Syntax(句法学) %26 Semantics(语义)(第五章,第七章)

专八加油↖(^ω^)↗语言学（缩略版）1 语言的四个特征:任意性（Arbitrariness），二重性（Duality），创造性（Creativity），移位性（Displacement）2 语言的七个功能：信息功能（Informative），人际功能（Interpersonal Function），施为功能（Performative），感情功能（Emotive Function），寒暄功能（Phatic Communion），娱乐功能（Recreation Function）元语言功能（Metalingual Function）3 语言学的主要分支：语音学（Phonetics），音系学（Phonology）形态学（Morphology），句法学（Syntax)，语义学（Semantics），语用学（Pragmatics），4 宏观语言学（Macrolinguistics）的分支：心理语言学（Psycholinguistics），社会语言学（Sociolinguistics），人类语言学（Anthropological Linguistics，计算机语言学（Computational linguistics）5 规定式（Prescriptive）---描述事情应该是怎样的（describe how things ought to be）描写式（Descriptive）---描述事情本是怎样的（describe how thing are）6 共时研究（Synchronic）---以某个特定时期的语言为研究对象（takes a fixed instant as its point of observation）历时研究（Diachronic）---研究语言各个阶段的发展变化（Study of a language through the course of its history）7 语言（Langue）---说话者的语言能力(the linguistic competence of the speaker）言语（Parole）---语言的实际现象或语料（the actual phenomena or data of linguistic）----索绪尔（Saussure）区分8 语言能力（Competence）---理想语言使用者关于语言的知识储备（underlying knowledge)语言运用（Performance）---真实的语言使用者在实际场景中语言的使用（Actual use ofLanguage)----乔姆斯基（Chomsk）区分9 语音学主要分支:发音语言学（Articulatory Phonetics），声学语言学（Acoustic Phonetics）。

Syntax（句法学）%26Semantics（语义）（第五章,第七章）Syntax1.Syntax（句法）is a branch of linguistics that studies howwords are combined to form sentences and the rules that govern the formation of sentences.2.IC analysis（直接成分分析） is a new approach of sentencestudy that cuts a sentence into two (or more) segments. This kind of pure segmentation is simply dividing a sentence into its constituent elements without even knowing what they really are.3.The term “category”（范畴）in some approaches refers toclasses and functions in its narrow sense, e.g., noun, verb, subject, predicate, noun phrase, verb phrase, etc. More specifically it refers to the defining properties of these general units: the categories of the noun, for example, include number, gender, case and countability; and of the verb, for example, tense, aspect, voice, etc.Semantics1. Semantics（语义学）----the study of language meaning. Meaning is central to the study of communication.2. Word meaningSense and reference are both concerned with the study ofword meaning. They are two related but different aspects of meaning.Sense（意义）---- is concerned with the inherent meaning of the linguistic form. It is the collection of all the features of the linguistic form; it is abstract.Reference（指称）----what a linguistic form refers to in the real, physical world; it deals with the relationship between the linguistic element and the non-linguistic world of experience.3. Major sense relations3.1 SynonymySynonymy（同义词）refers to the sameness or close similarity of meaning. Words that are close in meaning are called synonyms.3.2 Antonymy （反义）a. Gradable antonyms（可分级反义词）----there are often intermediate forms between the two members of a pair, e.g. old-young, hot-cold, tall-short, …b. Complementary antonyms（互补反义词）----the denial of one member of the pair implies the assertion of the other, e.g. alive-dead, male-female, …c.Relational opposites（关系对⽴反义词）----exhibits thereversal of the relationship between the two items, e.g. husband-wife, father-son, doctor-patient, buy-sell, let-rent, employer-employee, give-receive, above-below, …d. Reversive（可逆性反义词）3.3 Hyponymy （上下关系）Hyponymy （上下关系）----the sense relation between a more general, more inclusive word and a more specific word.a. Superordinate（上义词）: the word which is more general in meaning.b. Hyponyms（下义词）: the word which is more specific in meaning.c. Co-hyponyms（同级下义词）: hyponyms of the same superordinate.e.g. Superordinate: furnitureHyponyms: bed, table, desk, dresser, wardrobe, sofa, …3.4 Polysemy （⼀词多义）----the same one word may have more than one meaning.3.5 HomonymyHomonymy---- the phenomenon that words having different meanings have the same form, e.g. different words are identical in sound or spelling, or in both.Homophone（同⾳异义词）---- when two words are identical insound, e.g. rain-reign, night/knight, …Homogragh（同形异义词）---- when two words are identical in spelling, e.g. tear(n.)-tear(v.), lead(n.)-lead(v.), …Complete homonym---- when two words are identical in both sound and spelling4. Componential analysis（成分分析）---- a way to analyze lexical meaning. The approach is based on the belief that the meaning of a word can be dissected into meaning components, called semantic features. For example,Man: [+HUMAN, +ADULT, +ANIMATE, +MALE]Boy: [+HUMAN, -ADULT, +ANIMATE, +MALE]Woman: [+HUMAN, +ADULT, +ANIMATE, -MALE]Girl: [+HUMAN, -ADULT, +ANIMATE, -MALE]Pragmatics语⽤学Pragmatics is the study of how speakers of a language usesentences to effect successful communication.Pragmatics is the study of speaker meaning, contextualmeaning, how more gets communicated than is said.The originSemanticsContext considered Context unconsideredPragmatics Traditional semanticsSentence and utterance话语The relation: Meaning of a sentence is abstract anddecontextualized while meaning of an utterance isconcrete and context-dependent. The meaning of anutterance is based on a sentence meaning and therealization of the abstract meaning of a sentencein a real situation of communication.Example: My bag is heavy. (utterance meaning: a statement,indirec t or polite request, declining someone’s requestfor help)Cooperative Principles and violation of the conversation maxims合作原则和准则的违反The maxim of quantity 数量准则Make your utterance as informative as required. No more and no less.The maxim of quality 质量准则Do not say what you believe to be false and do not saywhat you lack evidence for.The maxim of relation 关系准则Be relevantThe maxim of manner ⽅式准则Avoid obscurity, ambiguity. Be brief and orderly Violation of the maxims and revealing conversation implicature 会话含义The use of the terms principle and maxim does not meanthat the CP and its maxims will be followed by everybody all the time. People do violate them and tell lies. In fact, the significance CP lies in the violations.Examples of the violations of the maxims:1) Violation of the Maxim of QuantityA: What are you readingB: A book.A: Do you know where Dr. Townsend livesB: Somewhere in the southern suburbs of the city. (saidwhen it is known to both A and B that B has Dr. Townsend’s address)2)Violation of the Maxim of QualityA: Would you like to come to our party tonightB: I’m afraid I’m not feeling so well today.(said when it is known to both A and B thatB is feeling perfectly well)3) Violation of the Maxim of RelationA: What time is itB: Well, the paper’s already come.A: The hostess is an awful bore. Don’t you thinkB: The roses in the garden are beautiful, aren’t theyA: What do you think of the lectureB: He’s a good cook.4) Violation of the Maxim of MannerA: Let’s stop and get something to eat.B: Okay, but not M-c-D-o-n-a-l-d-s.A: What did your sister buy at Sears yesterdayB: She bought a red dress, she bought a green dress, and she bought a blue dress.。

英语语言学名词解释
英语语言学是语言学中的一个分支，研究英语的语言结构、语音、语法、语义、语用和历史演变等方面。

以下是一些英语语言学的名词解释：
1. Phonetics（音韵学）：研究语音、发音和声音的学科。

它包括语音学和音系学。

2. Phonology（音系学）：研究语音在语言中的系统性组织和规律性变化的学科。

3. Morphology（形态学）：研究词形变化和词构成的学科。

4. Syntax（句法学）：研究句子结构和语法规则的学科。

5. Semantics（语义学）：研究语言意义的学科，包括词义和句子意义。

6. Pragmatics（语用学）：研究语言在实际使用中的含义和功能的学科。

7. Discourse analysis（语篇分析）：研究语言在实际使用中的连贯性和语篇结构的学科。

8. Historical linguistics（历史语言学）：研究语言的演变和变化的学科。

9. Sociolinguistics（社会语言学）：研究语言和社会、文化、地理和历史等因素之间的关系的学科。

10. Psycholinguistics（心理语言学）：研究语言和心理过程之间的关系的学科，包括语言习得、记忆和理解等。

以上是一些常见的英语语言学名词解释，它们涵盖了英语语言学的主要领域和分支。

第二章1.Phonetics（语音学）：studies speech sounds, including the production of speech, the descriptionand classification of speech sounds, words and connected speech, etc.注意研究研究语音，包括言语的产生（也就是言语在现实中怎样形成、传递和接受），言语的声音，语音的描写和分类，词语和话语连接的是语音学phonetics。

而不是phonology(音系学)，morphology（形态学），syntax （句法学），semantics (语义学)或pragmatics （语用学）。

2.phoneme （音位）：（1）定义：simply refers to a “unit of explicit sound contrast”, 最小的语音对立单位。

就是我们平时所见的最小的语音。

（2）minimal pairs：最小对比对The group of similar sounds to that phoneme is called minimal pairs. 而和那个音位类似的音叫做最小对比对。

（3）书写时，放在//里面：“By convention, a phoneme is placed between slant lines(/ /) while a phone i s placed between square brackets ([ ]).”（P39书上39页）“一般来说，音位放在双斜线（//）内，而语音放在方括号内”。

如：/i:/, /i/, /ai/都是音位，而[help],[pli:]等等都是整个单词的语音。

3.Places of articulation （发音位置）(1). 关于发音位置，我们需要掌握以下几种，以及包括的音，会出选择题比较，哪个和另外三个不属于一类。

TAG:英美文学西方文学史语言学作为一门独立的学科来研究还是人类文化历史新近发展的产物。

在它刚刚出现时，对于语言学到底算不算科学曾经有很大的争论。

但是现在这种争论已经渐渐消失了，语言学在科学领域已经建立了牢固的地位。

在中国，语言的学习已经有很长的历史了，但是现代语言学的研究却还需要经历很长时间才能赶超世界水平。

简述所学各章1、绪论：（linguistics and language）什么是语言学，什么是语言？2、音位学（phonology）：就音位基本概念，音位的区别特征，音位变体，音位分布、对立，超音段音位等作了介绍。

3、形态学（morphology）：研究单词的内部结构以及构词规则4、句法学（syntax）：句法学是一门关于自然语言的句子结构的学问，是普通语言学的核心内容之一。

本讲座含语言的规则系统，句子结构，语法关系，组合规则与移位规则和普通语法等六部分，对句法体系，句子语法性和句法心理现实性，句子成分和基本类型，句子的线性与层次性等作了说明。

5、语义学（semantics）：就语义的定义，研究目标，语义理论的形式化和应用，语义学的历史发展，词汇语义学及句子语义学展开介绍。

6、语用学（pragmatics）：就语用学的起源及定义，语用学和语义学的比较，语境的理解，及语用研究的重要原则等展开讲解。

7、历史语言学（historical linguistics）：语言的变化。

研究语言变化的目的和意义、语言变化的本质、英语的历史发展、语系和语言变化的原因等五部分。

8、社会语言学（sociolinguistics）：社会语境中的语言。

语言变异与语用情景、方言及方言使用的社会功能、双言与双语现象、少数民族方言、社会方言等五部分。

9、心理语言学（psycholinguistics）：学习语言与心脑的关系。

包括语言的生理基础、语言侧化、语言中枢、失语症研究、语言习得的关键期和语言与思维的关系等六部分。

10、语言习得（language acquisition）：人类语言能力的获得机器发展的过程。

句法學（Syntax）Syntax I1. Baker, M. (1988). Incorporation: A theory of grammatical functionchanging. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.2. Baltin, Mark and Collins, Chris, eds. (2003). The Handbook of SyntacticTheory. Cambridge, Massachusetts: Blackwell.3. Burzio, L. (1986) Italian syntax. Dordrecht: Reidel.4. Chao, Yuan-Ren. (1968). A Grammar of Spoken Chinese. Berkeley: U ofCalifornia P.5. Cheng, Lisa Lai-Shen. (1991). On the typology of WH-Questions.Doctoral dissertation. MIT.6. Chomsky, N. (1965). Aspects of the theory of syntax. Cambridge,Mass.: MIT Press.7. Chomsky, N. (1981). Lectures on government and binding. Dordrecht:Foris.8. Chomsky, N. (1986a). Knowledge of language, its nature, origin, anduse. New York: Praeger.9. Chomsky, N. (1991). Some notes on economy of derivation andrepresentation. In R. Freidin, ed., Principles and parameters incomparative grammar. Cambridge, Mass.: MIT press.10. Haegeman, Liliane. .(1994). Introduction to government and bindingtheory. Cambridge, Massachusetts: Blackwell Publisher.11. Huang, Cheng-Teh James. (1982). Logical relations in Chinese and thetheory of grammar. Doctoral dissertation. MIT.12. Larson, R. (1988). On the double object construction. Linguistic Inquiry19: 335-391.13. Lasnik, H. and M. Saito (1992). Move α: Conditions on its applicationand output. Cambridge, Mass.: MIT Press.14. Li and Thompson. (1981). Mandarin Chinese: A Functional ReferenceGrammar.15. Li, Y.-H. Audrey. (1990). Order and constituent in Mandarin Chinese.Dordrecht: Kluwer Academic Publishers.16. May, R. (1985). Logical Form. Cambridge, Mass.: MIT Press.17. Napoli, Donna Jo. (1993). Syntax: Theory and Problems. Oxford.18. Ouhalla, Jamal (1999). Introducing Transformational Grammar. ArnoldPublisher.19. Pollock, J.-Y. (1989). Verb movement, UG and the structure of IP.Linguistic Inquiry 20: 365-424.20. Radford, Andrew. (1988). Transformational grammar: A first course.New York: Cambridge University.21. Radford, Andrew (1997). Syntactic theory and the structure of English.New York: Cambridge University.22. Rizzi, L. (1990). Relativized minimality. Cambridge, Mass.: MIT Press.Syntax IIBooks1. Chomsky, N. (1995). The minimalist program. Cambridge, Mass.: MITPress.2. Lasnik, H. (1999). Minimalist Analysis. Cambridge, Massachusetts:Blackwell.3. Poole, Geoffrey. (2002). Syntactic Theory. New York: Palgrave Macmillan. Articles4. Finer, D. L. (1991). “Binding Parameters in Second Language Acquisition”.Ed. Eubank, L. Point/Counterpoint Universal Grammar in the SecondLanguage. Amsterdam: John Benjamins, 351-374.5. Haegeman, L. (1990). Non-overt subjects in diary contexts. In Mascaro, J.and Nespor, M. editiors, Grammar in progress. GLOW essays for Henkvan Riesdijk. Dordrecht: Foris.6. Huang, C. T. James. (1984). “On the distribution and reference of emptypronouns.” Linguistics Inquiry. 15:531-74.7. Huang, C. T. James. (1990). Pro-drop in Chinese: A Generalized ControlTheory, in O. Jaeggli and K. Safir (ed.) The Null Subject Parameter.185-214.8. Huang, C. T. James and Tang, C. C. Jane (1991). The local nature of thelong-distance reflexive. Chinese, Long-distance Anaphora (eds.) by J.Koster and E. Reuland. Cambridge: Cambridge UP.9. Liceras, J. M. and Diaz, Lourdes. (1990). Topic-drop versus pro-drop: nullsubjects and pronominal subjects in the Spanish L2 of Chinese, English, French, German and Japanese speakers, Second Language research15,1: 1-40.10. Tang, C. C. Jane 1989, Chinese reflexives, Natural Language andLinguistic Theory. 7: 93-121.11. Tsai, W.-T. Dylan 2002, ＜自己、自性、與自然－談漢語中的反身狀語＞,[self, Selfness, and Nature: on Reflexive Adverbials in Chinese], ＜中國語文＞第四期12. White, L. (1985). The pro-drop parameter in adult second languageacquisition. Language Learning. 35: 531-74.13. Xu, L. (1993). “The long-distance binding of ziji.” Journal of ChineseLinguistics. 21:123-14214. Xu, L. (1994). “The Antecedent of ziji.” Journal of Chinese Linguistics. 22:115-136.Reference Journals15. Chinese Studies [漢學雜誌]16. Concentric[台師大英語系學報]17. Journal of East Asian Linguistics18. Journal of Chinese Linguistics19. Language and Philosophy20. Linguistic Inquiry21. Linguistic Review22. Tsing Hua Journal of Chinese Studies[清華學報]23. [中央研究院歷史語言所集刊]24. ＜中國語文＞（大陸出版）。

第一章介绍Applied linguistics运用语言学： findings in linguistic studies can often be applied to the solution of suchpractical problems as the recovery of speech ability. The study of such applications is generally known asapplied linguistics.Descriptive描绘性的： if a linguistic study aims to describe and analyze the language people actually use,it is said to be descriptive.Prescriptive规定性的： if the linguistic study aims to lay down rules for“ correct and standard in using language, i. e. to tell people what they should say and what the should not say, it is said to beprescriptive.Synchronic共时的： the description of a language at some point of time in history is a synchronic study.synchronic study共时研究 : The study of a language at some point in time. e.g. A study of the features ofthe English used in Shakespeare’ s time is a synchronic study.Diachronic历时的： the description of a language as it changes through time is a diachronic study.Diachronic study历时研究 : The study of a language as it changes through time. A diachronic study oflanguage is a historical study, which studies the historical development of language over a period of time.e.g. a study of the changes English has undergone since Shakespeare’ s time is a diachronic study. Langue 语言： refers to the abstract linguistic system shared by all the members of a speech community.Langue is abstract.Parole 语言： refers to the realization of langue in actual use. Parole is concrete.Competence ： (N. Chomsky) defines as the ideal user’ s knowledge of the rules ofe. his languag Performance ： defines as the actual realization of this knowledge in linguistic communication.Design features?Design features refer to the defining properties of human language that distinguish it from any animalsystem of communication. 设计特色是指界定性质的人类差别于其余动物的社交系统。