2011英语专业八级语言学总结
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语言学Ⅰ. 语言的性质●Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication.It is a means of verbal communication(言语交际).●Design FeaturesThe features that define our human languages can be called design features.⑴Arbitrariness(任意性)⑵Duality(二重性)⑶Creativity/Productivity(多产性)⑷Displacement(易境性)⑸Cultural Transmission (文化传递性)⑴Arbitrariness(任意性)The forms of linguistic signs bear no natural relationship to their meaning. e.x. pen--/pen/ book/buk/Different levels of Arbitrarinessa.Arbitrariness relationship between the sound of a morpheme(语素) and its meaning.e.x. 叮咚,轰隆English—wow wow Chinese: wangwangwangIt is only then you know the meaning that you infer that the form is appropriate.b.Arbitrariness at the syntactic levelSyntax is less arbitrary than words, and the most strictly arbitrary level of language exists in the distinctive units of sounds.c.Arbitrariness and convention (约定俗成)Arbitrariness of language makes conventionality(约定俗成性) potentially creative.⑵Duality(二重性)-- The property of having two levels of structures, such that units of the primary level are composed of elements of the secondary level and each of the two levels has its own principles of organization.the secondary unites: sounds(meaningless)the primary unites: words(have distinct and identifiable meaning)⑶Creativity/Productivity(多产性)Language is resourceful because of its duality and excursiveness(递归性—the potential to create endless sentences).⑷Displacement(易境性)-- It is means that human languages enable their users to symbolize objects, events and concepts which are nor present(in time and space) at the moment of communication.●Functions of Language⑴Informative(信息功能)⑵Interpersonal function(人际功能)—how the personal relations being established⑶Performative (行事性功能)—how language woks in real world⑷Emotive function(表情功能)—enable users to express whatever feelings they have⑸Phatic communication(寒暄功能)—the social interaction of language/ helps to define and maintain interpersonalrelations⑹Recreational function(娱乐功能)— a poetic function⑺Metalingual function(元语言功能)—language can be used to talk about languageThe lion are the unicorn all round the town.All along the town the lion ate the unicorn.The change in liner order changes our perspective about the concerns of the clause.Ⅱ. Linguistics 语言学●Linguistics is a science which takes language as its object of investigation.We must learn linguistics①systematically—beginning+engding②objectively—does according to the facts③exhaustiveness—to collect data as much as possible so as to enrich one’s knowledge andsupport one’s idea●Distinctions of Linguistics (Lyons)⑴Descriptive(描写/描述性的) vs. Prescriptive(规定性的)↖to set up roles for others to follow, designed by↑traditional grammerto talk about something according to something itself⑵Synchronic(共时研究)vs. Diachronic(历时研究)(Swiss: Saussure)Synchronic: takes a fixed instant as its point of observation.Diachronic: is the study of a language through the course of its history. (study language at least in two periods of time) Comparison: Synchronic: what a language is in a period of timeDiachronic: find our the changes from one language to another language⑶Langue(语言) & Parole(言语)(Saussure)Langue: the linguistic competence of the speaker (the abstract system of language)Parole: the actual phenomena or data of linguistics (the actual use of language)Langue govern parole; parole reacts langue⑷Competence(语言能力) & Performance(语言运用)( American: Chomsky)↑↖the linguistic knowledge in the ideal speakers’ mindthe ability of native/ideal speaker of language⑸Etic(非位的) vs. Emic(位学的)(American: Pike)↑↖Phonemics(音位学的),abstract units of languagephonetics(语音学的),something concreateⅢ. Phonetics 语音学●Phonetics study speech sounds, including the production of speech(how speech sounds are actually made, transmitted andreceived), the sounds of speech, the description and classification of speech sounds, words and connected speech.●Consonant: these is an obstruction of the air stream at some point of the vocal tract.V owel: these is no obstruction of the air stream at some point of the vocal tract.Ⅳ. Phonology 音位学●Phonology is the study of sound systems—the invention of distinctive speech sounds that occur in a language and thepatterns wherein they fall.广义的音位学指对自然语言声音系统的一般特种的研究,包括语音学。
第一章概述一、什么是语言?1.Definition of language (语言的定义)Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication.(语言是人类用来交流的一套具有任意性的声音符号系统。
)2.Design/distinctive feature of language(语言的定义/本质特征)1)2)3)4)(移位性指语言可以让使用者谈论不在说话之时、说话之地存在的物体、事件和观点)例如:我们在中国可以谈论美国的物体和事件。
5)Cultural transmission(文化传播/文化传递性)Language is passed on from generation to generation through teaching and learning rather than instinct.(文化传播指语言是靠文化传播的,而不是靠父母遗传。
虽然人类的语言能力是天生的,但是语言系统的细节不是靠遗传传递,而是靠学习掌握的。
)二、什么是语言学?Linguistics is a scientific study of language.(语言学是对语言的科学研究)语言学的研究对象不是某特定的语种,而是人类所有的语言,在考察分析大量语言现象的基础上总结语言规律。
语言学家想要回答的基本问题是:什么是语言?语言的机制是什么?人们是如何使用语言实现各种目的的。
三、语言学的重要概念1.descriptive vs. prescriptive(描述性与规定性)描述性研究是现代语言学家采取的基本立场,注重观察分析语言中的事实,目的通常是描述人们一般是怎么说话、写作的。
规定性研究注意总结语言中的标准,目的通常是规定人们应该如何说话、写作。
例如:规定只能用单数、复数2.synchronic vs. diachronic(共时性与历时性)synchronic: the study of a language through the course of its history(共时研究以某个特定时期的语言为研究对象)例如:莎士比亚时代语言研究diachronic: takes a fixed instant as its point of observation(历时研究则研究语言各个阶段的发展变化,研究语言的历史发展规律)ngue vs. parole(语言与言语)该区分是现代语言学鼻祖Saussure提出的。
专八加油↖(^ω^)↗语言学(缩略版)1 语言的四个特征:任意性(Arbitrariness),二重性(Duality),创造性(Creativity),移位性(Displacement)2 语言的七个功能:信息功能(Informative),人际功能(Interpersonal Function),施为功能(Performative),感情功能(Emotive Function),寒暄功能(Phatic Communion),娱乐功能(Recreation Function)元语言功能(Metalingual Function)3 语言学的主要分支:语音学(Phonetics),音系学(Phonology)形态学(Morphology),句法学(Syntax),语义学(Semantics),语用学(Pragmatics),4 宏观语言学(Macrolinguistics)的分支:心理语言学(Psycholinguistics),社会语言学(Sociolinguistics),人类语言学(Anthropological Linguistics,计算机语言学(Computational linguistics)5 规定式(Prescriptive)---描述事情应该是怎样的(describe how things ought to be)描写式(Descriptive)---描述事情本是怎样的(describe how thing are)6 共时研究(Synchronic)---以某个特定时期的语言为研究对象(takes a fixed instant as its point of observation)历时研究(Diachronic)---研究语言各个阶段的发展变化(Study of a language through the course of its history)7 语言(Langue)---说话者的语言能力(the linguistic competence of the speaker)言语(Parole)---语言的实际现象或语料(the actual phenomena or data of linguistic)----索绪尔(Saussure)区分8 语言能力(Competence)---理想语言使用者关于语言的知识储备(underlying knowledge)语言运用(Performance)---真实的语言使用者在实际场景中语言的使用(Actual use ofLanguage)----乔姆斯基(Chomsk)区分9 语音学主要分支:发音语言学(Articulatory Phonetics),声学语言学(Acoustic Phonetics)。
第三章英语语言学第一节语言学基本概念知识点较多,但是多集中于基本概念和运用,不需要深入挖掘,记住基本概念即可。
1 语言的特点和功能特点:Creativity 可创造性Duality 两重性(声音和意义)Arbitrariness 任意性Displacement 移位性Cultural Transmission 文化传递性Interchangeabilty 可交换性Reflexivity 自反性人类的语言可以描述语言本身功能:Informative 信息功能(功能语言学中称之为ideational function)Interpersonal 人际功能通过语言来建立社会联系Performative 施为功能通过语言来完成任务,来自于语用学Emotive 感情功能可以改变听者的感情Phatic Communion 交感功能特定的表达方式来维护关系,例如打招呼Recreational 娱乐功能,例如唱歌Metalingual 元语言功能可以用语言来谈论语言本身2 语言学的主要分支内部分支:Phonetics 语音学Articulatory Phonetics 发音语音学语音产生Acoustic Phonetics 声学语音学研究物理特性Auditory Phonetics 听觉语音学发音的潜在机制Consonants / VowelsPhonology 音系学研究语音和音节结构分布和排列Phone 音素语言的一个单元或是音段Phoneme 音位在语言中具有区别意义的最小的语言单位Allophones 音位变体put spanContrastive Distribution 对立分析能够找到的最小的语音对bear pearComplementary Distribution 互补分析从不在相同环境出现的音位变体peak speakFree Variation 自由变体同一个词由于某个原因发了两个音,这种差异可能来源于方言或是习惯increaseSuprasegemental Features 超音段特征(音节、重音、音调、语调)Morphology 形态学研究英语中最小单位——语素和成词过程,即单词的内部构造Morpheme 词素最小的有意义的语言单位Free Morpheme 自由语素(有自己构成英语单词的称为此,是单词root/stem)和BoundMorpheme 粘连语素(需要和自由语素联合构成单词的称为此,是词缀,进一步分为Inflectional Affixes 屈折词缀,在现代英语中主要指单复数,时态比较级等等和Derivational Affixes 派生词缀,这是形成新词的关键)。
英语专八语言学知识复习资料汇编语言学知识在英语专业八级考试中占有重要地位,是单选题目的重要组成部分,掌握好语言学知识可有效提高专业八级考试成绩。
语言学知识共包括以下六个部分:语言学本质、语音学、音位学、形态学、句法学、语义学六个部分,这六部分从学习程度上分别以单词、句子、句群、段落知识依次递进,考生逐一理解掌握,才能打牢语言学基础知识,下面我们开始吧!第一节语言的本质一、语言的普遍特征(Design Features)任意性Arbitratriness双层结构Duality多产性productive移位性Displacemennt文化传播性Cultural Transmission二、语言的功能(Functions of Language)传达信息功能Informative:最主要功能The main functio n人际功能Interpersonal:establish and maintain their identity行事功能performative:现实应用——判刑、咒语、为船命名等Judge,naming,and curses表情功能Emotive:表达强烈情感的语言,如感叹词/句exclamatory expressions寒暄功能Phatic:应酬话phatic language,比如“吃了没?”“天儿真好啊!” 等等元语言功能Metalingual:用语言来谈论、改变语言本身,如book可以指现实中的书也可以用“book这个词来表达作为语言单位的“书”三、语言学的分支1. 核心语言学Core linguistic语音学Phonetics音位学Phonology形态学Morphology句法学Syntax.语义学Semantics语用学Pragmatics2. 边缘语言学Peripheral:·心理语言学psycho-linguistics·社会语言学socio-linguistics·人类语言学anthropo-linguistics·计算机语言学computer-linguistics四、语言学中几对基本概念1. 规定性研究Prescriptive与描述性研究DescriptivePrescriptive:着重于语言中“标准Standards”认为语言中存在着一种地位最高的语言形态,如标准语法/语音等,为规定人们如何说话、写作Descriptive:着重于语言中“事实Facts”,目的是描述人们一般是怎样说话、写作的2. 共时研究Synchronic和历时研究Diachronic3.语言Langue和言语Parole(由Ferdinand de Saussure索绪尔提出)Langue:指语言系统的整体the whole linguistic system,所有语言使用个体头脑中存储的word-image的总和,这个整体相对比较稳定。
2011专业英语八级人文知识总结__2011专八人文知识总结黑死病(the Black Death)是指由鼠疫蚤传播的致命的淋巴腺鼠疫是流,行疾病,在14世纪传播了到欧洲。
1348年夏天横扫全英国。
英国的人口在14世纪末从400万锐减至200万。
《大宪章》(Great Charter)是约翰国王(King John)1215年在封建贵族压力下签定的,总共63条,其中最重要的内容是:(1) 未经大议会同意,不得征税;(2) 只有根据国家有关法律才能逮捕、监禁自由人以及剥夺他们的财产;(3) 教会应享受其所有权利且有选举自由;(4) 伦敦和其它城镇应保留其古时的权力和特权;(5) 全国要使用统一的重量和长度度量衡。
大议会(The Great Council)是当今英国议会(BritishParliament)的原型。
1265年,西门德孟福尔召开大议会,各县有两名骑士,各镇有两名市民参加。
大议会发展到后来演变成议会,分为上议院(House of Lords)和下议院(House of Commons)。
其作用是咨询而非决定;也没有选举和政党。
著名的诺曼底征服(The Norman Conquest)发生在1066年。
诺曼底公爵威廉发动了这场战争。
他是前诺曼底公爵罗伯特一世的私生子,也是独生子。
1066年1月,英王爱德华去世,9月,威廉借口爱德华生前曾许其继承英国王位,遂纠集诺曼底贵族和法国各地骑士,在罗马教皇的支持下,率军渡过海峡,在英格兰南部佩文西登陆,入侵英国。
哈斯丁一役,威廉大败英军,不久攻占伦敦,于12月自立为英王,称威廉一世(Willia mⅠ)。
诺曼底征服对于英国历史发展的影响可谓深远。
威廉建立的、他的后继人所保持的强大中央政府,由于这个政府所掌管的军事力量,英国从未再遭侵略。
相反,它还不断地在海外进行军事行动。
文化方面,英国当时现有的文化与诺曼-法国文化得到了水乳交融;大量的新词进入英语,使得英国语言得到了长足发展。
2011年英语专业八级考试语言学试题答案与解析
答案:1. C 2. A 3. C
试题解析:
1.认知语言学是语言学的一门分支学科,它以第2代认知科学和体验哲学为理论背
景,在反对主流语言学转换生成语法的基础上诞生,大约在1980年代后期至1990年代开始成型。
认知语言学涉及人工智能、语言学、心理学、系统论等多种学科。
它针对生成语言学天赋观,提出:语言的创建、学习及运用,基本上都能够通过人类的认知而加以解释,因为认知能力是人类知识的根本。
题目中关于语言和心理关系的研究是认知语言学研究的内容。
故选择C。
2.英语语音分为元音和辅音两大类。
区分元音和辅音的标准是气流是否受到阻碍。
气流由
肺部发出,在口腔和喉部不受任何阻碍,通常声带振动,这样发出的音叫元音。
气流由肺部送出时,或者完全受阻,或者部分受阻,或者因出口太窄,空气流出时产生摩擦,或者气流在口腔受到阻碍而由鼻腔发出,这样发出的音称为辅音。
故选择A。
3.某一地区或国家的居民使用几种语言(通常在三种或三种以上)的现象称为多语制。
多
语现象在一些西非国家(如尼日利亚、加纳)、马来西亚、新加坡和以色列等国家普遍存在。
故选择C。
考点分析:2011年英语专业八级考试人文知识中英语语言学知识测试内容仍然涉及教材中第二章语音学(phonetics)、第八章语言与社会(language and society)和第十二章语言与大脑(language and brain)中基本概念和基础知识的理解。
专八课程总结报告
一、课程概述
专八课程是针对英语专业高年级学生的一门综合性课程,涵盖了英语语言知识、文化背景、翻译技巧和写作能力等多个方面。
该课程的目标是帮助学生通过专业八级考试,并为未来的职业生涯打下坚实的基础。
二、课程内容
1. 语言知识
课程注重英语语言知识的掌握,包括词汇、语法、语音等方面。
教师通过讲解、示范、练习等方式,帮助学生掌握扎实的语言基础。
2. 文化背景
课程涉及英语国家的文化背景,包括历史、地理、政治、经济等方面。
学生通过学习,了解英语国家的文化特点,提高跨文化交际能力。
3. 翻译技巧
课程注重培养学生的翻译能力,包括口译和笔译。
教师通过讲解翻译理论、分析翻译案例、组织翻译实践等方式,帮助学生掌握翻译技巧。
4. 写作能力
课程注重培养学生的写作能力,包括学术论文、应用文、新闻报道等方面。
教师通过讲解写作技巧、分析优秀范文、组织写作实践等方式,帮助学生提高写作水平。
三、教学方法
1. 课堂讲授
教师通过讲解、示范和演示等方式,传授知识和技能。
学生通过听讲,了解课程内容。
2. 小组讨论
学生分组讨论,交流学习心得,共同解决问题。
教师给予指导和点评。
3. 课堂互动
教师鼓励学生积极参与课堂互动,提问、发表观点和意见。
课堂氛围轻松愉快,有利于激发学生的学习兴趣。
4. 课后作业
教师布置课后作业,要求学生完成相关练习和任务。
作业形式多样,包括书面作业、口头作业等。
学生通过完成作业巩固所学知识。
I.Introduction1. What is LanguageLanguage is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication.2. What is Linguistics(语言学)Linguistics is the scientific study of language.3.Some Basic Distinctions(区分) in Linguistics3.1 Speech and WritingOne general principle(原则) of linguistic analysis is the primacy of speech over writing. Writing gives language new scope(范畴) and uses that speech does not have.3.2 Descriptive(描述性) or Prescriptive(说明性)A linguistic study is descriptive if it describes and analyses facts observed;it is prescriptive if it tries to lay down rules for "correct" behavior.3.3 Synchronic(共时) and Diachronic(历时) StudiesThe description of a language at some point in time is a synchronic study and The description of a language as it changes through time is a diachronic study.3.4 Langue(语言) and Parole(言语)This is a distinction made by the Swiss linguist F.De Saussure (索绪尔)early last century. langue refers to the abstract linguistic system shared by all the members of a speech community and parole refers to the actualized(实际的) language, or realization of langue.3.5 Competence(能力)and Performance(行为)Competence is the ideal language user's knowledge of the rules of his language. Performance is the actual realization of this knowledge in utterances(发声).4.The Scope of LinguisticsGeneral linguistics is the study of language as a whole.Phonetics(语音学) is the branch of linguistics which studies the characteristics of speech sounds and provides methods for their description, classification and transcription.Phonology(音韵学) is the branch of linguistics which studies the sound patterns of languages.Morphology(词法) is the branch of linguistics which studies the form of words.Syntax(句法) is the branch of linguistics which studies the rules governing the combination of words into sentences.Semantics(语义学) is the branch of linguistics which studies the meaning of language.Applied linguistics(应用语言学) is the study of the teaching of foreign and second languages.Sociolinguistics is the study of the relationship between language and society.Psycholinguistics is the study of the relationship between language and the mind.Historical Linguistics(历史语言学) is the study of language changes.Anthropological linguistics(人文语言学) uses the theories and methods of anthropology to study language variation and language use in relation to the cultural patterns and beliefs of man.Neurolinguistics(神经语言学) studies the neurological basis of language development and use in human beings.Mathematical linguistics(数学语言学) studies the mathematical features of language, often employing models and concepts of mathematics.Computational linguistics(计算语言学) is an approach to linguistics in which mathematical techniques and concepts(概念) are applied, often with the aid of a computer.本文相关应用∙鼠标划词已启用∙挑错∙收藏∙评论∙打印II. Phonetics(语音学)1. scope of phoneticsSpeech sounds may be studied from different angles, thus we have at least three branches of phonetics:Articulatory phonetics(发音语音学)we may examine the way in which a speech sound is produced to discover which vocal organs are involved and how they coordinate(协调)in the process.Auditory phonetics (听觉语音学)we may look into the impression a speaker makes on the hearer as mediated(调节)by the ear, the auditory nerve(神经)and the brain.Acoustic phonetics (声学语音学)we study the physical properties of speech sounds, as transmitted(传送)between mouth and ear.2. The vocal organsThe vocal organs may be viewed as consisting of three parts, the initiator of the air-stream,(气流发生器官)the producer of voice(声音发生器官)and the resonating cavities.(声音共振器官)3. Consonants(辅音)Places of articulation(发音部位): bilabial,(双唇)Labiodentals,(唇齿)dental,(齿)alveolar,(齿龈)retroflex,(卷舌)palate-alveolar,(上齿龈)palatal,(上颚)velar,(软腭)uvular,(小舌)glottal(声门)Manners of articulation: plosive,(暴破)nasal,(鼻音)trill,(颤音)lateral,(边音)fricative,(摩擦)approximant,(近似音)affricate(破擦)4. Vowels (元音)The classification of vowels: the height of tongue raising (high, mid, low), the position of the highest part of the tongue(front, central, back), and the degree of lip rounding(rounded, unrounded)III. Phonology(音韵学)1. phonemes(音素):a distinctive(有区别的)sound in a language.2. Allophones(音位变体):The nondistinctive sounds are members of the same phoneme.3. Minimal pairs(最小对立体):word forms which differ from each other only by one sound.4. Free variation (自由变异):If two sounds occurring in the same environment(环境), they does not produce a different word form, but merely a different pronunciation of the same word.5. Complementary distribution(互补分布):Not all the speech sounds occur in the same environment. When two sounds never occur in the same environment6.Suprasegmental phonology(超音段音位):the study of phonological properties(性质)of units lager than the segment-phoneme. They are syllable(音节),stress,(重音)word stress, sentence stress. pitch (音调)and intonation(语调).IV. Morphology(词法)1. inflection(构形法):the grammatical relationships through the addition of inflectional affixes.(屈折词缀)2. Word-formation(构词):the processes(过程)of word variations signaling lexical relationships.(表明词法关系)They are compound(合成)and derivation (派生).3. Morpheme(词素):the smallest unit in terms of relationship between expression and content.4. Allomorph(同质异象变体):some morphemes have considerable variation, for instance, alternate shapes or phonetic forms.5. Types of morphemes: They are roots,(词根)affix(词缀)and stem(词干)6. Lexicon(语言词汇):in its most general sense, is synonymous with vocabulary.7. Closed-class words(封闭性)and open-class words(开放性):the former whose membership is fixed or limited and the latter whose membership is in principle(实际上)indefinite or unlimited.8. Word class(词性):It displays a wider range of more precisely defined classes.9. Lexeme(词位):the smallest unit in the meaning system of a language that can be distinguished from other smaller units.10. Idiom(习语,成语):Most phrasal lexemes are idioms. It is especially true fora sequence of words(词序)which is semantically(语义上)and often syntactically(句法上)restricted.(限制)11. Collocation(搭配):the habitual(习惯的)co-occurrences (同时出现)of individual lexical items.V. Syntax (句法)1. Positional relation or word order(词序):the sequential(顺序)arrangement of words in a language.2. Construction or constituent (句子结构):the overall process of internal (内部)organization of a grammatical unit .3. Syntactic function(句法功能):the relationship between a linguistic form and other parts of the linguistic pattern in which it is used. The names of functions are expressed in terms of subjects, objects, predicates, modifiers,(修饰语)complements(补语), etc.4. Category(范畴):It refers to classes and functions in its narrow sense, e.g. noun, verb, subject, predicate, noun phrase, verb phrase, etc. The categories of the noun include number, gender, case and countability.5. Phrase: a single element of structure containing more than one word, and lacking the subject-predicate structure typical of clause.6. Clause: a group of words with its own subject and predicate, if it is included in a larger sentence.7. Sentence: It is the minimum part of language that expresses a complete thought.VI. Semantics1. Conceptualism or mentalism (概念主义):Following F. De Saussure(索学尔)'s "sign" theory, the linguistic sign is said to consist of a signifier (所指)and signified(被指), i.e., a sound image and a concept, liked by a psychological(心理的)"associative" bond.(相关联系)2. Mechanism(机械主义):Some linguists, Bloomfield,(布鲁费尔德)for example, turned to science to counter(反)-act the precious theories and this leads to what call the mechanistic approach(方法). The nature of this theory has nothing to do with the scientific study of mental phenomena.(智力现象)3. Contextualism (语境主义):It is based on the presumption(假定)that one can derive meaning from or reduce it to observable context.4. Behaviorism (行为主义):Behaviourists attempt to define (定义)the meaning of a language form as "the situation(情景)in which the speaker utters(说话)it and the response(反应)it calls forth in the hearer."5. functionalism (功能主义):functionalists as represented (代表)by the Prague school(布拉格学派)linguists and neo-Firthian (新弗斯)linguists, approach the problem from an entirely new orientation(方法). They argue(争辩)that meaning could only be interpreted(解释)from its use or function in social life.6. Sense relationships: While reference deals with the relationship between the linguistic elements, words, sentences, etc.,and the non-linguistic world of experience, sense relates to the complex system of relationships that hold between the linguistic elements themselves. They include synonymy(同义词),antonymy(反义词),hyponymy(下层次)Polysemy(一词多义)and Homonymy (同音异义词)7. Semantic analysis: It includes 1) componential(成分)analysis which defines the meaning of a lexical element in terms of semantic components.(意义成分)2) predication (表述)analysis in which the meaning of a sentence is not merelythe sum of the meanings of the words which compose it. 3) relational components in which the semantic analysis of some words presents a complicated picture, because they show relations between two and perhaps more terms.VII. Language variation (语言变化)1. Lexical change(词汇的变化):changes in lexis.2. Invention: (新造词)new entities.3. Compounding 合成词)New words are sometimes constructed by combining two old words.4. Blending: (混合词):It is a relatively complex form of compounding, in which two roots are blended by joining the initial part of the first root and the final part of the second root, or by joining the initial parts of the two roots.5. Abbreviation or clipping (缩写)A new word is created by cutting the final part or cutting the initial part.6. acronym 取首字母的缩写词)It is made up from the first letters of the name of an organization, which has a heavily modified (修饰)headword.7. metanalysis (再分化)It refers to a process through which a division is made where there were note before.8. Back-formation (逆构词)It refers to an abnormal(非正常)type ofword-formation where a shorter word is derived by deleting(去掉)an imagined affix from a longer form already present in the language.9. Analogical creation:(类比造词)It can account for(说明)the co-existence of two forms, regular and irregular, in the conjugation(结合)of some English verbs.10. Borrowing(借用):English in its development has managed to widen her vocabulary by borrowing words from other languages.11. Phonological change(音变):It is related to language variation in the phonological system of language. It includes loss,(省音)addition,(加音)assimilation,(同化)dissimilation.(异化)12. Grammatical change: Changes in both morphology(词法)and syntax(句法)are listed under this heading.13. Semantic change:(语义变化)It includes broadening,(语义扩大)narrowing,(语义缩小)meaning shift,(意义转化)class shift(词性转换)and folk etymology.(词源变化)14. Orthographic change :(正字法)Changes can also be found at the graphetic level.。