1What is research article

第一章测试1【单选题】(10分)我们俗称的“十大情报源”不包括以下哪组文献类型（）A.图书、期刊、会议文献、学位论文B.卫星资料、电子地图C.专利文献、标准文献D.政府出版物、公司产品资料、科技报告、技术档案2【单选题】(10分)如果我们想要访问Springer数据库，应该在数据库导航的“按字顺浏览”里点击字母（）A.TB.WC.FD.S3【单选题】(10分)以下属于大学出版社的是（）A.ElsevierB.CambridgeUniversityPress和OxfordUniversityPressC.ClarivateD.SpringerNature4【单选题】(10分)查询期刊影响因子的数据库是（）A.EssentialScienceIndicators,ESIB.KopernioC.JournalCitationReports,JCRD.Publons5【多选题】(10分)WebofScience核心合集包括的数据库有（）A.SSCIB.A&HCIC.SCID.CPCI-SE.CPCI-SSH6【多选题】(10分)信息检索的基本过程包括哪6个步骤（）A.上机检索B.确定检索词C.整理和分析检索结果D.构造检索式E.选择数据库F.分析课题7【单选题】(10分)构造检索式的时候，以下哪个说法是的（）A.用or联接同一概念的检索词B.用not排除不需要的词语C.用and联接不同概念的检索词D.用截词符来限制词语之间的相对位置关系8【单选题】(10分)有一种文献能帮助我们了解国际上某领域的研究现状、水平和发展趋势，了解某个理论的渊源及演进过程，以及了解某个课题有什么人在研究，达到什么水平、存在什么不足以及正在向什么方向发展等，这种文献类型是（）A.Article论文B.Letter快讯C.Review综述D.MeetingAbstract会议摘要9【单选题】(10分)关于ESI高被引论文（HighlyCitedPaper），哪个说法是的（）A.高被引论文指的是“过去10年中发表的论文,被引用次数在同年同学科发表的论文中进入全球前1%”的论文B.高被引论文在WebofScience里是用一个小奖杯的图标来表示C.高被引论文每2个月更新一次D.高被引论文指的是“过去2年中所发表的论文，在最近2个月中其影响力排在某学科前0.1%的论文”10【多选题】(10分)常用的全文获取方式包括以下哪些（）A.通过论文中的EMAIL向作者本人索取B.图书馆的馆藏资源C.文献传递和馆际互借D.网络的OA资源第二章测试1【单选题】(10分)其它文献管理软件中文献可否导入Mendeley？A.可以导入但操作比较复杂B.不可直接导入C.可直接导入D.可以导入且操作简单2【单选题】(10分)Mendeley软件可否直接进行文献阅读？A.可以进行简单的文献浏览B.可以进行文献阅读但不可记笔记C.不可进行，仅可进行文献管理D.可以进行文献阅读且可以记笔记3【单选题】(10分)当使用通过pdf文档识别导入文献时，第一步如何操作？A.将pdf文档移入文献数据库中B.都不对C.直接在Endnote中添加附件D.直接在Endnote中打开pdf文件4【单选题】(10分)Mendeley中文献管理功能主要在哪一板块？A.ALLDocumentsB.UnsortedC.FavoritesD.Mylibrary5【单选题】(10分)在Endnote个人数据库管理方面，视频中介绍了该方面的几种功能？A.3种B.6种C.5种D.4种6【单选题】(10分)视频中提到的第三种Endnote文献导入方式是：A.直接从网络数据库识别导入B.通过pdf文档识别导入C.手动输入D.联机检索下载7【单选题】(10分)视频中提到Mendeley中如何按照作者查看文献？A.专门给每个作者设一个文件夹B.都是对的C.在ALLdocuments一栏中按作者姓氏首字母排序D.点击左下方作者姓名8【单选题】(10分)Endnote手动输入文献后A.都是对的B.数据库中会直接生成相关文献C.还需导入附件D.还需从线上数据库中导入文献9【判断题】(10分)从网络数据库导入的方法是所有数据库都支持的吗？A.对B.错10【单选题】(10分)下载Endnote之后如何在电脑中导入参考文献？A.word文档第一排所有选项最后有Endnote导入B.点击引用后导入C.无法导入第三章测试1【多选题】(10分)Thenormaltype(s)ofacademicpaperare(is)：A.CoursepaperB.JournalpapersC.DissertationD.Proposal2【单选题】(10分) ThenormallengthofBookreviewis：A.2500-3000B.3500-4000C.4500-5000D.1500-20003【单选题】(10分) Bothliteraturereviewandbookreportbelongto：A.dissertationB.coursepaperC.journalpaperD.researchpaper4【单选题】(10分)Theprocessofreadingpaperis：A.title-abstract-conclusion-charts-introduction-results-discussion-methodsB.title-abstract-conclusion-charts-introduction-discussion-result-methodsC.title-conclusion-abstract-charts-introduction-results-discussion-methodsD.followingtheorderofthepaper5【多选题】(10分)Themainstructure(s)ofresearchpaperare(is)：A.Results，DiscussionB.methodsC.ConclusionD.introduction6【单选题】(10分)Whatisthemainaimofresearcharticle?A.analyzingordiscussingresearchespreviouslypublishedbyothersB.summariesandcommentsonanewlypublishedacademicbookC.summaries,reviewsandcommentstheresearchtrends,themajordiscoveries,significantfindings,theleadingo pinionsonaparticularsubject.D.analyzingaperspectiveorarguesapoint7【单选题】(10分)Whatisthemainaimofbookreview?A.analyzingordiscussingresearchespreviouslypublishedbyothersB.analyzingaperspectiveorarguesapointC.summariesandcommentsonanewlypublishedacademicbookD.summaries,reviewsandcommentstheresearchtrends,themajordiscoveries,significantfindings,theleadingo pinionsonaparticularsubject8【单选题】(10分)Whatisthemainaimofliteraturereview?A.summaries,reviewsandcommentstheresearchtrends,themajordiscoveries,significantfindings,theleadingo pinionsonaparticularsubjectB.analyzingaperspectiveorarguesapointC.analyzingordiscussingresearchespreviouslypublishedbyothersD.summariesandcommentsonanewlypublishedacademicbook9【单选题】(10分)Whatisthemainaimofreview?A.summariesandcommentsonanewlypublishedacademicbookB.analyzingordiscussingresearchespreviouslypublishedbyothersC.analyzingaperspectiveorarguesapointD.summaries,reviewsandcommentstheresearchtrends,themajordiscoveries,significantfindings,theleadingo pinionsonaparticularsubject10【单选题】(10分)TheletterMinIMRDreferstoA.methodsB.IntroductionC.ResultsD.discussion第四章测试1【单选题】(10分) Whatcanthestructureofdiscussionandconclusionsectionbethoughtofas?A.asquareB.anuprighttriangleC.aninvertedtriangle2【单选题】(10分)Whatisthefirstmoveinmethodpart?A.ContextualizingStudyMethodsB.EstablishingcredibilityC.Describingthestudy3【单选题】(10分) Whatisthesecondmoveinmethodpart?A.ContextualizingStudyMethodsB.DescribingthestudyC.Establishingcredibility4【单选题】(10分) Whatisthethirdmoveinmethodpart?A.EstablishingcredibilityB.ContextualizingStudyMethodsC.Describingthestudy5【单选题】(10分) Whichoneisbelongtofigure?A.textB.pictureC.table6【单选题】(10分) Whichfeatureisbelongtopiechart?A. ThefigureshowtrendortendencyduringacertainperiodoftimeB.ThefigureispresentedinpercentagesC. Thefigurecanbedrawneitherverticallyorhorizontally7【单选题】(10分) Whatthetable’sforminAPAstyle?A.Three-linetableB.Four-linetableC.Five-linetable8【单选题】(10分) Whereisthetitleofthetable?A.Onthetable’srightsideB.RightbelowthetableC.Rightabovethetable9【单选题】(10分)Whichsection(s)is(are)thebodypartofthewholeresearchpaper?A.ConclusionsectionB.Method,ResultandDiscussionsectionsC.Introductionsection10【单选题】(10分)WhatisLinL,H,Cthreeelements?A.Astatementthatlocatesthefigure/sortable/swheretheresultscanbefound.B.Statementsthatcommentontheresults.C.Statementsthathighlightthemostimportantfindings第五章测试1【判断题】(10分)请判断对错。

一篇英文研究的英文作文英文：As a researcher, I have been conducting a study on the impact of social media on our daily lives. Social media has become an integral part of our lives, and it is important to understand how it affects us.Firstly, social media has changed the way we communicate. We can now easily connect with people from all over the world. However, this has also led to a decrease in face-to-face communication. Many people now prefer to communicate through social media rather than meeting in person.Secondly, social media has had a significant impact on our mental health. Studies have shown that excessive use of social media can lead to increased anxiety, depression, and loneliness. This is because social media often portrays an unrealistic and idealized version of life, leading tofeelings of inadequacy and low self-esteem.Finally, social media has also had a significant impact on our privacy. Many people share personal information on social media without realizing the potential consequences. This can lead to identity theft, cyberbullying, and other forms of online harassment.中文：作为一名研究人员，我一直在进行一项关于社交媒体对我们日常生活的影响的研究。

research article写法Research articles typically follow a specific format that includes the following sections:1. Title: The title should be concise and accurately reflect the content of the article.2. Abstract: This section provides a brief summary of the article, including the research question, methodology, findings, and implications. It is typically limited to around 150-250 words.3. Introduction: The introduction provides background information on the topic of study, states the research problem or question, and outlines the objectives and hypotheses of the study.4. Literature Review: This section provides a comprehensive review of previous research and theories related to the topic of study. It establishes the context and justifies the need for the current study.5. Methodology: This section outlines the research design, including the type of study (e.g., experimental, survey, qualitative), sample size and selection, data collection methods, and data analysis procedures. It should provide sufficient detail for replication.6. Results: This section presents the findings of the study. It typically includes tables, figures, and statistical analyses that support the results. The results should be reported objectively, without interpretation or discussion.7. Discussion: In this section, the authors interpret and explain the results in the context of the research question and relevant literature. They discuss the implications of the findings, highlight limitations of the study, and suggest areas for further research.8. Conclusion: The conclusion summarizes the main findings and contributions of the study, emphasizes its significance or implications, and may suggest recommendations for future research or practice.9. References: This section provides a list of all the sources cited in the article. It should follow a specific citation style (e.g., APA, MLA) and include complete bibliographic information.Additionally, research articles may include appendices, acknowledgments, funding information, and conflict of interest statement, depending on the requirements of the journal.It is important to consult the specific guidelines of the target journal to ensure that the research article adheres to their formatting and submission requirements.。

research article 中各部分的内容和作用
在Research Article中，通常包含以下几个部分，这些部分各自具有其特定的内容与作用：
1. 摘要（Abstract）：摘要部分通常简明扼要地概括了研究的主要内容、方法、结果和结论。

它为读者提供了关于研究的快速概览，帮助读者决定是否需要进一步阅读整篇文章。

2. 引言（Introduction）：引言部分详细介绍了研究的背景和目的，为理解后续的研究内容提供了背景信息。

它解释了为什么这个研究是重要的，以及预期的研究结果如何影响该领域的知识。

3. 方法（Methods）：这一部分详细描述了用于收集数据或执行实验的程序和过程。

它确保其他研究人员能够复制并验证研究结果。

4. 结果（Results）：结果部分呈现了通过研究获得的数据。

这些数据通常以图表、表格等形式呈现，以便读者可以直观地理解。

5. 讨论（Discussion）：在讨论部分，研究人员会解释研究结果的含义，将其与之前的研究进行比较，并探讨可能的解释和局限性。

此外，他们通常也会提出对未来研究的建议。

6. 结论（Conclusion）：结论部分总结了研究的主要发现，并强调这些发现对领域的影响和贡献。

它也指出了研究的局限性和未来可能的研究方向。

以上是Research Article中常见的各个部分的内容和作用。

具体组成部分可能会根据研究领域和期刊的要求有所不同。

在撰写Research Article时，遵循期刊的格式和结构要求是非常重要的。

科研问题的英文作文英文：Research is an essential part of my life as a scientist. Every day, I am faced with different scientific problemsthat require careful analysis and experimentation. One of the biggest challenges I face is coming up with new and innovative research ideas. It can be difficult to think outside of the box and come up with something truly unique and groundbreaking.To overcome this challenge, I often turn to my colleagues and peers for inspiration. We regularly hold brainstorming sessions where we share our ideas and bounce them off of each other. This collaborative approach has led to some of my most successful research projects.Another challenge I face is obtaining funding for my research. It can be a competitive and time-consuming process, but it is essential to securing the resourcesneeded to carry out my experiments. I have learned to be persistent and to not get discouraged by rejection. I also try to diversify my funding sources by applying for grants and fellowships from different organizations.Overall, conducting research is a challenging but rewarding experience. It requires creativity, perseverance, and a willingness to learn from both successes and failures.中文：作为一名科学家，科研是我生活中必不可少的一部分。

研究事物英语作文模板英文回答：Researching Things。

Research is a systematic and organized process of investigating a specific topic. It involves gathering data, analyzing it, and drawing conclusions. Research can be conducted for various purposes, such as to gain knowledge, solve problems, or make informed decisions.The first step in research is to identify the topic of interest. Once the topic is identified, it is important to conduct a literature review to see what has already been written about the topic. This will help to identify areas that need further research.Next, it is important to develop a research question. A research question is a specific question that the research will attempt to answer. The research question should beclear and concise, and it should be possible to answer it with the data that is collected.Once the research question has been developed, it is important to develop a research design. The research design will outline the methods that will be used to collect and analyze the data. The research design should be carefully considered, as it will determine the quality of the research findings.The next step is to collect data. Data can be collected from a variety of sources, such as surveys, interviews, and experiments. It is important to ensure that the data is accurate and reliable.Once the data has been collected, it is important to analyze it. Data analysis can be conducted using a variety of statistical techniques. The purpose of data analysis is to identify patterns and trends in the data.Finally, it is important to draw conclusions based on the data analysis. The conclusions should be clear andconcise, and they should be supported by the data. The conclusions should also be discussed in the context of the existing literature.中文回答：研究事物。

不同类型的研究和研究技能Different types of research and research skillsResearch is what every student has to do in his/her academic career. Research work requires a great amount of time and skills only then you can make a good research paper. This article will throw light over theDifferent types of research and research skills.Let’s read further to get a better understanding of the topic.What is Research?Research is a type of study on a specific topic or a problem where the researcher uses scientific methods. In the words of Earl Robert Babbie (American sociologist), “Re search is a systematic approach or inquiry which helps in describing, explaining and prediction of the controlled phenomenon. All types of researches involve inductive and deductive methods.”In inductive methods, researchers analyze the observed phenomenon. The inductive method approach towards research is qualitative. In deductive methods, researchers verify the observed phenomenon. Quantitative research has been carried out by the researchers in the deductive method.One of the most vital aspects of any research is the statistic or conclusion involve in it. You needto brush up your research skills in order to make a proper conclusion of research work in order to make it more impressive and for making it more understandable to the audience.Research is all about a thought that works behind the research. While carrying out any research, you need to approach it step by step. Here are the following steps which you must follow.Find out the problemPossible solutions for the problemBuilding up the argumentsData and facts to support your argumentConcluding the research workWhat Is the Purpose of Research?There are three purposes for conducting any type of research:ExploratoryOne can understand with the name what this purpose is all about. Research helps in exploring the group of questions. It may not be necessary that one can seek the final conclusion through the answers and analysis of the research based on the problems. Research also explores areas that are still hidden and never became part of any studies. This exploratory purpose leads to more conclusive research.DescriptiveAs the name suggests, the descriptive purpose of any research is to elaborate on the information and cover all the untalked points in it. Data collection has a crucial role in expanding information. In a descriptive study, research uses one variable to initiate the study. The descriptive purpose of the research aims at describing, explaining, and validating the findings.ExplanatoryThe role of explanation is vital in any form of research. Explaining the problem and why the researchers chose the topic for the research is needful. To comprehend the topic, researchers as well as the reader both need to have a goodunderstanding of the collected data and findings. Therefore, the explanatory function of research helps in providing a detailed explanation of all the information used in the research.Features of a Research WorkWhile doing research one must have a systematic approach. Fundamentals of research are rules and procedures. They set the objective in research work. Researchers should follow the code of conduct and ethics of the research while drawing the conclusion.All types of researches are based on facts and logical reasoning. They involve inductive and deductive methods.Data should be collected in real-time, and they should be the real observation in natural settings.The research consists of an in-depth analysis of the collected data. Deep analysis ensures that there will be no anomalies in the research work.Research allows more researches as it generates new questions. One research can lead to many more types of research around the topic.Accuracy in research is the most important thing. The collected information should be accurate and authentic in nature.These features must be there while writing a research paper. one must remember there are different types of research papers and each paper has a different approach.Different types of researchQualitative ResearchQualitative research is nothing but exploratory research. This type of research is carrying out to gain an understanding of primary reasons, motivations, and opinions. Qualitative research provides an in-depth look into the issues and helps in developing the hypothesis or ideas. Qualitative research methods have no fixed pattern. They are unstructured and semi-structured. The most common methods of qualitative research are: Group discussion, interviews face to face, participation or observing a scene.Quantitative ResearchQuantitative research is based on statistics and numerical day. Numerical data is generated by quantifying the research or by converting the data into statistics. This type of research helps in quantifying opinions, behaviors, or attitudes. In research, the result is generalized from a large sample group. Quantitative research uses data to prepare facts. Quantitative research methods are structured as compared to qualitative research. Methods in this type of research include various surveys, interviews, kiosk surveys, online polls, paper surveys, and systematic observations.Analytical ResearchAnalytical research follows the various point of view after that researcher analyzes all of them and draws a conclusion from it. In this type ofresearch, a question has been asked. Analytical research initiated by a question and then finding the facts to answer it. This type of research includes information collected from various other researches or sources. After that one has to make a personal conclusion of the topic. You need to have good analytical research skills to master in analytical research.When a student is doing analytical research for an academic paper, he/she has to be neutral. Your point of view should not favor or in against the topic. Persuasive research is perfect for showing your perspective.Persuasive ResearchAnother type of research is persuasive research. In this type of research first, you need todescribe the problem with two different aspects. You have to mention the pros and cons and then conclude by giving preference to one. When someone is doing persuasive research the primary aim is to attract the reader to agree with your point of view. Every type of research is different; the persuasive word itself suggests persuading someone to adhere to your argument. For persuasive research, you need to use an emotional approach along with the logical facts. Data and statistics are also there in persuasive research. In this research, the researcher will either support the argument or stand against it. The researcher has to support the argument with some logical facts.Cause and Effect ResearchIn cause and effect research paper, a researcher first describes the situation, then presents causes and effects and at last draws the conclusion. This type of research paper is for those who are new in the research. Most of the high school and college students of first-year get cause and effect research paper. The research includes:An extensive study of the different research topicOrganized writing styleUnderstanding the style of writing to use in the researchProper citation and referencesWhenever a person is doing cause and effect research,he/she has to answer two things ‘Why?’ and ‘What?’ These two things will reflect cause and effects. Cause and effect research is vital in business and education. It finds out the relationship of result from a specific decision.Experimental ResearchFor experimental research one has to follow certain steps; these steps are: Conduct an experiment then sharing of experience, and providing data and concluding everything on the basis of that data.When you are doing experimental research, you have to describe the case in a detailed manner. Experimental research is carried out in the following subject primarily, chemistry, biology, physics, psychology, and sociology. As thename suggests, this type of research is based on experiments. Here researchers describe or predict an incident with certain actions. To complete the research successfully, you need supporting data and experiment analysis.Survey ResearchMethods which you have to carry out while doing survey research paper are conducting a survey, analyze your findings, and then drawing a conclusion.A survey research paper is for subjects like sociology, psychology, marketing, public health, business, and advertising. You need to conduct a survey in this, where you have to ask questions from the respondents. This helps in analyzing behavior in certain conditions.Problem-Solution ResearchThese types of researches are carried out by both, students as well as by scholars. Here researchers have to solve some problems, but for that, they need proper analysis and a solution that perfectly fits in the problem. At the end of this research, researchers have to prove how effective the solution is.Report researchReport research is quite easy to conduct. Here in this type of research, the researcher needs to read the information on a specific topic thoroughly. After that researcher informs the readers about the main facts of the topic. This type of research seems easy, but you must havegood research skills to extract the vital points from the material you have in your hand.These are the main types of researches students do during their academic years. To get a detailed description of different types of research you can read it here. I hope now you may have got a clear idea about different types and researches. Now, in the next section, I would like to throw some light on the research skills one must-have for carrying the research effectively.Different Types of Research SkillsAt academic level research ability is very important. Research is not only vital for college students, but schools students should also have good knowledge about it. For that, one musthave excellent research skills. Research skills are a combination of various skills. Below you can see all of them:Summarizing and categorizingThis ability plays a vital role in the initial level of the research, a period when students gather the information. Data can be collected from various sources but for proper research one must look out for relevant sources. After collecting the data, one must be able to arrange it properly.Think criticallyThe research is valuable only if something new is presented. Information you present in your research should have a uniqueness in it. Critical thinking is what students need to carry outproper research. Students if presenting an argument, then they must have facts to support the argument.Analytical thinkingThis is an important skill out of all the other research skills. Good analytical skills will help you to analyze a large amount of information in a quick time. This ability needs a lot of practice; it is hard to develop quickly. There are few people who have strong analytical skills but other needs practice.Explanation skillsResearch skills are not only about gathering information and writing it. Your research paper should be self-explanatory. But for this first, youneed to explain your ideas, thoughts, and facts clearly. You have to find the right words to make people understand what you are trying to say. Experienced writers know how to explain things well in the research paperAll the research skills mentioned above are quite hard to learn.However, there are some more skills other than research skills in which you need to get expertise. They are not having much importance but could play a good role in making an excellent research paper. In the next section of this article, you can read all those skillsAdditional skills required for Research paperTo succeed in academic writing, you need to have mastery over these skills along with research skills. Let’s have a look at the additional skills required for research work.Time management skillsTime is the most valuable asset, and once you waste it, it will never come back to you again. We all know research work requires a lot of time. Students must gain mastery in overtime management. They should know how to utilize their time in order to write an excellent research paper.Finance managementYou need to have a sound amount in your bank to do proper research. Almost all researchesinvolve funding. Utilize money wisely during your research period. Science research involves a huge expenditure so be cautious with the usage of money. Before writing an academic paper, estimate all the expenses and plan your budget.IT skillsIf you have a good knowledge of IT, then it will surely help you in academic paper writing as well as your research work can be completed in less time. IT skills knowledge will help in arranging data in a quick time.These are the additional skills that you must have to get an edge over other students. You need to be patient while developing these skills. Perfection takes time, and you might need to wait for years to become perfect in these skills.These skills will help you not only in academic research but in all types of researches. You will learn to manage data efficiently and strategically.ConclusionResearch has been one of the most important tasks a student gets from college. Almost 40 percent of your academic score is based on the research paper. The article has been an agent through which I tried to guide you in your research work. I hope this article provided you with a better understanding of research and the above-mentioned research skills will help you in your endeavors.。

research article 和feature article
Research Article和Feature Article在内容和目的上存在显著差异。

Research Article主要是对理论或基础研究有贡献的论文，分为纯基础研究和应用性基础研究两大类。

这种论文应提供研究工作中收集的重要新信息，报告新颖且精心设计的研究，并提出完整的研究成果。

而Feature Article则更加关注对特定主题的描述和阐述，通常涉及新闻报道、人物特写、社会问题探讨等内容，旨在引起读者的兴趣和思考。

此外，Research Article和Feature Article在格式和写作方式上也有所不同。

Research Article通常需要遵循一定的学术规范和格式要求，包括文献引用、实验方法描述、数据分析和解释等。

而Feature Article则更加灵活，可以根据主题和内容进行调整和创新，以更好地吸引读者并传达信息。

总之，这两种文章类型虽然都是学术或新闻领域的重要文体，但在写作目的、内容和格式等方面存在明显差异。

需要根据具体需求和情况进行选择和撰写。

endemic range of A. m. scutellata. Workers of A. m. capensiscan establish themselves as pseudoqueens in A. m. scutellatacolonies, which serve as hosts for a social parasitic life cycleof the Cape honeybee workers. Infested host colonies trans-mit parasitic workers to new host colonies, and the parasitehas swiftly spread over most of the South African distributionarea of A. m. scutellata(Greeff, 1997). Population geneticanalyses revealed that the parasite within the range of theA. m. scutellata bees consists of one single clonal lineageonly (Kryger, 2001a,b), due to the fact that the parasiticworkers are thelytokous (Onions, 1912). Moreover, crossing-over appears to be rare (Moritz and Haberl, 1994; Baudry etal., 2004) leading to clonal offspring of individual workers.However, this phenomenon has not been observed in theendemic range of A. m. capensis, where the population struc-ture appears to be diverse due to sexual reproduction byqueens and drones (Franck et al., 2001). Therefore we con-sider the parasitic worker bees as a single specialized geno-type of A. m. capensis.The clonal population structure of the parasitic bees wasverified with a microsatellite DNA study (Kryger, 2001a,b).This study also revealed that there is virtually no gene flowbetween host and parasite, and the authors concluded thatthere are no sexuals (drones and queens) reared from theparasites eggs. The occurrence of drones in queenlesscolonies within the native range of the Cape honeybee (West-ern and Eastern Cape province) has been repeatedly reported(Neumann et al., 2000; Onions, 1912). Since the parasiticworkers are thelytokous, drones cannot be reared fromworker offspring. However, there is no obvious reason whyqueens should not be reared in parasitised colonies.Although neither visual inspections of infested colonies(Martin et al., 2002) nor genetic data indicate the occurrenceof viable queens (Kryger, 2001a,b), an experimental con-firmation for the lack of a parasitic queen caste is missing.Nevertheless, several non-exclusive hypotheses can plausibly Insect. Soc. 52 (2005) 238–2410020-1812/05/030238-04DOI 10.1007/s00040-005-0799-8© Birkhäuser Verlag, Basel, 2005Research articleQueen developmental time and fitness consequences for queens of clonal social parasitic honeybees (A.m.capensis) and its host A.m.scutellatattorff1,P.Kryger2,3and R.F.A.Moritz1,21 Institut für Zoologie, Molekulare Ökologie, Martin-Luther-Universität Halle-Wittenberg, Hoher W eg 4, 06099 Halle/Saale, Germany,e-mail: lattorff@zoologie.uni-halle.de2Department of Zoology and Entomology, University of Pretoria, 0002 Pretoria, Republic of South Africa3present address: State Bee Disease Centre, Research Centre Flakkebjerg, DK-4200 Slagelse, DenmarkReceived 22 July 2004; revised 22 December 2004; accepted 5 January 2005.Insect. Soc.V ol. 52, 2005Research article 239Social parasitic larval offspring were taken from three heavily infest-ed A. m. scutellata host colonies nearby Pretoria. Infested colonies with plenty of young diploid larvae were chosen with clear signs of the dwin-dling colony phenotype (Allsopp, 1992). All colonies had black tergite workers, multiple eggs per cell, and a scattered brood nest. Three days before sampling, all selected colonies were well fed to ensure sufficient nutrition of young larvae necessary for grafting.Grafting and rearing of larvaeOne day old larvae were grafted into artificial queen cells cups using standard equipment and techniques (Laidlaw and Page, 1997). Frames with grafted larvae were introduced into a strong, unrelated A. m. scutel-lata colony (three supers) at another non-infested apiary close to Pretoria.These nursing colonies were dequeened 1–2 hours before introduction of grafted larvae to enhance larval acceptance by nursing workers.Larvae were reared in the colonies until all queen cells were sealed.The frames with the sealed queen cells were removed from the colonies and kept in an incubator at 37°C with 70–75% relative humidity for 3–5 days. Each queen cell was placed in a separate container to prevent unhatched queens from being killed by earlier hatching queens (Gilley,2001).Measurements and statistical analysisWe recorded the larval acceptance by nurse workers in each colony, the proportion of hatched queens, the hatching time and the hatching weight.The number of larvae that were accepted (number of sealed queen cells)and the number of queens that hatched were recorded as simple frequen-cies of larvae, pupae and queens, respectively. The hatching time was recorded by regular inspections of the sealed queen cells every six hours.The weight of hatched queens was measured with a standard laboratory-balance unit with an accuracy of ±1 mg.All frequency data were processed using standard Fisher-exact-tests. Hatching time and weight were analysed using t - and F-tests for comparison of means and variances, respectively because the data did not deviate from a normal distribution (Kolmogorov-Smirnoff-test).Statistical calculations were performed using standard spreadsheet soft-ware and SPSS 11.5 software.ResultsA total number of 128 A. m. capensis and 32 A. m. scutellata larvae were grafted into queen cells. 72 A. m. capensis and 17 A. m. scutellata larvae were accepted, yielding no signifi-cant differences for larval acceptance between the two groups (Fisher exact test, p = 1.0). Likewise no significant difference was observed for queen hatching, because 100%of the A. m. capensis and 94.1% of the A. m. scutellata queens raised in the incubator successfully hatched (Fisher exact test, p = 0.87).The hatching weight was determined as an indicator of potential queen fecundity. There were no significant differ-ences between the hatching weights of the A. m. capensis and A. m. scutellata queens reared (two-tailed t-test, t = 1.401, df = 86, p = 0.16). Also the variance between the groups showed no significant difference (F-test, F = 0.09, p = 0.77).The mean developmental time for queens from grafting to emergence differed significantly between the two groups (two-tailed t-test, t =4.137, df =86, p <0.001) and also the variance was significantly different (F-test, F =7.004, p =0.01). The A. m. scutellata queens showed the typical patternexplain why queens of the parasitic lineage should be rare.These include1. suppression of queen rearing by parasitic workers. Host colonies often suffer from multiple infestations of para-sitic workers. Together these individuals produce large amounts of queen substance (Crewe and Velthuis, 1980),which may suppress queen rearing (Wossler, 2002).2.suppression of queen rearing by the brood. The high egg-laying rate of parasitic workers provides plenty open brood,which also emits a pheromone suppressing queen rearing (Pettis et al.,1997). None of the factors has been tested empirically in the case of the social parasitic Cape honeybees.3. queens are recognised and killed during the larval or pupal stage by parasitic workers.4. parasitic worker offspring is less attractive for queen rear-ing. Larval offspring of parasitic workers may not be very successful when competing with non-parasitic larvae. It has been shown that certain larvae are more attractive to nursing workers than other larvae (Osborne and Oldroyd,1999; Beekman et al., 2000).5.queens cannot develop from larvae of the parasitic lineage.The parasitic clonal lineage has been selected over many generations exclusively for traits related to virulence and transmission of parasitic workers. Selection on queen rear-ing ability has certainly been substantially relaxed in the parasitic population as compared to the sexual population.It may well be that the first evolutionary steps have been taken to loose the queen caste altogether as we know from several queenless ants (Peeters, 1997).Here we test whether larvae derived from the social parasitic clone can develop into queens. We used a competitive bioas-say by testing preferential rearing of larvae by the nursing workers. Since we use routine beekeeping techniques for queen rearing using unrelated (parasite free) breeder colonies,we focus with our study on points 4 and 5 (see above). We also determined the developmental time of the queens, which is an essential parameter for intracolonial selection among queens,because the first emerging queen kills all her rival competitors (Gilley, 2001).Materials and methodsSource of larvaeWorker brood frames with eggs and young larvae were taken from three A. m. scutellata colonies at a non-infested apiary in Pretoria, South Africa. This apiary was isolated (more than 1 km) from any other apiaries to minimise invasive dispersal of the social parasite (Neumann et al.,2001). The colonies were carefully inspected for signs of the dwindling colony syndrome before sampling larvae (Allsopp, 1992) to verify non-infestation of the selected colonies. Moreover, one queenless colony of A. m. scutellata at this apiary showed only drone brood, again indicat-ing a lack of thelytokous laying workers, because parasitic workers are reproductively dominant when competing with arrhenotokous laying workers in the same colony (Neumann et al.,2000). Queenless colonies are highly attractive for social parasitic A. m. capensis workers (Woyke,1995) and are readily infested. All these independent parameters thus support the absence of parasitic workers from this apiary.240H. M. G. Lattorff et al.Queen developmental time and fitnessof queens with a short developmental time and a very low variance (Hepburn and Radloff, 1998). Strong selective forces act on developmental time of queens, because they engage in lethal fights after emergence (Gilley, 2001), in which the first emerging queen kills all her competitors. In contrast, the A. m. capensis queens showed nearly 14 hours longer developmen-tal time with a much higher variance (Table 1.).DiscussionWe could unambiguously show that queens of the social parasitic laying workers (Apis mellifera capensis) could be reared with standard queen rearing techniques. The larvae from the parasitic workers showed no difference in accept-ability by nursing workers than queen larvae of the host type (A. m. scutellata). Furthermore, the survival of queens during the pupal stage was not reduced suggesting equal viability of both parasite and host larvae. Hatching weight, as an indi-cator for the queens fecundity also showed no difference between the two queen types. There was, however, a highly significant difference for the developmental time from graft-ing to hatching. A. m. scutellata queens hatched 14 h earlier, within a much narrower time window than the queens of the parasitic lineage. We cannot completely exclude that the dif-ference in variance may be due to the grafting process. The brood nest of the social parasitic workers was sometimes scat-tered due to an irregular egg-laying pattern. Thus the parasitic larvae chosen for queen rearing may initially show a larger age variance than the larvae grafted from the host colonies where queens lay eggs in a much more regular pattern. There-fore the initial variance for eggs grafted from the parasitic larvae may be larger, but also shifted towards higher mean values. Older larvae should show a shorter remaining devel-opmental time. This would result in queens derived from the social parasitic bees hatching earlier than the A. m. scutel-lata queens. However, our results show the opposite pattern indicating a very strong effect.Recently Harano and Obara (2004) could show that fresh-ly hatched virgin queens selectively destroy the remaining queen cells. When given the choice between younger and old-er queen cells containing premature and fully matured queens, respectively, virgin queens destroy the older cells containing the fully matured preemergence queens. In the light of these results even a small elongation of the developmental time of queens will result in a fatal fitness disadvantage.Our results indicate that queens of the socially parasitic worker lineage can be reared and are not less attractive for nursing workers (as stated in the points 4 and 5, see intro-duction). This does not exclude that the other three potential mechanisms prevent queen rearing (parasitic workers sup-press queen production by producing large amounts of queen pheromones (1); brood produced by laying workers sup-presses queen rearing (2) workers kill preadult queens (3)). However, these mechanisms may be unlikely during early stages of the infestation, when the parasitic worker force is small and may not be that strong to prevent queen rearing.Fletcher and Tribe (1977) reported 348–360 hours devel-opmental time from egg to adult for A. m. scutellata queens which compare well with our study given a three day egg phase (Winston, 1992). Hartmann and Hartmann (1990) report on a similar developmental time (336–360 h) for endemic A. m. capensis queens. Here we find results of the opposite direction: A. m. capensis queens of the parasitic lineage show a longer developmental time (mean 376.4±1.6 h) then A. m. scutellata queens, which are well within the range reported in the literature (mean 362.2±1.7 h).The developmental time of parasitic A. m. capensis worker bees is shortened and their hatching weight is higher when reared in colonies of European origin or colonies of their host A. m. scutellata than for workers reared in A. m. capensis colonies (Beekman et al.,2000; Calis et al.,2002). Also in our experiments the hatching weight of the queens from the parasitic lineage was slightly higher, however, it did not significantly differ from that of the A. m. scutellata queens.Natural selection in all non-parasitic honeybee popula-tions can act on many different levels, the individual sexuals, the workers, and the colony. Selection in the parasitic A. m. capensis clone acts exclusively on one level: the individual laying workers. This, in combination with the clonal repro-duction, results in a fixation of alleles even if they are not favourable for the queen caste. Characters determining queen fitness cannot be selected due to the clonal reproduction of the parasitic workers and are simply neutral at best. Drift or selection due to trade offs between worker and queen fecun-dity may therefore remove alleles, which are important for queen fitness eventually causing the complete loss of the caste as observed in many queenless ant species (Peeters, 1997). The parasitic A. m. capensis lineage may be an example of ongoing selection for queen loss.AcknowledgementsWe are especially grateful to T. de Klerk for technical assistance and we would like to thank the VW-Stiftung (RFAM) for financial support. PK was financially supported by the University of Pretoria and National Research Foundation of South Africa.Table1.Analysis of hatching weight and developmental time between A. m. capensis and A. m. scutellata queens. Data are shown as mean (±s.e.).Developmental time is given for the data from this experiment (grafting to hatching) as well as total developmental time including the egg period of 72 h for reasons of comparability with other studiesA. m. scutellata A. m. capensisN=16N=72Hatching weight [mg]187.7 (±4.3)193.8 (±1.8) Developmental time [h]290.2 (±1.7)304.4 (±1.6) Grafting to hatchingDevelopmental time [h]362.2 (±1.7)376.4 (±1.6) Oviposition to hatchingInsect. Soc.V ol. 52, 2005Research article 241Laidlaw, H.H. and R.E. Page, 1997. Queen Rearing and Bee Breeding .Wicwas Press, Cheshire, Conn. 224 pp.Martin, S.J., T.C. Wossler and P . Kryger, 2002. Usurpation of AfricanApis mellifera scutellata colonies by parasitic Apis mellifera capen-sis workers. Apidologie 33: 215–232.Moritz, R.F .A. and M. Haberl, 1994. Lack of meiotic recombination inthelytokous parthenogenesis of laying workers of Apis mellifera capensis (the Cape honeybee). Heredity 73: 98–102.Neumann, P . and R.F .A. Moritz, 2002. The Cape honeybee phenome-non: the sympatric evolution of a social parasite in real time?Behav. Ecol. Sociobiol. 52: 271–281.Neumann, P ., H.R. Hepburn and S.E. Radloff, 2000. Modes of workerreproduction, reproductive dominance and brood cell construction in queenless honeybee (Apis mellifera L.) colonies. Apidologie 31:479–486.Neumann, P ., S.E. Radloff, R.F .A. Moritz, H.R. Hepburn and S.L.Reece, 2001. Social parasitism by honeybee workers (Apis mellifera capensis Escholtz): host finding and resistance of hybrid host colo-nies. Behav. Ecol. 12: 419–428.Onions, G.W ., 1912. South African “fertile worker bees”. Agric J Un SAfr 3: 720–728.Osborne, K.E. and B.P . Oldroyd, 1999. Possible causes of reproductivedominance during emergency queen rearing by honeybees. Anim.Behav. 58: 267–272.Peeters, C., 1997. Morphologically “primitive” ants: comparative reviewof social characters, and the importance of queen-worker dimor-phism. In: The Evolution of Social Behavior in Insects and Arach-nids (J.C. Choe and B.J. Crespi, Eds),Cambridge University Press,Cambridge. pp. 372–391.Pettis, J.S., H.A. Higo, T. Pankiw and M.L. Winston, 1997. Queen rear-ing suppression in the honey bee – evidence for a fecundity signal.Insect. Soc. 44: 311–322.Verma, S. and F . Ruttner, 1983. Cytological analysis of the thelytokousparthenogensis in the Cape honeybee (Apis mellifera capensis Escholtz). Apidologie 14: 41–57.Wilson, E.O., 1971. The Insect Societies . Harvard University Press,Cambridge. pp. 548.Wossler, T.C., 2002. Pheromone mimicry by Apis mellifera capensissocial parasites leads to reproductive anarchy in host Apis mellifera scutellata colonies. Apidologie 33: 139–163.Woyke, J., 1995. Rearing larger honeybee workers. In: Proc. 34th Int.Apicultural Congress Apimondia. Apimondia Publishing House Bucharest, Romania. pp. 124–127.ReferencesAllsopp, M.H., 1992. The capensis calamity. S. Afr. Bee J.64: 52–55.Baudry, E., P . Kryger, M.H. Allsopp, N. Koeniger, D. Vautrin, F . Mougel,J.M. Cornuet and M. Solignac, 2004. Whole-genome scan in thely-tokous laying workers of the Cape honeybee (Apis mellifera capen-sis ): Central fusion, reduced recombination rates, and centromere mapping using half-tetrad analysis. Genetics 167: 243–252.Beekman, M., J.N.M. Calis and W .J. Boot, 2000. Parasitic honeybeesget royal treatment. Nature 404: 723.Calis, J.N.M., W .J. Boot, M.H. Allsopp and M. Beekman, 2002. Gettingmore than a fair share: nutrition of worker larvae related to social parasitism in the Cape honey bee Apis mellifera capensis. Apidolo-gie 33: 193–202.Crewe, R.M. and H.H.W . Velthuis, 1980. False queens: a consequenceof mandibular gland signals in worker honeybees. Naturwissen-schaften 67: 467–469.Fletcher, D.J.C. and G.D. Tribe, 1977. Natural emergency queen rearingby the African bee A. m. adansonii and its relevance for successful queen production by beekeepers, I. In: African Bees (D.J.C. Fletch-er, Ed.), Apimondia, Pretoria. pp. 132–140.Franck, P ., L. Garnery, A. Loiseau, B.P . Oldroyd, H.R. Hepburn, M. So-lignac and J.-M. Cornuet, 2001. Genetic diversity of the honeybee in Africa: microsatellite and mitochondrial data. Heredity 86: 420–430.Gilley, D.C., 2001. The behavior of honey bees (Apis mellifera ligustica )during queen duels. Ethology 107: 601–622.Greeff, J.M., 1997. The Cape honeybee and her way north: an evolu-tionary perspective. S. Afr. J. Sci. 93: 306–308.Harano, K. and Y . Obara, 2004. Virgin queens selectively destroy fullymatured queen cells in the honeybee Apis mellifera L. Insect. Soc.51: 253–258.Hartmann, W .H. and I. Hartmann, 1990. Evaluation of requeening withthe Cape bee. In: Bees and Beekeeping in Southern Africa (R.H.Anderson and B. Buys, Eds), Apimondia, Stellenbosch. pp. 103–104.Hepburn, H.R. and S.E. Radloff, 1998. The Honeybees of Africa .Springer-Verlag, Berlin, Heidelberg, New Y ork. 370 pp.Hölldobler, B. and E.O. Wilson, 1990. 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学术英语写作与沟通Academic Writing and Communication: An OverviewAcademic writing and communication play an essential role in the academic world. Effective writing and communication skills are crucial for success in various academic fields, such as research, teaching, and publishing. This article aims to provide an overview of the key aspects of academic writing and communication.What is Academic Writing?Academic writing refers to the style of writing used in academic disciplines, such as science, humanities, and social sciences. The primary purpose of academic writing is to communicate ideas, concepts, and findings to a specific target audience. Therefore, academic writing needs to be precise, objective, and well-structured. Academic writing has several features that distinguish it from other forms of writing. These features include:1. Formal tone and styleAcademic writing requires a formal tone, which means the use of objective language, avoiding slang, and jargon. The writer should use concise and clear language to convey their ideas.2. Evidence-basedAcademic writing should be evidence-based, which means that the writer needs to support their claims with reliable references and sources.3. Clear and conciseAcademic writing should be clear and concise, avoiding unnecessary jargon and complicated sentences.4. StructuredAcademic writing should have a clear structure, with a well-defined introduction, main body, and conclusion.Types of Academic WritingAcademic writing can take various forms depending on the purpose and audience. Some of the common types of academic writing include:1. Research papersResearch papers are the most common form of academic writing. They are detailed reports of research findings, including an abstract, introduction, methods, results, and discussion sections.2. Literature reviewsLiterature reviews summarize and analyze the existing literature on a particular topic. 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ConferencesConferences provide opportunities for scholars to present their research findings, exchange ideas and knowledge, and network with other scholars in their field.2. SeminarsSeminars are smaller meetings, where scholars discuss their research projects or exchange ideas on specific topics or areas of research.3. WorkshopsWorkshops are training sessions that help scholars develop professional and academic skills, such as writing, publishing, and grant writing.4. EmailsEmails are essential tools for academic communication, allowing scholars to communicate quickly and effectively with colleagues, collaborators, and potential research partners.Communication skills, such as active listening, effective speaking, and clear writing, are fundamental for successful academic communication. Scholars should also develop skills in other non-verbal communication techniques, such as body language, eye contact, and vocal delivery.ConclusionAcademic writing and communication play a critical role in the academic world. Scholars need to develop effective writing and communication skills to succeed in their academic fields. Academic writing requires precision, structure, and evidence-based arguments, while academic communication involves various forms of exchanges of ideas and information. Developing effectivewriting and communication skills will help scholars achieve success in their academic careers.Academic WritingAcademic writing is a crucial aspect of the academic world, regardless of the discipline or area of study. Scholars use academic writing to communicate their ideas, arguments, and research findings to their peers, students, or other researchers. Academic writing is not limited to research articles or papers, as it can also include academic books, book chapters, dissertations, or theses.The primary purpose of academic writing is to contribute to the development of knowledge in a particular field by providing new insights, supporting existing knowledge or challenging it. Therefore, academic writing requires precision, clarity, and objectivity to convey the intended message effectively. Academic writing is different from other types of writing, such as creative writing, journalism, or business writing, due to its structure, tone, and style.Structure of Academic WritingAcademic writing should have a clear and logical structure to ensure that readers can follow the author's arguments or ideas effortlessly. The typical structure of academic writing includes: 1. 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The choice of words and phrases should be precise and clear, avoiding the use of jargon or ambiguous language. The tone should also be respectful and professional, avoiding personal biases or emotions.Scholars should use the following guidelines to ensure their writing style and tone is appropriate for academic writing:1. Use formal and objective language to convey their ideas2. Avoid colloquialisms, slang, or clichés3. Use active voice instead of the passive voice4. Use appropriate diction for the audience and purpose of the writing5. Use clear and concise language6. Avoid using first or second-person pronouns unless necessaryAcademic CommunicationAcademic communication refers to the exchange of ideas, research findings, or information between scholars, students, or other members of the academic community. Academic communication can take various forms, such as conferences, seminars, workshops, or emails. Effective academic communication involves both speaking and writing skills, as well as non-verbal communication techniques, such as body language, eye contact, and vocal delivery.Scholars use academic communication to present their research findings, collaborate with their peers, or seek feedback on their work. Academic communication plays a crucial role in the development of knowledge in a particular field, as it allows scholars to exchange ideas and knowledge, seek critical feedback, and build networks among their peers.Forms of Academic Communication1. ConferencesConferences are one of the most common forms of academic communication, as they provide scholars with the opportunity to present their research findings, engage with other researchers, and receive feedback on their work. Conferences can be local, national, or international, and can focus on specific topics or themes.2. 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Scholars need to develop these skills to ensure that their message is conveyed accurately, and they understand the feedback provided by their peers or collaborators. Scholars should alsodevelop non-verbal communication techniques, such as body language, eye contact, and vocal delivery, to convey their message effectively.ConclusionEffective academic writing and communication skills are crucial for success in the academic world. Scholars need to develop these skills to contribute to the development of knowledge in their respective fields and build networks among their peers. Academic writing requires precision, clarity, and objectivity, while academic communication involves various forms of exchanges of ideas and information. Scholars should develop effective writing and communication skills to achieve success in their academic careers.。