤压、修边Targa Image File 一种图形格式文件Target 目标Target Camera 目标摄像机Target Direct 目标定向光Target Directional 目标定向光Target Distance 目标距离Targer Spot 目标聚光灯Teapot 茶壶Teeter 轴向位置变形命令Tetra 四面体Tetrahedron 四面体Text 文本，文字Threshold 阀值TIF Image File 一种常用的全24位彩色图形格式Top 顶视图Torus 圆环TorusKnot 环形结Transform 变换Tube 管道物体Tubulence 骚动型、骚乱度Twist 扭曲Type 类型UUndo 恢复Undo Levels 撤销级数Unhide All 显示全部Uniform Scale 一致缩放Uniformity 一致性Union 联合Ununiform 不一致Use Current Transform 使用当前变换Use Global Settings 使用全局设置Use Light Smp Range 使用灯光的取样范围Use Map 使用贴图Use Only Main U.I.Short Cuts 只使用主界面快捷键Use Pivot Points 使用转轴支点Use Ray--Traced Shadows 使用光线追踪阴影Use Shadow Maps 使用阴影贴图Use Spinner Snap 打开滚动条磁性捕捉VVertex 结点Video Color Check 影像颜色检查Video Post 影像后处理Viewport Configuration 定制视图显示View 场景，视图坐标Viewport 视图区Viewport Toggle 视图切换Volume 体积Volume Fog 体积雾Volume Fog Parameters 体积参数Volume Light 体积光WWall 墙体Wave 波浪，翘曲Wave Length 波浪长度Weld 焊接，融合Width 宽度Windows Seleetion 方框选择方式Windows 窗户，视窗Wire 线框Wireframe 线框，框架World 世界，全局坐标ZZoom 缩放Zoom Extends 显示全图Zoom Region 区域缩。

a rXiv:n ucl-t h /441v28Ma y2The decay ρ0→π++π−+γand the coupling constant g ρσγA.Gokalp ∗and O.Yilmaz †Physics Department,Middle East Technical University,06531Ankara,Turkey(February 8,2008)Abstract The experimental branching ratio for the radiative decay ρ0→π++π−+γis used to estimate the coupling constant g ρσγfor a set of values of σ-meson parameters M σand Γσ.Our results are quite different than the values of this constant used in the literature.PACS numbers:12.20.Ds,13.40.HqTypeset using REVT E XThe radiative decay processρ0→π++π−+γhas been studied employing different approaches[1,5].There are two mechanisms that can contribute to this radiative decay: thefirst one is the internal bremsstrahlung where one of the charged pions from the decay ρ0→π++π−emits a photon,and the second one is the structural radiation which is caused by the internal transformation of theρ-meson quark structure.Since the bremsstrahlung is well described by quantum electrodynamics,different methods have been used to estimate the contribution of the structural radiation.Singer[1]calculated the amplitude for this decay by considering only the bremsstrahlung mechanism since the decayρ0→π++π−is the main decay mode ofρ0-meson.He also used the universality of the coupling of theρ-meson to pions and nucleons to determine the coupling constant gρππfrom the knowledge of the coupling constant gρter,Renard [3]studied this decay among other vector meson decays into2π+γfinal states in a gauge invariant way with current algebra,hard-pion and Ward-identities techniques.He,moreover, established the correspondence between these current algebra results and the structure of the amplitude calculated in the single particle approximation for the intermediate states.In corresponding Feynman diagrams the structural radiation proceeds through the intermediate states asρ0→S+γwhere the meson S subsequently decays into aπ+π−pair.He concluded that the leading term is the pion bremsstrahlung and that the largest contribution to the structural radiation amplitude results from the scalarσ-meson intermediate state.He used the rough estimate gρσγ≃1for the coupling constant gρσγwhich was obtained with the spin independence assumption in the quark model.The coupling constant gρππwas determined using the then available experimental decay rate ofρ-meson and also current algebra results as3.2≤gρππ≤4.9.On the other hand,the coupling constant gσππwas deduced from the assumed decay rateΓ≃100MeV for theσ-meson as gσππ=3.4with Mσ=400MeV. Furthermore,he observed that theσ-contribution modifies the shape of the photon spectrum for high momenta differently depending on the mass of theσ-meson.We like to note, however,that the nature of theσ-meson as a¯q q state in the naive quark model and therefore the estimation of the coupling constant gρσγin the quark model have been a subject ofcontroversy.Indeed,Jaffe[6,7]lately argued within the framework of lattice QCD calculation of pseudoscalar meson scattering amplitudes that the light scalar mesons are¯q2q2states rather than¯q q states.Recently,on the other hand,the coupling constant gρσγhas become an important input for the studies ofρ0-meson photoproduction on nucleons.The presently available data[8] on the photoproduction ofρ0-meson on proton targets near threshold can be described at low momentum transfers by a simple one-meson exchange model[9].Friman and Soyeur [9]showed that in this picture theρ0-meson photoproduction cross section on protons is given mainly byσ-exchange.They calculated theγσρ-vertex assuming Vector Dominance of the electromagnetic current,and their result when derived using an effective Lagrangian for theγσρ-vertex gives the value gρσγ≃2.71for this coupling ter,Titov et al.[10]in their study of the structure of theφ-meson photoproduction amplitude based on one-meson exchange and Pomeron-exchange mechanisms used the coupling constant gφσγwhich they calculated from the above value of gρσγinvoking unitary symmetry arguments as gφσγ≃0.047.They concluded that the data at low energies near threshold can accommodate either the second Pomeron or the scalar mesons exchange,and the differences between these competing mechanisms have profound effects on the cross sections and the polarization observables.It,therefore,appears of much interest to study the coupling constant gρσγthat plays an important role in scalar meson exchange mechanism from a different perspective other than Vector Meson Dominance as well.For this purpose we calculate the branching ratio for the radiative decayρ0→π++π−+γ,and using the experimental value0.0099±0.0016for this branching ratio[11],we estimate the coupling constant gρσγ.Our calculation is based on the Feynman diagrams shown in Fig.1.Thefirst two terms in thisfigure are not gauge invariant and they are supplemented by the direct term shown in Fig.1(c)to establish gauge invariance.Guided by Renard’s[3]current algebra results,we assume that the structural radiation amplitude is dominated byσ-meson intermediate state which is depicted in Fig. 1(d).We describe theρσγ-vertex by the effective LagrangianL int.ρσγ=e4πMρMρ)2 3/2.(3)The experimental value of the widthΓ=151MeV[11]then yields the value g2ρππ2gσππMσ π· πσ.(4) The decay width of theσ-meson that follows from this effective Lagrangian is given asΓσ≡Γ(σ→ππ)=g2σππ8 1−(2Mπ2iΓσ,whereΓσisgiven by Eq.(5).Since the experimental candidate forσ-meson f0(400-1200)has a width (600-1000)MeV[11],we obtain a set of values for the coupling constant gρσγby considering the ranges Mσ=400-1200MeV,Γσ=600-1000MeV for the parameters of theσ-meson.In terms of the invariant amplitude M(Eγ,E1),the differential decay probability for an unpolarizedρ0-meson at rest is given bydΓ(2π)31Γ= Eγ,max.Eγ,min.dEγ E1,max.E1,min.dE1dΓ[−2E2γMρ+3EγM2ρ−M3ρ2(2EγMρ−M2ρ)±Eγfunction ofβin Fig.5.This ratio is defined byΓβRβ=,Γtot.= Eγ,max.50dEγdΓdEγ≃constant.(10)ΓσM3σFurthermore,the values of the coupling constant gρσγresulting from our estimation are in general quite different than the values of this constant usually adopted for the one-meson exchange mechanism calculations existing in the literature.For example,Titov et al.[10] uses the value gρσγ=2.71which they obtain from Friman and Soyeur’s[9]analysis ofρ-meson photoproduction using Vector Meson Dominance.It is interesting to note that in their study of pion dynamics in Quantum Hadrodynamics II,which is a renormalizable model constructed using local gauge invariance based on SU(2)group,that has the sameLagrangian densities for the vertices we use,Serot and Walecka[14]come to the conclusion that in order to be consistent with the experimental result that s-waveπN-scattering length is anomalously small,in their tree-level calculation they have to choose gσππ=12.Since they use Mσ=520MeV this impliesΓσ≃1700MeV.If we use these values in our analysis,we then obtain gρσγ=11.91.Soyeur[12],on the other hand,uses quite arbitrarly the values Mσ=500 MeV,Γσ=250MeV,which in our calculation results in the coupling constant gρσγ=6.08.We like to note,however,that these values forσ-meson parameters are not consistent with the experimental data onσ-meson[11].Our analysis and estimation of the coupling constant gρσγusing the experimental value of the branching ratio of the radiative decayρ0→π++π−+γgive quite different values for this coupling constant than used in the literature.Furthermore,since we obtain this coupling constant as a function ofσ-meson parameters,it will be of interest to study the dependence of the observables of the reactions,such as for example the photoproduction of vector mesons on nucleonsγ+N→N+V where V is the neutral vector meson, analyzed using one-meson exchange mechanism on these parameters.AcknowledgmentsWe thank Prof.Dr.M.P.Rekalo for suggesting this problem to us and for his guidance during the course of our work.We also wish to thank Prof.Dr.T.M.Aliev for helpful discussions.REFERENCES[1]P.Singer,Phys.Rev.130(1963)2441;161(1967)1694.[2]V.N.Baier and V.A.Khoze,Sov.Phys.JETP21(1965)1145.[3]S.M.Renard,Nuovo Cim.62A(1969)475.[4]K.Huber and H.Neufeld,Phys.Lett.B357(1995)221.[5]E.Marko,S.Hirenzaki,E.Oset and H.Toki,Phys.Lett.B470(1999)20.[6]R.L.Jaffe,hep-ph/0001123.[7]M.Alford and R.L.Jaffe,hep-lat/0001023.[8]Aachen-Berlin-Bonn-Hamburg-Heidelberg-Munchen Collaboration,Phys.Rev.175(1968)1669.[9]B.Friman and M.Soyeur,Nucl.Phys.A600(1996)477.[10]A.I.Titov,T.-S.H.Lee,H.Toki and O.Streltrova,Phys.Rev.C60(1999)035205.[11]Review of Particle Physics,Eur.Phys.J.C3(1998)1.[12]M.Soyeur,nucl-th/0003047.[13]S.I.Dolinsky,et al,Phys.Rep.202(1991)99.[14]B.D.Serot and J.D.Walecka,in Advances in Nuclear Physics,edited by J.W.Negeleand E.Vogt,Vol.16(1986).TABLESTABLE I.The calculated coupling constant gρσγfor differentσ-meson parametersΓσ(MeV)gρσγ500 6.97-6.00±1.58 8008.45±1.77600 6.16-6.68±1.85 80010.49±2.07800 5.18-9.11±2.64 90015.29±2.84900 4.85-10.65±3.14 90017.78±3.23Figure Captions:Figure1:Diagrams for the decayρ0→π++π−+γFigure2:The photon spectra for the decay width ofρ0→π++π−+γ.The contributions of different terms are indicated.Figure3:The pion energy spectra for the decay width ofρ0→π++π−+γ.The contri-butions of different terms are indicated.Figure4:The decay width ofρ0→π++π−+γas a function of minimum detected photon energy.Figure5:The ratio Rβ=Γβ。

（一）核物理基本概念元素element粒子particle离子ion分子molecule原子atom原子的atomic原子核nucleus (pl. nuclei)核的nuclear质子proton中子neutron电子electron核子nucleon化学性质chemical identity带正电的positively charged带负电的negatively charged不带电的uncharged电中性的electrically neutral（元素）周期表periodic table原子序数atomic number质量数mass number轨道电子orbital electron同位素isotope天然存在的naturally occurring人工的artificial化学键chemical bond化合物compound上标superscript下标subscript氧oxygen氢，氕hydrogen重氢，氘heavy hydrogen, deuterium 重氢核，氘核deuterion超重氢，氚tritium碳carbon氦helium放射性的radioactive加权平均weighted mean质量mass动量momentum能量energy单位，机组unit 国际单位制System International, SI 千克kilogram (kg)伏特volt (V)摩尔mole (mol)库仑coulomb电子伏特electron-volt (eV)兆电子伏特mega electron-volt (MeV) 质量亏损mass defect结合能binding energy动能kinetic energy势能potential, potential energy 跃迁jump核力nuclear force排斥repulsion吸引attraction轰击bombardment发射（出）emission (n.), emit (v.)能级energy level裂变fission聚变fusion衰变decay钡barium硼boron铋bismuth铀uranium钚plutonium钍thorium锂lithium钠sodium核反应nuclear reaction链式反应chain reaction辐射，射线radiation超铀元素transuranium element可裂变的fissionable易裂变的fissile碎片fragment宏观的macroscopic微观的microscopic介观的mesoscopic激发excite静电的electrostatic库仑力Coulomb force电磁辐射electromagnetic radiation（二）放射性宇宙射线cosmic ray电离ionization韧致辐射bremsstrahlung(brakingradiation)辐射，射线radiation正比于be proportional to 反比于be inversely proportional to 根据经验as a rule of thumbα射线alpha rayβ射线beta rayγ射线gamma ray带电粒子charged particle 光子photon散射scattering衍射diffraction折射deflection碰撞collision铝aluminum铍beryllium氦helium相互作用interaction摄入ingest吸入inhale动能kinetic energy势能potential (energy)量子quantum屏蔽shielding正电子positron加速器accelerator放射性radioactivity湮灭annihilation光电效应photoelectric effect （三）核反应衰减attenuation放大amplification镉cadmium钴cobalt氧oxygen氮nitrogen汞mercury弹性的elastic非弹性的inelastic宏观截面macroscopic cross section 微观截面microscopic cross section 靶恩barn 反冲，反作用recoil平均自由程mean free path转变，转化transmutation扩散diffusion中子扩散neutron diffusion斐克扩散定律Fick’s law of diffusion 通量flux中微子neutrino放射性同位素radioisotope半衰期half-life热核反应堆thermonuclear reactor 化合价valence（四）核材料燃料fuel 燃料芯块fuel pellet慢化剂moderator冷却剂coolant包壳cladding控制棒control rod硼酸boric acid铬chromium铪hafnium钆gadolinium铟indium镁magnesium镍nickel锆zirconium硅silicon重水heavy water石墨graphite碳化物carbide氧化物oxide氧化oxidize二氧化物dioxide二氧化碳carbon dioxide碳氢化合物hydrocarbon密度density热导率，传热系数thermal conductivity比热specific heat粘性viscosity饱和saturation热力性质，热物性thermodynamic property 反应性reactivity升华sublime中子俘获截面neutron capture crosssection散射截面scattering cross section 辐照损伤radiation damage肿胀swelling燃耗burnup合金alloy镁诺克斯合金Magnox锆合金zircaloy金属间化合物inter-metallic compound 裂变产物fission product裂变碎片fission fragment腐蚀产物corrosion product可燃毒物burnable poison冷轧cold pressing烧结sintering开裂crack蠕变creep增殖材料fertile material增殖比breeding ratio浓缩铀enriched uranium高温气冷堆High TemperatureGas-cooled Reactor(HTGR)（中子）通量展平flux-shaping（五）核反应堆理论自持的链式反应self-sustaining chainreaction燃料循环fuel cycle临界(a) critical次临界(a) subcritical超临界(a) supercritical临界(n) criticality临界尺寸critical size共振resonance弹性散射碰撞elastic scattering collision 热中子利用系数thermal utilization factor 慢化slow down热中子thermal neutron 快中子fast neutron六氟化物hexafluoride六氟化铀uranium hexafluoride离心工艺centrifuge process气体扩散工艺gaseous diffusion process 换料(v) refuel快中子增殖反应堆，快堆Fast BreedingReactor (FBR)堆芯，活性区core再生区blanket半透膜semi-permeable membrane 旋转spin (过去分词：spun)贫铀depleted uranium热中子反应堆，热堆thermal reactor快堆fast reactor倍增系数multiplication factor（十）压水反应堆压水反应堆，压水堆Pressurized WaterReactor (PWR)蒸汽发生器steam generator一次侧primary side二次侧secondary side发电机electrical generator,generator燃料芯块fuel pellet包壳cladding堆芯core给水泵feed(water) pump反应堆（压力）容器reactor vessel, pressurevessel硼酸boric acid化学补偿控制chemical shim control 堆坑reactor pit气密的airtight封头head接管，喷嘴nozzle点火区seed再生区blanket用户，业主，业界utility卖主，供应商vendor, supplier制造商manufacturer多重屏障multiple barriers纵深防御defense in depth冗余性redundancy多样性diversity独立性independence包容contain美国机械工程师协会American Society ofMechanical Engineer(ASME)美国核学会American Nuclear Society (ANS) 安全级safety class失效failure安全功能safety function裕度margin 反应堆冷却剂系统Reactor Coolant System(RCS)在役检查inservice inspection汽水分离器moisture separator干燥器steam dryer堆内构件reactor internals反应堆冷却剂泵，主泵reactor coolantpump (RCP), mainpump稳压器pressurizer波动管surge line剖视图sectional view控制棒control rod控制棒组件Control ElementAssembly (CEA)控制棒驱动机构Control Element DriveMechanism (CEDM)控制棒导向管Control Rod GuideTube (CRGT)上部支撑板upper support plate燃料组件fuel assembly进口接管inlet nozzle出口接管outlet nozzle堆芯吊篮core barrel可燃吸收体burnable absorber管侧tube side壳侧shell side蒸汽管线steam line一次冷却剂primary coolant主蒸汽main steam反应性引入reactivity insertion浓度concentration参考负荷reference load冷却剂平均温度coolant averagetemperature稀释dilution裂变产物fission product积累buildup反应堆调节系统Reactor RegulatingSystem (RRS)（程序）整定值programmed value峰值线释热率peak linear heat rate轴向功率分布axial power distribution 方位角azimuthal（中子通量）方位角偏差azimuthal tilt偏离泡核沸腾Departure fromNucleate Boiling (DNB) 偏离泡核沸腾比Departure fromNucleate Boiling Ratio(DNBR)堆内测量系统In-Core Detector System(ICDS)自给能中子探测器Self-Powered NeutronDetector (SPND)信号调理signal conditioning反应堆紧急停堆reactor trip汽机脱扣turbine trip可靠性reliability规范，法规code燃耗burnup（十一）反应堆容器与堆内构件环锻件ring-forging锻造forge锻件forging监视surveillance样品，试样specimen安装mount奥氏体的austenitic不锈钢stainless steel法兰flange热电偶thermocouple零延性转变温度nil-ductility transitiontemperature (T NDT)注量率fluence集成中子通量NVT=Total IntegratedNeutron Flux = IntegratedFlux = Fluence = Neutrondensity ⨯ Velocity ⨯ Time【unit】：[n/m3⋅m/s⋅s]=[n/m2]旁通，支路bypass磷phosphorous硫sulfur = sulphur焊weld临界值，限值threshold（机）接合，啮合，对位engage凸缘，凸起部，轮毂boss逐渐变细的tapered圆顶dome围板shroud（十二）反应堆堆芯与燃料可燃吸收棒burnable absorber rod 蠕变creep栅格lattice中子源neutron source阻力塞plug反应性价值reactivity worth比功率specific power锑antimony镉cadmium锎californium 铟indium陶瓷（状）的ceramic （机）间隙clearance污染contaminate 栅格架；电网；网格grid因科镍inconel固有安全性inherent safety 非能动安全passive safety 能动安全active safety套管，套筒sleeve定位格架spacer grid星形架，蜘蛛spider乏燃料spent fuel（十三）压水堆冷却剂系统主要设备U形管蒸汽发生器U-tube steam generator 核供汽系统Nuclear Steam SupplySystem (NSSS)一次系统primary system二次系统secondary system主蒸汽main steam汽轮机，透平机械turbine给水与凝汽系统feed and condensate system 热管段，热腿hot leg冷管段，冷腿cold leg堵管裕量tube plugging margin在 情况下in the event of换热器heat exchanger (HX)节热器，省煤器economizer给水feedwater一次进口水室inlet plenum一次进口接管primary inlet nozzle一次出口水室outlet plenum一次出口接管primary outlet nozzle管板tubesheet喷放；（SG）排污blowdown上升段riser下降段downcomer满功率full power (FP)额定功率rated power 额定负荷rated load化学和容积控制系统Chemical and VolumeControl System (CVCS) 加热，升温heatup冷却，降温cooldown喷淋管线spray line辅助喷淋管线auxiliary spray line上充泵charging pump上充charge下泄letdown水位water level, level备用的backup过压保护overpressure protection 安全壳内换料水箱In-containmentRefueling Water StorageTank (IRWST)换料水箱Refueling Water StorageTank (RWST)安全阀safety valve卸压阀relief valve全厂断电station blackout (SBO) （蒸汽）干度quality空泡份额void fraction热冲击thermal shock急冷，骤冷quench（十四）压水堆系统与安全壳裂变碎片fission fragment轻水反应堆Light Water Reactor(LWR)热机thermal engine原动机prime mover焓enthalpy熵entropy反馈feedback热力学第二定律second law of thermo-dynamics最终热阱ultimate sink一（次）回路primary loop二（次）回路secondary loop核电厂配套子项Balance of Plant (BOP) 一次压力边界primary pressureboundary隔离阀isolation valve失效failure故障fault, malfuction卡诺效率Carnot efficiency热机效率engine efficiency高温热源，热库hot reservoir低温热源cold reservoir摩擦friction余热排出系统Residual Heat-RemovalSystem (RHRS)换料(n) refueling应急堆芯冷却系统Emergency Core-Cooling System (ECCS) 补水与排水feed and bleed专设安全设施Engineered Safety Feature(ESF)设备冷却水系统Component CoolingSystem止回阀non-return valve蓄压箱accumulator电动阀motor-driven valve气动阀pneumatic valve 安注泵safety injection pump安全壳containment钢筋混凝土reinforced concrete预应力钢筋混凝土prestressed reinforcedconcrete英制压力单位psi = pounds per squareinch英制压力单位（表压）psig = pounds persquare inch gauge环形的annular潜热latent heat显热sensible heat氢氧化物hydroxide氢氧化钠sodium hydroxide苛性钠，氢氧化钠caustic启动startup飞射物，导弹missile蒸汽管线steamline安全壳地坑containment sump（十五）蒸汽轮机飞轮flywheel叶片，叶栅blade, bucket, vane 功work冲动式汽轮机impulse turbine反动式汽轮机reaction turbine冲动级impulse stage反动级reaction stage反动度degree of reaction 渐缩的converging渐扩的diverging喷嘴，接管nozzle 被称为⋯⋯be referred to as缸体，箱体casing推力thrust拉金lashing除湿moisture removal节流阀stop-throttle valve扭矩torque每秒⋯转rev/s = revolutions persecond每分钟⋯转rpm = revolutions perminute（十六）主蒸汽、给水与凝汽系统汽轮发电机turbine generator汽动给水泵turbine driven feedwaterpump蒸汽排放steam dump汽水分离再热器Moisture SeperatorReheater (MSR)密封蒸汽系统gland steam system 限流器flow restrictor主蒸汽隔离阀main steam isolation valve 机组unit负荷load主蒸汽集管main steam header给水联箱feedwater header给水回热循环regenerative feed heatingcycle磨损wear污垢，结垢fouling装量inventory蒸汽（旁路）排放steam dump冷凝器排放condenser steam dump 大气排放atmospheric steam dump 除氧器排放deoxidizer steam dump 电缆electric cable辅助给水系统auxiliary feedwatersystem压差differential pressure,pressure differential,pressure difference增压泵booster pump增压boost pressure吸入口suction凝汽器condenser 凝汽器热阱condenser hotwell给水流量调节阀feed regulating valve 给水调节旁通阀feed regulating bypassvalve疏水drain阶跃变化step change线性（斜坡）变化ramp change溢流阀overflow valve工艺汽process steam紧急停堆trip; scram停堆shutdown停堆，停堆期outrage手动地manually自动地automatically质量流率mass flow rate关断阀shutoff valve（美国）联邦管理法规CFR = Code ofFederal Regulations 凝结液condensate水头，压头head汽机脱扣（甩负荷）turbine trip（十七）核电厂运行工艺热process heat公用电网utility grid基础负荷运行base load operation退役的out of service运行因子operation factor负荷因子load factor使用因子，运行因子service factor可利用因子availability技术规范technical specification稳压器汽空间建立draw a pressure steambubble未能紧急停堆的预计瞬变AnticipatedTransient Without Scram(ATWS)未能紧急停堆的预计瞬变AnticipatedTransient Without Trip(ATWT)失电loss of power失流loss of flow辅助喷淋auxiliary spray采样sampling（美国）核管会Nuclear RegulatoryCommission (NRC)负荷跟踪load following（十八）辐射危害与屏蔽屏蔽shielding 核辐射nuclear radiation发射，发出emit剂量dose剂量率dose rate保健物理health physics天然本底辐射natural background radiation 轰击bombardment地壳the earth’s crust（放射性）坠尘fallout职业照射occupational exposure放射性流出物radioactive effluent幸存者survivor辐射防护radiological protection国际辐射防护委员会InternationalCommission on RadiologicalProtection (ICRP)合理可行尽量低As Low As ReasonablyAchievable (ALARA)希弗Sivert 急性的acute慢性的delayed辐射病radiation sickness吸入inhalation摄入ingestion食物链food chain权重因子weighting factor活化产物activation product生物屏蔽biological shield氡radon氪krypton钋polonium钾potassium铋bismuth稀有气体noble gas残骸debris征兆symptom谱spectrum (pl. spectra)（十九）核安全核安全nuclear safety过热overheating裂变速率fission rate缓发中子delayed neutron瞬发中子prompt neutron后果consequence破裂rupture置信度confidence负温度系数negative temperaturecoefficient事故accident堆年reactor-year快堆fast reactor热堆thermal reactor失效安全fail safe三哩岛事故Three Mile Island accident(TMI accident)切尔诺贝利事故Chernobyl accident设计基准事故Design Basis Accident (DBA) 严重事故severe accident熔融meltdown多普勒展宽Doppler broadening反应性引入事故Reactivity InsertionAccident (RIA)冷却剂丧失事故，失水事故Loss-Of-Coolant Accident(LOCA)自动保护系统Automatic Protective System(APS)居里（活度单位）Curie瞬发临界prompt critical蒸汽发生器传热管破裂Steam GeneratorTube Rapture (SGTR)确定性安全分析deterministic safetyanalysis概率安全分析Probabilistic SafetyAssessment (PSA)。

yolo系列知识笔记YOLO（YouOnlyLookOnce）是一种基于深度学习的目标检测算法，由Joseph Redmon等人于2015年提出。

相较于传统的目标检测算法，YOLO能够实现实时目标检测，且准确率较高。

在此笔记中，我们将介绍YOLO系列算法的基本原理及其变种。

一、YOLO v1YOLO v1是YOLO系列的第一代算法，其主要思想是将目标检测问题转化为一个回归问题。

具体而言，YOLO将图像分成S×S个网格（grid），每个网格负责检测该网格中是否存在目标，并预测目标的位置和类别。

每个网格中预测B个边界框（bounding box），每个边界框预测5个参数：中心坐标x、y、宽度w、高度h以及目标得分。

目标得分代表该边界框中存在目标的概率，是一个0到1之间的值。

类别预测则是一个C维向量，表示目标属于C个类别中的哪一类。

因此，每个网格的预测结果可以表示为：$P_i$($object$) × $confidence$ × $P_j$($class$) ×$B_{i,j}$其中，$P_i$($object$)是一个二值变量，表示该网格中是否存在目标；$confidence$是该边界框的目标得分；$P_j$($class$)是一个C维向量，表示目标属于C个类别中的哪一类；$B_{i,j}$是一个长度为4的向量，表示该边界框的中心坐标和宽度、高度。

YOLO v1的损失函数包括两部分：定位误差和分类误差。

定位误差是指预测框与实际框之间的误差，可以用均方差（MSE）来度量。

分类误差是指目标类别的误差，可以用交叉熵（Cross-Entropy）来度量。

YOLO v1的总损失函数为：$L=sum_{i=0}^{S^2}sum_{j=0}^{B}[P_i(object)×(B_{i,j}^{coord}widehat{B}_{i,j}^{coord})^2 + P_i(object)×(1B_{i,j}^{object})×(Cwidehat{B}_{i,j}^{object})^2 +P_i(object)×B_{i,j}^{object}×sum_{c=1}^{C}(P_i(class=c)widehat{P}_i(class=c))^2]$ 其中，$B_{i,j}^{coord}$和$widehat{B}_{i,j}^{coord}$分别表示实际框和预测框的中心坐标和宽度、高度；$B_{i,j}^{object}$和$widehat{B}_{i,j}^{object}$分别表示实际框和预测框是否存在目标；$widehat{P}_i(class=c)$表示预测框属于第c类的概率。