华中师大《西方语言学史》期末考试备考资料(八)

第一章古代语言学第一节古印度语言研究1．波尼尼的《梵语语法》第二节古希腊、罗马语言研究一、古希腊哲学家的语言研究1．苏格拉底、柏拉图、亚里士多德被并称为“古希腊三贤”，更被后人广泛认为是西方哲学的奠基者。

2.柏拉图《科拉迪洛篇》3.亚里士多德恩格斯称他是古代的黑格尔。

主要著作：《解释篇》《修辞学》《诗学》4.芝诺创立的哲学学派——斯多嘎学派。

因芝诺在雅典意为“彩绘有顶柱廊”的画廊讲学,故称之为画廊学派或斯多葛派二、重要争论：“词”“物”之争1.公元前五世纪：自然派：事物的名称是由事物的本质决定的；惯例派：事物的名称和带我的本质之间没有必然的联系，名称之所以指称事物，是由于惯例。

自然界是如何构成的？自然界的运动情况如何反应到语言之中？观点一：大自然的运动没有什么规律可言观点二：星球的运动和季节的变化不是杂乱无章的，而由一种不可抗拒的规律支配的。

2.公元前三世纪左右（核心转移：如何看待语言的规则）规则派：语言是人为的，就一定有规律的。

语言基本上是有系统，有规则的。

异常派：天然形成的东西没有什么规律可言；如果语言是人为的，人类会早已把不规则的现象纠正过来了--帕加马学派三、古罗马语言学3、瓦罗的《论拉丁语》被称为第一个有著作留下来的认真研究语言的拉丁学者和所有拉丁语学者中最有创见的人。

4、多纳图斯的《语法术》5、普利西安的《语法原理》第二章历史比较语言学一．定义：又称比较语法。

研究语言之间结构上的亲缘关系，通过对有亲属关系的语言进行比较研究，找出它们之间的对应规律，从而构拟这些语言的共同母语。

拉斯克最先对亲属语言进行系统的比较研究，代表作《古代北方语或冰岛语起源的研究》葆朴第一个将梵语与欧洲语言进行系统比较的语言学家洪堡特《论人类语言结构的差异及其对人类精神发展的影响》语言学研究成就：语言类型学。

认为语言有四种类型：孤立语：一个词代表一个意思的。

粘着语：用简单的词组合成复合而词形和意义又都不变的。

屈折语：用词尾变化来表示语法关系的。

西方语言学史期末考查题目一、简述（60分）：1、美国结构主义语言学的基本理论方法及其对汉语研究的影响。

（30分）美国描写主义对现代汉语语法学的影响一、美国描写主义的理论与方法美洲印第安居民有大约可分为150个语种的近千种语言，20世纪初美国学者开始注意研究印第安语言文化。

鲍阿斯（F.Boas）指出，每种语言都有自己的语音、形式和意义的结构，应该依据它本身的特点来描写，而不应该照搬别种语言的预定标准来描写。

美国语言学家采取切分法对这些与印欧语迥然不同的印第安语进行描写，，逐步形成了以语言形式特征为研究重点的描写主义语言学流派。

美国描写主义学派以萨丕尔（E·Sapir）和布龙菲尔德(L·Bloomfield)为代表，他们都赞同索绪尔的语言符号系统观点，都研究共时语言但风格大有不同。

萨丕尔的语言观具有浓厚的人文主义倾向，认为语言纯粹是人类的和非本能的，强调语言中的文化意识。

布龙菲尔德的则以行为主义心理学为理论基础，主张依据"刺激-反应"原理解释语言行为，其代表作《语言论》（1933）影响广泛，以至于人们把20世纪三四十年代的语言学称为"布龙菲尔德时代"，一提到"美国结构主义学派"或"美国描写主义语言学派"主要指布龙菲尔德及其门徒。

心理行为主义、结构形式主义、发现描写主义，显示了布龙菲尔德研究语言的指导原则、理论核心和发现程序，以致于走上了"为了研究形式必须排除意义"的极端。

海里斯（Z.S.Harris）、霍克特（C.F.Hockett）、布洛克（B.Bloch）、格里森（H.Agleason）和弗里斯（C.C.Fries）等人继承和发展了布龙菲尔德学说，除弗里斯和格里森，其他人在语言分析中都绝对排除意义，形成了所谓"后布龙菲尔德结构主义"。

美国描写主义形成了独特的研究分析法。

西方语言学试题及答案一、选择题（每题2分，共20分）1. 语言学研究的主要对象是什么？A. 文学作品B. 语言C. 社会现象D. 历史事件答案：B2. 以下哪个选项不属于语言学的分支学科？A. 语音学B. 语法学C. 心理学D. 语义学答案：C3. 语言学研究的基本原则是什么？A. 描述性B. 规范性C. 历史性D. 以上都是答案：A4. 索绪尔是哪种语言学理论的代表人物？A. 历史语言学B. 结构主义语言学C. 形式语言学D. 功能语言学答案：B5. 以下哪个术语与“语言变化”无关？A. 语言演变B. 语言借用C. 语言死亡D. 语言创造答案：D二、填空题（每题2分，共20分）1. 语言学中，“______”是指语言的最小意义单位。

答案：语素2. 根据乔姆斯基的理论，人类天生具有一种语言能力，这种能力被称为“______”。

答案：语言习得装置3. 在语言学中，“______”是指语言的发音方式。

答案：音位4. “______”是指语言在特定社会和文化背景下的使用。

答案：语用学5. “______”是指语言的语法结构。

答案：句法三、简答题（每题10分，共30分）1. 简述语言学的主要研究方法。

答案：语言学的主要研究方法包括观察法、实验法、调查法、比较法和历史比较法等。

2. 描述一下什么是语言的双重性。

答案：语言的双重性指的是语言同时具有形式和内容两个方面，形式指的是语言的声音、文字等物理实体，内容指的是语言的意义。

3. 解释一下什么是语言的变异。

答案：语言的变异指的是语言在不同地区、不同社会群体或不同时间点上所表现出来的差异。

四、论述题（每题15分，共30分）1. 论述语言和文化之间的关系。

答案：语言和文化是相互影响、相互塑造的。

语言不仅是文化的载体，也是文化的重要组成部分。

文化通过语言得以传承和发展，而语言的多样性和丰富性也反映了文化的多样性。

2. 论述乔姆斯基的生成语法理论对现代语言学的影响。

华师在线网院英语语言学复习资料（考试题库）第一篇：华师在线网院英语语言学复习资料(考试题库)Which of the following forms a minimal pair? A.fear, pear B.tip, pit C.food, foot D.beat, bit 答案:DThe word “realization” consists of _____ syllables as against _____ morphemes.A.five/five B.five/four C.four/three D.four/four 答案:CWhich of the following best describes the relations between ―Alice is a vegetarian‖ and ―Alice prefers eating steak‖?A.The former is synonymous with the latter.B.The former is inconsistent with the latter.C.The former entails the latter.D.The former presupposes the latter.答案:BWhich of the following underlined parts is a free morpheme?A.understandableB.eastwardC.otherwiseD.without 答案:DWhich of the following is a directive? A.Your money or your life!B.You are fired!C.The earth is round.D.Thank you very much.答案:AHow many arguments are there in ―I‘m not feeling very well‖?A.no B.one C.three D.five 答案:BThe word ―boatel‖ is a(n)____.A.acronym B.blend C.clipped word D.coined word 答案:B‘Parent‘ and ‗child‘are ___.A.gradable antonyms B.ungradable opposites C.relational opposites plementary synonyms 答案:CWhich of the following is the head of the phrase ‗often read science fi ctions‘? A.often B.read C.science D.fictions 答案:B ‘That is a box‘ is a ___-place predication.A.no B.one C.two D.three 答案:BThe word ―DINK‖ is a(n)____.A.acronym B.blendC.clipped wordD.coined word 答案:AAround the time of their second birthday, children begin to produce ____ utterances.A.one-word B.two-word C.three-word D.four-word 答案:BWhich of the following underlined parts is NOT an inflectional morpheme? A.teeth B.speaking C.taken D.chaos 答案:DThe design features of human language include the following features EXCEPT____.A.duality of structure B.genetic feature C.arbitrariness D.displacement 答案:B‘Like‘ and ‗dislike‘are ___.A.gradable antonyms B.ungradable opposites C.relational oppositesplementary synonyms 答案:AWhich of the following is an expressive? A.The earth is a globe.B.Your money or your life!C.I‘m very grateful for your help.D.I fire you.答案:C‘Slim‘ and ‗skinny‘are ___.A.dialectal synonyms B.collocational synonyms C.stylistic synonymsD.synonyms that differ in their emotive meaning 答案:DWhich of the following best explains the relationship between ―I like Beijing opera‖ and ―I dislike Beijing opera‖?A.inconsistencyB.anomalyC.contradictionD.entailment 答案:A /16The chief exponent of the behaviorist view of language acquisition is ____.A.Bloomfield B.Chomsky C.Saussure D.Skinner 答案:DWhich of the following is the correct componential analysis of the word ―milk‖?A.[+DRINKS-LIQUID-COUNTABLE]B.[+FOOD-SOLID+COUNTABLE]C.[+FOOD+SOLID+COUNTABLE]D.[+DRINKS+LIQUID-COUNTABLE] 答案:D‘I like both Chinese and western food‘ is a ___-place predication.A.no B.one C.two D.three 答案:CWhich of the following words is NOT a coined word?A.dacronB.kodakC.xeroxD.gym 答案:DWhich of the following is a front, close and unrounded vowel?A.[u:]B.[i:]C.[u]D.[a:] 答案:BWhich of the following underlined parts is a derivational morpheme? rger B.data C.trainee D.Kate‘s 答案:C Which of the following underlined parts is the complement of the phrase? A.a book on biology B.play basketball C.a rainy day D.dance happily 答案:BWhich of the following is a commissive? A.I‘m really sorry to hear that.B.I will bring you the book tomorrow without fail.C.You‘d better go and see her.D.I now declare the meeting open.答案:BThe word unreliable consists of _____ syllables as against _____ morphemes.A.four/three B.five/two C.five/three D.three/five 答案:AWhich of the following is a declaration? A.Open the door, please.B.I appoint you chairman of the committee.C.Would you like to go to the movie with us? D.I‘ve never seen her before.答案:BThe relation between ‗furniture‘and ‗wardrobe‘is ___.A.homophony B.homography C.hyponymy D.polysemy 答案:C The word “realization” consists of _____ syllables as against _____ morphemes.A.five/five B.five/four C.four/three D.four/four 答案:C‘Handsome‘ and ‗pretty‘are ___.A.dialectal synonyms B.collocational synonyms C.stylistic synonymsD.synonyms that differ in their emotive meaning 答案:BThe following underlined parts are termed specifier EXCEPT___? A.run quicklyB.always make mistakesC.very interestingD.the old man 答案:AWhich of the following best describes the relations between ―The police stopped the minors from drinking‖ and ―The minors were drinking‖?A.The former is synonymous with the latter.B.The former is inconsistent with the latter.C.The former entails the latter.D.The former presupposes the latter.答案:DThe first consonants the child can make are made with the lips and they are ____.A.[p,b,n] B.[p,b,m] C.[t,d,n] D.[t,d,m] 答案:B How many morphemes are there in the word ―disorderly‖?A.TwoB.ThreeC.FourD.Five 答案:BThe nativist view of language acquisition is held by ____.A.Bloomfield B.Chomsky C.Saussure D.Skinner / 16 答案:BWhich of the following is an aspirated consonant? A.[f] B.[s] C.[k] D.[r] 答案:CWhich of the following word does NOT belong to the open classes? A.hate B.able C.the D.rapidly 答案:C“Why don‘t you ask Mary for help?‖ is an instance of ____.A.representatives B.expressives C.directives missives 答案:CWhich of the following pairs of words are homographs?A.sew---sowB.tear(a drop of liquid that flows from the eye)---tear(to pull apart)C.tec---techD.mouth(a speech organ)---mouth(an entrance to a cave)答案:BLanguage acquisition refers to the child‘s acquisition of his____.A.first language B.second language C.foreign language D.target language 答案:AWhich of the following word belongs to the open classes?A.sinceB.forC.shenguage 答案:D‘Candy‘ and ‗sweets‘are ___.A.dialectal synonyms B.collocational synonyms C.stylistic synonyms D.synonyms that differ in their emotive meaning 答案:AHow many morphemes can we find in the word ‗internationalize‘? A.Three B.Four C.Five D.Six 答案:BWhich of the following is a representative? A.You‘d better go to see a doctor.B.I promise to buy you something when I come back.C.I now declare the meeting close.D.I have never seen the man before.答案:DWhich of the following pairs of words are homophones?A.flour---flowerB.lead(to guide)---lead(a kind of metal)C.mouth(a speech organ)---mouth(an entrance to a cave)D.animal---cow 答案:A‘She sings very well‘ is a ___-place predication.A.no B.one C.two D.three 答案:BWhich is the feature of the sound [l]? A.palatal B.glottal C.glide D.liquid 答案:D‘True‘ and ‗false‘are ___.A.gradable antonyms B.ungradable opposites C.relational oppositesplementary synonyms 答案:BThe words ―longer‖ and ―shorter‖ are ______ opposites.A.gradable B.ungradable C.relationalplementary 答案:CWhich of the following best describes the relations betwee n ―He is an orphan‖ and ―His parents have died‖? A.Theformer is synonymous with the latter.B.The former is inconsistent with the latter.C.The former entails the latter.D.The former presupposes the latter.答案:A‘Mr.Brown teaches us linguistics.‘ is a ___-place predication.A.no B.one C.two D.three 答案:DThe Great Wall belongs to ____ culture.A.material B.spiritualC.folkD.none of the above 答案:AInstances of mother tongue interference can be found at the level of ____.A.pronunciation B.syntax C.vocabularyD.all of the above 答案:D / 16A linguist is interested in what is said, not what he thinks ought to be said, therefore a linguist would NOT prefer to be a(n)____.A.observer B.judge C.analyser of facts D.recorder of facts 答案:BWhich of the following underlined parts is an inflectional morpheme? A.books B.rename C.active D.sleepy 答案:A Which side(s)of muscles of ours does our left brain control?A.both left and rightB.leftC.rightD.sometimes left, sometimes right 答案:CWhich of the following is an example of overgeneralization?A.eyesB.earsC.sheepD.foots 答案:DWhich of the following is the hyponym of the word ―furniture‖? A.house B.kitchen C.article D.wardrobe 答案:D ‘Commence‘ and ‗begin‘are ___.A.dialectal synonyms B.collocational synonyms C.stylistic synonyms D.synonyms that differ in their emotive meaning 答案:C‘It is 8 o‘clock‘ is a ___-place predication.A.no B.one C.two D.three 答案:A“It‘s cold.‖ is a _____-place predication.A.no B.one C.twoD.three 答案:AWhich of the following best describes the relations b etween ―He paid a visit to Japan.‖ and ―He paid a visit to East Asia.‖? A.The former is synonymous with the latter.B.The former is inconsistent with the latter.C.The former entails the latter.D.The former presupposes the latter.4 / 16答案:CThe words ―subway‖ and ―underground‖ are ______ synonyms.A.near B.dialectalC.collocationally-restrictedD.stylistic 答案:BWhich of the following underlined parts is a bound morpheme? A.relationship B.bedroom kman D.childlike 答案:AThe following sounds belong to the same natural class EXCEPT ___.A.[d] B.[s] C.[u] D.[i:] 答案:B“Up you go, chaps!‖ belongs to ____ language.A.intimateB.frozenC.consultativeD.casual 答案:AWhich of the following best describes the relations between ―Alice‘s brother is in UK.‖ and ―Alice has a brother.‖?A.The former is synonymous with the latter.B.The former is inconsistent with the latter.C.The former entails the latter.D.The former presupposes the latter.答案:DThe linguist that distinguishes three social variables(Field, Mode, Tenor)that determine the register is ____.A.Chomsky B.Halliday C.Bloomfield D.Firth 答案:BHow many syllables are there in the word ―rhythmical‖?A.ThreeB.FourC.FiveD.Ten 答案:AWhich of the following pairs of words are complete homonyms? A.flour---flowerB.lead(to guide)---lead(a kind of metal)C.heroin---horoineD.criket---criket 答案:DThe word ‗predigestion‘ is composed of two morphemes.答案:错误The words ‗flat‘ and ‗apartment‘ are stylistic synonyms.答案:错误 If Smith said to you in a supermarket, ' I am thirsty now, but I have no money with me' , then his perlocutionary act is your buying him a coca-cola.答案:正确B probably means that A should not laugh at him since they know each other, in the dialogue below: A: Are you a good student? B: Are you? 答案:正确Semantics is the study of word meaning.答案:错误Performance is the focus of Chomsky‘s linguistic study.答案:错误F.de Saussure was a Swiss linguist.答案:正确The narrowing of space between the hard palate and the front of the tongue results in the sound [j].答案:正确A phone does not necessarily distinguish meaning.答案:正确In ‗a book about ghosts‘, the complement is ‗ghosts‘.答案:错误According to Austin, ' He is a boy.' is a constative.答案:正确Sound changes tend to be systematic.答案:正确Pragmatics is the study of meaning in context of language use.答案:正确Displacement of language means language use in a far-away place.答案:错误Linguistics is scientific because it is helpful to language use.答案:错误If I said to you, ' It' s very stuffy here.' , then my illocutionary act may be asking you to switch on the air-conditioner.答案:正确B' s reply violates the maxim of quality in the dialogue below: A: Where do you live? B: In South China Normal University.答案:错误Morphology is the study of sentences.答案:错误ISBN means International Standard Book Number.答案:正确One of the most important features of bilingualism is the specialization of function of the two varieties.答案:错误/ 16Context refers to the relation between lines or paragraphs of a text.答案:错误B probably means that he doesn' t want to make any comment on the lecture, in the dialogue below: A: What do you think of the lecture?(The speech maker is coming)B: Do we have classes this evening? 答案:正确Linguistics is generally divided into general and specific linguistics.答案:错误The word ' quake' is the result of back-formation.答案:错误The word ' education' comes from Latin.答案:正确Computer language is one of the sources that have influenced the English language.答案:正确A prominent phonological feature of Black English is the deletion of the consonant at the end of a word, as in ' desk' [des].答案:正确If a child calls every man ' Daddy' , then he is over-extending the meaning of the word ' Daddy'.答案:正确The human brain is divided into two sections, the brain stem and the cerebrum.答案:正确' Do not say what you believe to be false' is a maxim of relation.答案:错误Linguistics deals with a particular language.答案:错误Sociolinguistics deals with the relation between language and society.答案:正确Writing is more basic than speech.答案:错误The word ' silly' used to mean ' happy' in Old English.答案:正确A typical example of a bilingual community is an ethnic ghetto where most of the inhabitants are either immigrants or children of immigrants.答案:正确Language plays a major role in socializing the people and perpetuating culture, especially in print form.答案:正确The sentence ' Himself saw John.' is acceptable in English.答案:错误According to Chomsky, the internalization of a set of rules about his language enables a speaker to produce and understand an infinitely large number of sentences and recognize sentences that are ungrammatical and ambiguous.答案:正确‘Teach-in‘ is a compound word.答案:正确The –s in ‗works‘of ‗He works hard.‘is a bound morpheme.答案:正确‘Mary is single.‘ is inconsistent with ‗Mary is married.‘答案:正确According to Austin, ' I bet you sixpence it will be fine this evening.' is a performative.答案:正确Details of language system are genetically transmitted.答案:错误Syntax is the study of the rules of words.答案:错误By ' He wanted me to come' , a learner produced such an incorrect sentence as ' He hoped me to come'.This constitutes the situation of cross-association.答案:错误The greatest source of modification of the air stream is found in the oral cavity.答案:正确The word ' dinner' comes from French.答案:正确People in the West End in London speak differently from the East Enders.答案:正确In English, the word ' blue' is associated with unhappy feelings.答案:正确Victor, a wild child, who was deprived of language contact for 12 years, was trained by Itard, but could only speak only two words in the end.答案:正确According to Littlewood, the first language study has served as a backcloth for perceiving and understanding new facts about second language learning.答案:正确In TG, determiner is often written as Det.答案:正确A phoneme is a phonetic unit.答案:错误The words ‗buy‘ and ‗purchase‘ are dialectal synonyms.6 / 16答案:错误Linguistics is the systematic study of language.答案:正确Parole is a French word;it means the concrete language events.答案:正确Duality of language means language is a two-level system.答案:正确English is a tone language.答案:错误In the sense set < freshman, sophomore, junior, senior> , ‗junior‘ and ‗senior‘ are co-hyponyms.答案:正确' Make your contribution as informative as required(for the current purpose of the exchange).' belongs to the maxim of quality.答案:错误About two thirds of languages in the world have not hadwritten form.答案:正确Diachronic linguistics is also called historical linguistics.答案:正确The task of a linguist is to discover the nature and rules of the underlying language system 答案:正确The word ' videophone' is an acronym.答案:错误The word ' holiday' has gone through the widening of meaning.答案:正确Accent is an important marker of sociolect.答案:正确[ei] is a monophthong.答案:错误‘His dumb boy spoke good English.‘ is a contradiction.答案:正确' The room is air-conditioned.' is an expressive.答案:错误Left-handers are generally less lateralized for language than right-handers.答案:正确If you scratch your nose with your left hand, it is the right hemisphere that has controlled the actions.答案:正确[h] is the glottal sound.答案:正确‘I have been to Beijing.‘ entails ‗I have been to North China.‘答案:正确' I fire you!' is a commissive.答案:错误Phonology studies how a sound is produced.答案:错误Synchronic linguistics deals with a series of language phenomena at the same time.答案:错误The word ' videophone' is an acronym.答案:错误The term ' diglossia' was first used by Ferguson in 1959.答案:正确The pronunciation of ' this' as ' dis' is very likely to be caused by interlingual interference.答案:正确The words ‗doctor‘ and ‗patient‘ are relational synonyms.答案:正确Linguists are interested in all sounds.答案:错误Phonetics studies human sound patterning and the meaning of sounds in communication.答案:错误Langue means competence.答案:错误Arbitrariness of language means language can be used freely.答案:错误N.Chomsky is an American linguist.答案:正确Different styles of the same language can be revealed through differences at syntactic, lexical and phonological levels.答案:正确It is standard practice for an English native student to greet his teacher before a lecture by saying ' Good morning, teacher!'.答案:错误Language acquisition is concerned with the acquisition of a foreign language.答案:错误Some subtle grammatical distinctions may not be mastered much before the age of ten.答案:正确There have been some 2,500 languages in the world.答案:错误[k], [g] and [n] are velar sounds.7 / 16答案:错误Tsled‘ is a possible word in English.答案:错误Chomsky regards competence as an act of doing things with a sentence.答案:错误The expression ' It' s me' is Not acceptable in English.答案:错误For the British people, the Chinese greeting ' Have you had dinner?' would turn into ' It' s fine today, isn' t it?'.答案:正确Such sentences as ' there are more and more people want tobe a postgraduate student' indicate the Chinese transfer errors.答案:正确Phonology is of a general nature.答案:错误The word ' mice' , which is pronounced as [mais], was pronounced as [mi:s] in Middle English.答案:正确Psycholinguistics deals with the relation of language to psychology.答案:正确The word ' meat' we use now has gone through the narrowing of meaning.答案:正确Pidgins came from a blending of a few languages.答案:正确Intercultural communication is also called cross-cultural communication.答案:正确The expression ' mummy play ball' is typical of telegraphic speech.答案:正确General linguistics does not study theories of language.答案:错误The word ' beer' comes from German.答案:正确Subjects take less time to make judgment on frequently used words than on less common words.This is called the frequency effect.答案:正确' We have never met before.' is a representative.答案:正确The use of the expressions ' to update' , ' to host' and ' to check up' indicates the influence of American English.答案:正确The Chinese ' uncle' means the same as the British ' uncle'.答案:错误It is acceptable to translate ' Every dog has his day.' into ' 每条狗都有自己的日子。

欧美语言学考试重点第一题：连线1、柏拉图—《克拉底洛篇》。

2、斯拉克思的—《语法科学》。

3、瓦罗《论拉丁语》。

4、普里森—《语法惯例》。

5、阿尔福利柯—《拉丁语法》、《拉丁会话手册》。

6、但丁《论俗语》。

7、洛克—《论人类认识》。

8、巴尼尼的—《梵语语法》（《八书》）。

9、马丁内—《语言演变的经济原则》。

10、萨丕尔—《论语言》。

11、布龙菲尔德—《语言论》。

12、鲍阿斯—《美国印第安语手册》。

13希思帕尼斯-《逻辑纲要》14葆朴-《论梵语动词变位系统，与希腊语、拉丁语、波斯语和日耳曼语相比较》14拉斯克发表《古代北方语或冰岛语的起源研究》15波特发表《词源探讨》16格里姆《德语语法》17威亷·冯·洪堡特-《论人类语言结构的多样性》18施莱歇-《立陶宛语手册》《印欧语言比较语法手册》19维柯-《新科学》20惠特尼—《语言与语言研究》，《语言的生命与成长》21特鲁别茨科伊—《音位学原理》22叶尔姆斯列夫—《语言理论绪论》23海里斯—《结构语言学的方法》24、马林诺夫斯基—《基里维纳语的分类小品词》25、韩礼德—《语言理论的范畴》《语言科学和语言教学》《语言功能探索》、、《语言的系统与功能》、《功能语法概论》第二题：填空1、《克雷特利斯》中关于“词为什么具有意义”的对话。

开启了古希腊语法研究的先河。

2、狄俄尼索斯·斯拉克思的《语法科学》，总结了亚历山大学派的语法研究工作，是西方第一部完整的、全面的语法书。

3、罗马最著名的语法学家瓦罗，著作《论拉丁语》，把语言研究分为三大部分：词源学，形态学和句法学。

4、波依修斯-，中世纪初期最有影响的学者，他第一次提出了语言的普遍现象问题。

5、13世纪，希思帕尼斯不朽著作《逻辑纲要》成为欧洲各大学的教科书，影响深远。

法国语法家，拉梅，当时的结构主义先驱。

反对亚里士多德，反对经院哲学。

洛克被尊为现代欧洲语义学的鼻祖。

他著有《论人类认识》潘尼尼是印度语法学家的杰出代表。

语言学概论via GJM题型：名词解释（定义+分类+举例）+分析题+简答题+论述题+小作文（具体体会/收获）第一章：语言和语言学（第一节重点，第四节不考）第一节：语言的性质（内涵）和范围（外延）1.语言的定义（结构+功能）：语言是一种复杂的符号系统，是人类进行社会交际和思维认知的工具。

2.语言的性质：（6种）A.语言的符号性：如果用甲事物代表乙事物，而甲乙两事物之间没有必然的联系，那么甲事物就是代表乙事物的符号；其中甲事物就是符号的能指（形式），乙事物就是符号的所指（内容）——符号三要素：能指、所指、人为约定。

语言符号主要的相互关联的特征：a．语言符号的任意性和理据性（所有符号的共同特征）——能指和所指之间无必然联系、可自由选择/合成词都有明显理据（雨衣、学者），单纯词中也有一些词理据清楚（叮当、滴答）；b．语言符号的稳固性和渐变性——凡是具有广泛社会性的符号都具有稳固性；语言符号一般只能采取渐变的方式；c．语言符号的线条性和层次性——线条性指人说话时语言符号在时间上一次出现呈现一种线性序列；语言符号序列的内部结构是有层次的（P6）。

B.语言的系统性：系统是指由若干互相联系的元素构成的有组织的整体，基本特征是元素的联系性和功能的整体性。

系统性就是指系统元素之间的有机联系性。

语言是由符号这种元素构成的系统，语言的符号和符号之间有各种联系（语音、语义、结构、功能等方面）。

a．由于语言符号是相互联系的，所以一个语言符号的价值和作用，取决于该符号在语言系统中的地位和该符号与其他相关符号的关系；b．由于语言具有系统性，一个语言符号发生了变化，就会引起相关语言符号的变化。

C.语言的社会性：社会性自然是语言的本质属性，自然语言从形成到发展变化甚至直到消亡，都取决于社会意志和社会需要，离开了社会，语言就不可能生存和发展。

D.语言的民族性：不同民族的语言有不同的特点，这就是语言的民族性。

语言的民族性是由语言的社会性决定的。

西方语言学史大纲一、传统语文学的界定、性质及其兴起1.传统语文学的界定传统语文学是传统语言学的重要组成部分，它主要包括三大语文传统，分别是古希腊传统、古印度传统，以及中世纪阿拉伯传统。

传统语言学是一个与现代语言学相对的概念，泛指20世纪以前的语言学，特别是指索绪尔的语言学理论之前的各种语言学理论。

那么，与它相对的现代语言学就是指20世纪以来，建立在瑞士语言学家索绪尔的语言理论基础上的各种语言流派及其分支学科的总称。

传统语言学和现代语言学是在时间上完全相对的两个概念。

它们以20世纪索绪尔的语言理论为分界点，把人类史上的全部语言研究分成了两部分——在索绪尔理论之前的属于传统语言学的范畴，而在索绪尔理论之后的就属于现代语言学的范畴。

内容上，传统语言学主要由三部分组成，按照时间顺序，它们分别是传统语文学，早期的普通语言学和历史比较语言学。

到这里，我们就能对传统语文学的历史范畴问题有了一个比较清晰的认识。

2.传统语文学的性质“依附性”是传统语文学重要的性质。

传统语文学并不能算作一门真正的独立学科，只能称为语言学的前奏。

要成为一门真正的“学科”，必须要有自己独立的研究对象，独立的研究方法以及多样化的研究材料，而传统语文学并不具备这三个条件。

在汉语中，语文学和语言学虽然仅仅是一字之差，但它们是完全不同的两个词。

语文学是英语philology的汉译，语言学的英文是linguistics。

（1）研究对象方面历史比较语言学以语言为独立研究对象，它通过语言特点的研究揭示语言共性的结构规律和演变规律，与文学、历史学、哲学等一样，是一门独立的科学。

而语文学并不能算作一门真正的学科，它诞生和发展的过程始终不能摆脱其他科学的附庸这一地位。

（2）研究方法方面在语言学诞生之初就是历史比较法，而语文学始终没有自己独立的研究方法（3）研究材料方面历史比较语言学主要是方言、亲属语言等“活”材料，并以此为基础结合历史上遗留下来的书面材料，进行历史比较的研究，借此对“死”材料作出“活”的解释，揭示语言的结构规律和演变规律。

华中师范大学智慧树知到“汉语言文学”《西方语言学史》网课测试题答案（图片大小可自由调整）第1卷一.综合考核(共10题)1.继索绪尔之后，出现了三派结构主义语言学，即()。

A.布拉格学派B.哥本哈根学派C.美国结构主义D.伦敦语言学派2.人类语言与动物交际系统有哪些区别?()A.人类语言具有任意性B.人类语言具有双重结构C.人类语言具有位移D.人类语言有文化遗传性3.历时语言学具有普遍性，但没有强制性﹔共时语言学定律有一定的强制性。

()T.对F.错4.1786年，琼斯在加尔各答皇家亚洲学会上宣读论文，确定了梵语与拉丁语、希腊语和日耳曼语并没有关系。

()T.对F.错5.()和类推是促使语言变化的两大因素A.音色B.音高C.音变D.音强6.是“描写”还是“规定”语言，正是传统语法与现代语言学的分水岭。

()T.对F.错7.韩礼德总结说，儿童在语言发展过程中，逐渐掌握七种功能，到了成年时，功能范围缩减到三种，不包括()。

A.工具功能B.概念功能C.交际功能D.语篇功能8.交际力：表示句子各部分所传达的信息量。

()T.对F.错9.系统语言学的特点包括()。

A.系统语言学十分重视语言在社会学上的特征B.系统语言学认为语言是做事的一种方式，而不是知识方式C.系统语言学比较重视对个别语言以及个别变体的描写D.系统语言学用连续体的概念来解释许多语言事实，我们创造的描写范畴往往不那么明确，多少有些模棱两可10.以下关于语言和言语的关系表述错误的是()。

A.语言是一种语法系统，潜伏在人的大脑之中，言语是语言的运用，是语言的具体表现B.语言存在于人的大脑中不完整，只有在一个社会群体才是完整的，言语必须是一个人一个人的运用C.言语是总体，语言从属于言语D.言既是言语的工具，也是言语的产物第1卷参考答案一.综合考核1.参考答案：ABC2.参考答案：ABCD3.参考答案：F4.参考答案：F5.参考答案：C6.参考答案：T7.参考答案：A8.参考答案：T9.参考答案：ABCD10.参考答案：C。

《语言学》试题集及答案I. Tick off the correct or the best possible answers:1.One of the properties of language is that a language user can understand andproduce sentences he/she has never heard before. This property of language is called ________.A. dualityB. productivityC. displacementD. arbitrariness Key: B2.The ______ function refers to the fact that language can be used forestablishing a favorable atmosphere or maintaining social contact rather than for exchanging information or ideas.A. phaticB. directiveC. evocativeD. performative Key: A3.From a functional approach, the _______ meaning of a language use consistsof what is communicated of the feelings and attitudes of the speaker/writer.A. affectiveB. associativeC. stylisticD. collocative Key: A4.When –ing in ‘gangling’ is removed to get a verb ‘gangle’, we call this way ofcreating words ________.A. suffixationB. back-formationC. blendingD. acronymy Key: B5.______ refers to the process by which words rise from humble beginnings topositions of importance.A. DegradationB. SpecializationC. ElevationD. Extension Key: C6.As we know, every speaker has his own pet words and expressions and specialway of expressing his ideas in language. This language variety of individual users is called ______.A. idiolectB. regional dialectC. temporal dialectD. social dialect Key: A7.When pitch, stress and length variations are tied to the sentence rather than tothe word, they are collectively known as ________.A. intonationB. toneC. phonemeD. sentence stress Key: A8._______ refers to the change of a sound as a result of the influence of anadjacent sound.A. Addition of soundB. Loss of soundC. MetathesisD. AssimilationKey: D9.Basically, all the languages in the world can be classified in terms of languagefamily. Vietnamese and Korean are two languages in the ______ family.A. Indo-EuropeanB. Sino-TibetanC. Hamito-SemiticD. Malayo-PolynesianKey: B10. A _______ is the minimal contrastive unit in the writing system of a language.A. morphemeB. phonemeC. graphemeD. letterKey: C11.All mono-morphemic words are constituted by free morphemes, and thosepoly-morphemic words which consist wholly of free morphemes are called_________.A. hyponymsB. compoundsC. blendsD. allomorphsKey: B12.The requirement that the forms of two or more words of specific word classeswhich stand in specific syntactic relationship with one another shall also be characterized by the same paradigmatically marked category or categories is called _______.A. concordB. governmentC. recursivenessD. cohesionKey: A13. The formation of new words by combining parts of two words or a word plus apart of another is called _____.A. blendingB. clippingC. acronymyD. compoundingKey: A14. The distinction of ‘linguistic potential’ and ‘actual linguistic behavior’ isproposed by _______.A. N. ChomskyB. F. de SaussureC. M. A. HallidayD. J. AustinKey: C15. The word meaning given in the dictionary is called _____ meaning.A. denotativeB. connotativeC. collectiveD. stylisticKey: A16. When we consider the variation relating to what a user is trying to do withlanguage, we are dealing with addressee relationship—continually categorized as “______”.A. tenor of discourseB. mode of discourseC. field of discourseD. idiolectKey: A17. According to words’ structures, Turkish is a typical ______ language.A. isolatingB. fusionalC. analyticD. agglutinativeKey: D18. ______ refer to the fact that one type of utterance is typically followed by aspecial type of utterance.A. Minimal pairsB. Illocutionary actsC. Social dialectsD. Adjacency pairsKey: D19. The relation between “dead” and “alive” is labeled as ________.A. gradabilityB. complementarityC. hyponymyD. homonymyKey: B20. The words “encore” and “au pair” are loanwords from _______.A. FrenchB. GermanC. ItalianD. SpanishKey: A21. The distinction of langue and parole is proposed by______.a. N. Chomskyb. F. de Saussurec. M. A. Hallidayd. J. Austin Key: b22.Which of the following is the exception to the feature of arbitrariness oflanguage?a. native English wordsb. borrowed wordsc. echoic wordsd. one-syllable wordsKey: c23.Which of the following feature cannot be used to describe the phone [s]?a. voicelessb. oralc. alveolard. lateral Key: d24.In terms of place of articulation, the two consonants [f], [v] are ________.a. dentalb. alveolarc. palatald. labiodental Key: d25.In terms of manner of articulation, the sounds [p], [b], [t], [d], [k], [g] are________.a. affricatesb. fricativesc. bilabiald. oral stops Key: d26.Which of the following statements about allophone is NOT correct?a. Allophones are different forms of the same phonemeb. Allophones of the same phoneme are in complementary distribution.c. Allophones distinguish meaning.d. Allophones are language specific.Key: c27.Which of the following words is not a free morpheme?a. ableb. petc. changed. dustyKey: d28.How many morphemes are there in the word discharged?a. 2b. 3c. 4d. 5Key: b29.Which of the following words is made up of bound morphemes only?a. happinessb. televisionc. ecologyd. teacherKey: c30. Language is passed on from one generation to the next by teaching and learningrather than by instinct. This property of language is called_____.a. interchangeabilityb. productivityc. cultural transmissiond. arbitrarinessKey: c31.The famous quotation from Shakespeare’s play Romeo and Juliet‘A rose byany other name would smell as sweet’ well illustrates _______.A. the conventional nature of languageB. the creative nature of languageC. the universality of languageD. the big difference between human language and animal communication Key: A32.Of the following sound combinations, only _______ is permissible according tothe sequential rules in English.A. kiblB. bkilC. ilkbD. ilbkKey: A33.The sentence that has a NP and a VP can be shown in a _______ formula “S→NP VP”.A. hierarchicalB. linearC. tree diagramD. vertical Key: B34.It is the _______ on Case assignment that states that a Case assignor and a Caserecipient should stay adjacent to each other.A. Case ConditionB. Case ParameterC. Adjacent ConditionD. Adjacent ParameterKey: C35. Predication analysis is a way to analyze _______ meaning.A. phonemeB. wordC. phraseD. sentence Key: D36. According to Searle, those illocutionary acts whose point is to commit the speaker to some future course of action are called _______.A. commisivesB. directivesC. expressivesD. declaratives Key: A37. The term _______ linguistics may be defined as a way of referring to the approach which studies language change over various periods of time and at various historical stages.A. synchronicB. diachronicC. comparativeD. historical comparativeKey: B38. The way in which people address each other depends on their age, sex, social group, and personal relationship. The English system of address forms frequently used includes first name, last name, title+last name, _______, and kin term.A. title+first nameB. title+titleC. title aloneD. first name+last name+titleKey: C39. Language and thought may be viewed as two independent circles overlapping insome parts. When language and thought are identical or closely parallel to each other, we may regard thought as “subvocal speech,” and speech as “_______”.A. vocal thoughtB. subvocal thoughtC. covert thoughtD. overt thoughtKey: D40.Whcih of the following best states the behaviorist view of child language acquisition?A. Language acquisition is a process of habit formation.B. Language acquisition is the species-specific property of human beings.C. Children are born with an innate ability to acquire language.D. Humans are equipped with the neural prerequisites for language and language use.Key: A41. The words “kowtow” and “tea ” are loanwords from _______.A. ChineseB. GermanC. ItalianD. SpanishKey: A42. The term _______ linguistics may be defined as a way of referring to the approach which studies language change over various periods of time and at various historical stages.A. synchronicB. diachronicC. comparativeD. historical comparativeKey: B43. The formation of new words by combining parts of two words or a word plus a part of another is called _____.A. blendingB. clippingC. acronymyD. compounding Key: A44. According to words’ structures, Latin is a typical ______ language.A. isolatingB. fusionalC. analyticD. agglutinative Key: B45. The relation between “animal” and “lamb” is labeled as ________.A. gradabilityB. complementarityC. hyponymyD. homonymyKey: C46. One of the property of language is that there is no logical connection between meaning and sounds. This property of language is called________.A. dualityB. productivityC. displacementD. arbitrariness Key: D47. The________ function refers to the use of language to create certain feelings in the hearer.A. phaticB. directiveC. evocativeD. performative Key: A48. The _______ meaning of a word consists of the associations it acquires on account of the meanings of words which tend to occur in its environment.A. associativeB. affectiveC. stylisticD. collocativeKey: D49. When –or in editor is removed to get a verb edit, we call this way of creating words ________.A. suffixationB. back-formationC. blendingD. acronymyKey:50. The relation between “rose” and “flower” is labeled as ________.A. gradabilityB. complementarityC. hyponymyD. homonymyKey: C51. Language can be used to refer to contexts removed from the immediate situations of the speaker. This is what we mean by __________.A. dualityB. productivityC. displacementD. arbitrariness Key: C52. When language is used to get the hearer to do something, then it serves a _______ function.A. directiveB. informativeC. interrogativeD. expressive53. The description of a language at some point in time is a ________ study.A. diachronicB. synchronicC. descriptiveD. prescriptive Key: B54. The distinction between “competence” and “performance” was made by______ .A. N. ChomskyB. F. de SaussureC. M. A. HallidayD. L. BloomfieldKey: A55. According to the places of articulation, sounds in English such as [t], [l], and[z] can be labeled as _______ ones.A. dentalB. bilabialC. velarD. alveolarKey: D56. According to the morphological analysis, the underlined part in the word “inter nation alism” should be regarded as a ___________ .A. rootB. stemC. prefixD. suffixKey: B57. Words such as “telex” and “workfare” are creat ed through ___________.A. affixationB. compoundingC. conversionD. blendingKey: D58. According to the syntactic construction analysis, simple sentence such as “John is a student.” belongs to __________construction.A. endocentricB. exocentricC. coordinateD. subordinate Key: B59. The sense relationship between “male” and “female” is _________.A. complementarityB. gradabilityC. relational oppositesD. hyponymy Key: A60. Componential analysis is a method of analyzing________ meaning.A. sentenceB. lexicalC. grammaticalD. utteranceKey: BII. Are the following statements true (T) or false (F)?1. A sentence cannot be a word or a fragment in strict sense, but an utterance canbe a word or a fragment of a sentence. T/FKey: T2.It doesn’t make sense to ask what language a sentence belongs to. T/FKey: F3. A stem first of all refers to any morpheme or combination of morphemes, but anaffix can be added to it. T/FKey: T4.Every word in a language can find at least one referent in the objective world.T/FKey: F5.In most cases, lexicon means vocabulary and is related to the analysis andcreation of words, idioms and collocations. T/FKey: T6.The use of the term ‘implicature’ is different from ‘implication’ in that it usuallyindicates a rather narrowly defined logical relationship between two propositions. T/FKey: F7. A phrase means two or more words in sequence, intended to have meaning, thatform a syntactic unit that is less than a complete sentence. It is actually synonymous with word group. T/FKey: F8.Collocation is a term in lexicology used by some linguists to refer to thehabitual co-occurrences of individual lexical items, or collocates. This relation of co-occurrence usually cannot be accounted for. T/FKey: T9.In order to understand how conversational principles work, we may considerhow each maxim actually works and how people observe these maxims in daily communication. T/FKey: T10.Syntax studies the rules which govern the ways words, word groups and phrasesare combined to make grammatical sentences in a language, i.e. it deals with the relationships between elements in sentence structures. T/FKey: T11.Even in modern society, the primary medium is sound for all languages, andthe fact that children acquire spoken language first before they can read or write also indicates that language is primarily vocal.Key: T12.The defining properties of human language that distinguish it from any animalsystem of communication are termed design features.Key: T13.There are other channels, besides language, for communicating our thoughts,so language is only one aspect of semiotics.Key: T14.Modern linguistics regards the spoken language as primary, written languageas secondary.Key: T15.Descriptive linguistics aims to lay down rules for ‘correct’ language use, i.e.,to tell people what they should say and what should not say.Key: F16.Phonology is the branch of linguistics which studies the characteristics ofspeech sounds and their patterns.Key: F17.The case category is used in the analysis of word classes to identify thesyntactic relationship between words in a sentence.Key: Tnguage is genetically transmitted.Key: F19.The grammar taught today to language learners is still basically descriptive. Key: F20.All the sounds produced by human are speech sounds.Key: F21.Generally speaking, pragmatics can be understood as a branch of linguisticstudy that deals with the factors that govern our choice of language in social interaction and the effects of our choice on others.Key: T22.[f], [v], [s], [z], [︒] and [±] are all fricative in English, but [︒] and [±] arealveolar while [f] and [v] are dental.Key: F23.In most cases, sentence is synonymous with utterance.Key: F24.Syntax exclusively deals with the study of the interrelationships betweenelements in sentence structure, and it has nothing to do with exploring the syntactic relation beyond sentence boundary.Key: F25.The London School proposed a functional approach towards the concept ofphoneme, and N. Trubetzkoy made the greatest contribution to the related study.Key: F26.A phoneme in a language is a distinctive sound which is capable ofdistinguishing one word or one shape of a word from another.Key: T27.Every language is part of a culture, and it cannot but serve and reflect culturalneeds.Key: T28.Sentence can be extended either by conjoining or embedding, and aconstruction where constituents have been linked through the use of conjunction indicates a paratactic relation.Key: F29.Both Chinese and English are tone languages.Key: F30.Words are the smallest meaningful units of language.Key: F31.Derivation changes always result in change of the word class of the originalwords.Key: T32.Pitch variations may be distinctive like phonemes, and in this function they arecalled tones. Languages using tones, like Chinese, are called tone language. Key: T33.The notion of inflection just indicates the manifestation of grammaticalrelationships, rather than lexical ones, through the addition of inflectional affixes.Key: T34.The same morpheme always takes different forms in different contexts. Key: T35. According to P. Grice, whether a speaker follows or violates the Maxims of the Cooperative Principle, he produces some implicature, i.e. a kind of extra meaning that is not contained in the utterance.Key: T36.In the history of any language the writing system always came into being before the spoken form. T/FKey: F37.In English, long vowels are also tense vowels because when we pronounce a long vowel such as/i:/, the larynx is in a state of tension. T/FKey: T38.A compound is the combination of only two words. T/FKey: F39.“The student”in the sentence “The student liked the linguistic lecture”, and “The linguistic lecture” in the sentence “The linguistic lecture liked the student.”belong to the same syntactic category. T/FKey: T40.Linguistic forms having the same sense may have different references in different situations while linguistic forms with the same reference always have the same sense. T/FKey: F41.An important difference between presupposition and entailment is that presupposition, unlike entailment, is not vulnerable to negation. That is to say, if a sentence is negated, the original presupposition is still true. T/FKey: T42.The division of English into Old English, Middle English, and Modern Englishis non-conventional and not arbitrary. T/FKey: Fnguage reflects sexism in society. Language itself is not sexist, just as it is not obscene; but it can connote sexist attitudes as well as attitudes about social taboos or racism. T/FKey: T44.If a child is deprived of linguistic environment, he or she is unlikely to learn a language successfully later on. T/FKey: T45.When children learn to distinguish between the sounds of their language and the sounds that are not part of the language, they can acquire any sounds in their native language once their parents teach them. T/FKey: F46. Leonard Bloomfield maintained that linguistics should describe instead of prescribe what people actually say and should take a deductive approach in analyzing data.Key: F47. Chomsky believes that linguistic study and research can help explain what happens in the mind, and linguistics should be regarded as a branch of psychology. Key: F48. Halliday claims that if we are given an adequate specification of the semantic properties of the context in terms of field, tenor and mode, we should be able to predict the syntactic properties of texts.Key: F49. Onomatopoeia indicates a non-arbitrary relationship between form and meaning.Key: F50. Traffic light system has the feature of duality.Key: F51. The distinction of ‘linguistic potential’ and ‘actual linguistic behavior’ isproposed by N. Chomsky.Key: F52. In English there are three nasal sounds. They are [m], [n], and [l].Key: T53. A morpheme is the minimal contrastive unit in the writing system of a language. Key: F54. According to the functions of affixes, we can put them into groups: inflectional affixes and derivational affixes.Key: T55. Compounding is the formation of new words by joining two or more stems. Key: T56. Metathesis refers to the change of a sound as a result of the influence of an adjacent sound.Key: F57. The requirement that the forms of two or more words of specific word classeswhich stand in specific syntactic relationship with one another shall also be characterized by the same paradigmatically marked category or categories is called concord.Key: T58. According to Searle, those illocutionary acts whose point is to commit the speaker to some future course of action are called directivesKey: F59. The term synchronic linguistics may be defined as a way of referring to the approach which studies language change over various periods of time and at various historical stages.Key: F60. In terms of manner of articulation, the sounds [p], [b], [t], [d], [k], [g] are affricatesKey: FIII.Fill in the blanks:1.It is generally believed that J. Austin and _______ made the greatestcontribution to the proposition of Speech Act Theory, an important theory in pragmatic study.Key: J. Searle2.According to the positions affixes occupy in words, __________ falls intoprefixation and suffixation.Key: affixation3.The signs “&”, “@”, “%” and “$” widely used today are e xamples of ______writing.Key: word4.Two methods can be used to reconstruct an older form of a language: internalreconstruction and the _______ reconstruction.Key: external5.The Sapir-Whorf hypothesis has two major thrusts: linguistic determinismand linguistic _______ .Key: relativity6.In the course of communication, a speaker may change from the standardlanguage to the non-standard language, may shift his subject matter, or may move from one point on the formality scale to another point. This linguistic behavior is referred to as ______.Key: code switch7.The different types of a language as different forms to realize a meregeneralization of the language are called “sub-languages” or _______.Key: (language) varieties8._________ construction refers to a construction in which the distribution ofwords is functionally equivalent to that of one or more of its constituents. Key: Endocentric_9.It’s commonly believed that the basic function of language is that it’s used for_________.Key: human communication10.The degree to which a test measures what it is meant to measure is termed_________ in language testing, and that is an important index used to evaluate the quality of a test.Key: validity11.By _______ is meant that language can refer to contexts removed from theimmediate situation of the speaker.Key: displacementnguage is a system of two sets of structures, the structure of sound and thestructure of ___________.Key: meaning13.The three branches of phonetics are articulatory phonetics, auditory phonetics,and _________ phonetics.Key: acoustic14.There are two kinds of stress in English. They are word stress and ________stress.Key: sentence15.In English there are three nasal sounds. They are [m], [n], and ________. Key: [ ];16.Morphology is divided in two branches: __________ morphology andderivational morphology.Key: .inflectional17.According to H. Paul Grice’s Cooperative Principle, that one should avoidobscurity and ambiguity accords with the ________ Maxim.Key: Manner18.The speech sounds in the production of which there is an obstruction of theairstream at some point of the vocal tract are called_______.Key: consonants19.A linguistic study is ______ if it tries to lay down rules for the correct use oflanguage.Key: prescriptive20.The sentence “H e married a blonde heiress.”______ the sentence “He married a blonde.”Key: entaills21.In the course of time, the study of language has come to establish close linkswith other branches of ________ studies, such as sociology and psychology. Key: social22. Clear［1］and dark［1］are allophones of the same one phoneme /1/.They never take the same position in sound combinations, thus they are said to be in ________ distribution.Key: complementary23.A ________ is often seen as part of a word, but it can never stand by itself although it bears clear, definite meaning.Key: root24.A ________ sentence contains two or more clauses, one of which is incorporated in the other.Key: complex25.That the denial of one member of two words implies the assertion of the other is the characteristic of ________ antonyms.Key: complementary26.While the meaning of a sentence is abstract and decontextualized, that of an ________ is concrete and context-dependent.Key: utterance27.Phonological rules may move phonemes from one place in the string to another. For example, Modern English verb ask was Old English askian, with the /k/ preceding the/s/. Sound change as a result of sound movement is known as ________.Key: metathesis28.In many societies of the world, we find a large number of people who speak more than one language. As a characteristic of societies, ________ inevitably results from the coming into contact of people with different cultures and different languages.Key: bilingualism29.The brain’s neurological specialization for language is called linguistic ________, which is specific to human beings.Key: lateralization30.In order to acquire a second language, learners will subconsciously use their first language knowledge in learning a second language. This is known as language ________.Key: transfer31. _______ phonetics studies the physical properties of speech sounds when they are transmitted between mouth and ear.Key: Acoustic32. The function of establishing a set of vowels is to facilitate the_______ of vowels of languages.Key: description33. If two sounds occurring in the same environment do not contrast, that is, the substitution of one for the other does not produce a different word form, but merely a different pronunciation of the same word, then the two sounds are in ________variation.Key: free34. The principal _________features are stress, length, pitch and intonation, as all of them can be used to distinguish meaning.Key: suprasegmental35.________is the method of creating words by removing the supposed suffixes. Key: Back-formation36. Pronouns and prepositions are two kinds of ________ words to which new members are not regularly added.Key: closed-class37. The sentence “I promise to come here earlier tomorrow morning.” can be used as an example to indicate the ________ function of language.Key: performative38. A linguistic study is ________ if it tries to lay down rules for the correct use of language.Key: perspective39. The sounds in the production of which no articulators come very close together and the air-stream passes through the vocal tract without _________are called vowels.Key: obstruction40. The word “gentlemanly” consists of 4 syllables and ________morphemes. Key: 341. Positional ______, or word order, refers to the sequential arrangement of words in a language.Key: relation42. English gender contrast can only be observed in pronouns and a small number of nouns, and they are mainly of the _________gender type.Key: natural43. Componential analysis defines the meaning of a lexical element in terms of _______ components.Key: semantic44. ________refers to the process of construction where one clause is included in the sentence (main clause) in syntactic subordination.Key: subordination45. ________ construction refers to a group of syntactically related words where none of the words is functionally equivalent to the group as a whole.Key: exocentric46. The _______function is the use of language to reveal something about the emotions and attitudes of the speaker.Key: expressive47. As language is a product and capacity of the human brain, many psychologists and linguists have tried to examine the relation between language and the brain, developing a new branch of science called________.Key: psycholinguistics48. The production of any speech sound involves the movement of an airstream. The majority of sounds used in languages of the world are produced by ______ egressive airstream mechanism.Key: oral49. Some speech sounds involves the simultaneous use of two places of。