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卫生微生物学(Sanitary Microbiology)是研究微生物与其环境相互作用的规律、对人类健康的影响以及应对方略的科学。
生态学是研究生命系统与环境系统间相互作用规律的科学。
微生物生态学是生态学的一个分支学科，是研究微生物与其生存环境、微生物群体之间相互关系、相互作用的科学。
生境(habitat) 是指微生物能够在其中生存，并执行其特定功能的微小环境，又称为微环境(microenvironment)或微小生境(microhabitat)。
龛（niche）不但包含了生物生存的空间概念，还蕴涵着功能作用以及在不同温度、湿度等环境变化中的位置，也称为生态位。
种群（population具有相似特性和生活在一定空间内的同种个体群称之为种群。
是组成群落的基本部分。
群落(cormnunity)一定区域内或一定生境中各种微生物种群相互松散结合的一种结构和功能单位称之为群落。
适应性（adaptability指生物能适应在一定时间内的环境波动或剧变以保证其本身生活和生存的能力。
变异性(variability)是指同种生物世代之间或同代生物不同个体之间在形态特征、生理特征等方面所表现的差异.生态平衡（ecological balance）：指生态系统各组成部分的内部或相互之间，在长期的发展演化过程中，通过相互制约、转化、补偿、交换及适应而建立起来的一种相互协调的动态平衡关系。
菌群失调（dysbacteriosis）指在原生态环境内正常微生物群发生种类、总菌数和各种群落成员的活菌数的异常变化。
指示微生物是在常规卫生监测中，用以指示样品卫生状况及安全性的（非致病）微生物（或细菌）消毒(disinfection)：杀灭或清除传播媒介上病原微生物,使其达到无害化的处理。
灭菌(sterilization)是指杀灭或清除传播媒介上一切微生物的处理。
生物战又称为细菌战，是使用病原体，如细菌、病毒及其他引起疾病的制剂，或所产毒素，他们被称作生物武器。
想象人类未来在火星上生活用你英语作文第一段：开篇与展望As humans embark upon the uncharted territory of space exploration, our focus increasingly shifts to Mars, the alluring "Red Planet." The notion of establishing a lasting human settlement on this alien terrain has ignited the imagination of scientists, engineers, and visionaries alike. This essay endeavors to portray how life could evolve on Mars in the not-too-distant future, presented in a bilingual format for your consideration.第二段：初期定居与基础设施建设In the initial stages of Martian colonization, temporary habitats, ingeniously designed to withstand the planet's harsh conditions, would serve as the cradle of human habitation. These structures, incorporating advanced materials and technologies, would provide a shield against extreme temperatures, radiation, and dust storms. Simultaneously, the construction of essential infrastructure would commence: power generation facilities harnessing solar or nuclear energy, waterextraction plants utilizing subterranean ice, and hydroponic farms nurturing a variety of crops for sustenance.Early settlement phase on Mars: Temporary shelters, ingeniously engineered to endure the planet's severe environment, will serve as the birthplace of human habitation. These dwellings, integrating cutting-edge materials and technologies, will offer protection against extreme temperatures, radiation, and dust storms. Concurrently, the development of vital infrastructure will begin: power plants tapping into solar or nuclear energy, water extraction facilities exploiting underground ice, and hydroponic agriculture cultivating diverse crops for food.第三段：科研与资源开发Scientific research will be at the core of Martian endeavors, with dedicated laboratories investigating the planet's geology, climate, and potential for past or present microbial life. Moreover, resource extraction and in-situ utilization will be paramount, as settlers strive for self-sufficiency. Martian regolith, rich in elements like iron, silicon, and sulfur, could be processed intobuilding materials, while atmospheric CO2 might be harnessed for fuel production via innovative techniques like Sabatier reactions or the use of cyanobacteria.Scientific inquiry will form the backbone of Martian activities, with specialized labs delving into the planet's geology, climate, and likelihood of past or extant microbial life. Additionally, resource mining and utilization will be crucial, as settlers strive for self-reliance. Martian soil, abundant in minerals such as iron, silicon, and sulfur, could be transformed into construction materials, while atmospheric CO2 may be utilized for fuel generation through groundbreaking methods like Sabatier processes or the employment of cyanobacteria.第四段：社会生活与文化演变Over time, the Martian colony would evolve into a self-sustaining society, with residents engaging in various professions, pursuing education, and enjoying leisure activities. Schools, hospitals, sports facilities, and cultural centers would emerge, fostering a sense of community and identity distinct from Earth. As generations pass, Martian culture might develop unique customs,traditions, and even language adaptations influenced by their extraordinary surroundings and shared challenges.With the passage of time, the Martian settlement would transform into a self-sufficient community, where inhabitants engage in diverse occupations, pursue knowledge, and relish recreational pursuits. Institutions like schools, hospitals, athletic venues, and cultural hubs would arise, nurturing a communal spirit and distinct identity separate from Earth's. As generations unfold, Martian societal norms might give rise to novel practices, rituals, and even linguistic nuances shaped by their extraordinary environs and shared trials.第五段：潜在挑战与前景展望Despite the promise of a Martian future, formidable obstacles must be overcome, including psychological stress, physiological adaptation to reduced gravity, and potential health risks posed by radiation exposure. Technological advancements, robust medical support systems, and rigorous psychological training will be instrumental in mitigating these challenges. Looking ahead, a thriving human presence on Mars could pave the way for further interplanetary exploration, facilitate groundbreaking scientificdiscoveries, and perhaps even serve as a hedge against potential existential threats faced by humanity on Earth.While the prospect of a Martian existence is tantalizing, formidable hurdles must be confronted, such as psychological strain, physiological acclimatization to lower gravity, and potential health hazards from radiation exposure. Innovations in technology, robust healthcare frameworks, and comprehensive psychological conditioning will prove vital in countering these difficulties. Looking forward, a prosperous human footprint on Mars could pave the path for deeper space exploration, unlock groundbreaking scientific revelations, and potentially serve as a safeguard against existential risks confronting Earth-bound humanity.In conclusion, the vision of humans living and thriving on Mars is no longer confined to the realm of science fiction. With concerted global efforts, relentless technological innovation, and unwavering determination, we may well witness the dawn of a new era in human history –one where our species extends its reach beyond the cradle of Earth, embracing the Red Planet as our second home among the stars.综上所述，人类在火星上生存繁衍的景象已不再局限于科幻范畴。
【高中生物】一项4亿美元的测试当小货车沿着美国弗吉尼亚州西部一片森林中的土路颠簸前行时，茂密的灌木丛击打着车身两侧。
车上，生态学家TyLindberg大声叫着挤在路两边的入侵物种的名字。
这是绰号“一分钟一英里”、以惊人速度扩散的薇甘菊。
一种被称为亚洲高跷草的一年生开花植物则铺满了地面，并且扼杀了当地植物。
同时，一种异常多刺的玫瑰会将靠近它的任何人的衣服刮破。
再往前走，Lindberg将车停在矮树丛中的空地上，然后自己穿过灌木，朝伸出地面的塑料和铝桩走去。
它们划出一个40米×40米的地块，而这是散布在弗兰特罗亚尔镇附近1300公顷森林和草地上的几十个地块中的一个。
从4月到10月，野外技术人员每天花时间记录地块中几乎每棵树的位置、直径和高度，收集“陷阱”中的落叶，并且将压制的入侵植物存档。
他们的主要目标是测定生态系统的新陈代谢，尤其是其每年能产生多少生物质。
在其他地块，技术人员会诱捕啮齿类动物，并且提取血液样本以检测疾病，包括那些可能传染给人类的疾病。
工作人员收集并储存蜱虫和甲虫，同时采集土壤样本，用于研究地下的细菌。
在更高的山上，一座50米高的金属塔架从树林中伸出，上面布满了持有传感器的长吊杆。
这些传感器能监控不同海拔的气温、风速和太阳辐射。
当最终的仪器“套装”在被全部安装上时，这座塔架将通过监控二氧化碳和水蒸气浓度如何升降，观测底下的这片森林。
这是规划的美国国家生态观测站网络（NEON）80多个站点中的一个。
NEON是一个耗资4.34亿美元的项目，旨在建造跨越全美的生态观测站。
它的目标很宏大。
如果一切进展顺利，NEON将记录下气候变化和土地使用对生态系统造成的影响，并且为科学家提供针对该国生态系统关键特征的近乎实时的测量结果。
很多站点将运行30年，其他的则会被定期关停并重新选址，以应对环境变化。
收集的数据将通过一个门户网站对所有人免费开放。
NEON的由来回到2000年，新墨西哥大学生态学家ScottCollins是美国国家科学基金会（NSF）所属NEON的首个项目负责人。
Conservation of Biodiversity >Conservation of Biodiversity Essay:Mother earth is the home for various species and a place where they can coexist. The term biodiversity is a combination of two words –biological and diversity. It means diverse living organisms simultaneously sustain themselves in an ecosystem. The ecosystem encompasses various communities of creatures, including forests, coral reefs, wildlife, microbes, etc. A surprising number of 8.7 million species inhabit the planet earth.The existence of biodiversity is an essential element of the planet earth. Every organism is interdependent and interconnected with one another. Everything on this planet is in an intricate web. However, human’s exploitation of the resources is threatening the ecological balance of biodiversity. Thus, it becomes essential to conserve and support all the species.Long and Short Essays on Conservation of Biodiversity for Children and Kids in EnglishGiven below are two essays in English for students and children about the topic of ‘Conservation of Biodiversity’ in both long andshort form. The first essay of 400 to 500 words on ‘Conservation of Biodiversity’ is for students of class 7, 8, 9, and 10. Moreover, it is helpful for the aspirants of competitive exams. Furthermore, 150 –200 word’s essay on ‘Conservation of Biodiversity ‘will help students and children in class 6 or below.Long ‘Conservation of Biodiversity’ Essay in English for classes 7, 8, 9, and 10 and Competitive Exam Aspirants. Below we have given a long essay on ‘Conservation of Biodiversity’ of 400 to 500 words. The a rticle on the ‘Conservation of Biodiversity’ topic is best forstudents of 7 to 10. Furthermore, competitive exam preparation will become easy if students refer to this article.Long Conservation of Biodiversity Essay 500 words in EnglishBiodiversity is an amalgamation of two words –biological and diversity. Therefore, the definition of the term ‘biodiversity’ encompasses a large variety of living organisms coexisting in an ecosystem. Biodiversity ranges from the tiniest microbes to the largest mammal. It also includes several species of bacteria, plants, animals, and humans. The recent study discovered 8.7 milliondifferent species worldwide, out of which a normal man recognizes only 1.2 million species.However, the existing biodiversity is at risk. Both natural and human-activities are contributing to degrading the ecosystem. The changing climate and infestation of alien species are threatening the current biodiversity. Furthermore, in the pursuit of modernization, urbanization, and aggressive ambitions, humans are exploiting the natural habitat. Several factors, such as habitat fragmentation, atmospheric pollution, over-consumption of the naturalresources by the humans, etc. are putting additional pressure on the planet.Over one million species are on the verge of extinction. Humans have altered the environment in the quest to dominate the planet. Thus, the vast wealth of the earth is gradually vanishing. There are such thirty or more spots on the planet where several species are under the threat of extinction. Scientists have termed these regions as biodiversity hotspots. These biodiversity hotspots are home to 60% of different kinds of species.The need of the hour is to participate in conserving biodiversity. Another word for conservation is caring for the environment. The first step to prevent dwindling biodiversity is to protect the plants and animals in their natural habitat.It would be possible to create a safe habitat for various species by putting an end to the fragmentation of land for selfish purposes. Several species are sensitive to pollution. For instance, salmons can only thrive in freshwater. The concentration of toxic chemicals in the stream may lead to a declining population ofsalmons. Furthermore, the burning of fossil fuels gives rise to carbon dioxide emission, which is harmful to some species. A large number of species become homeless as a result of deforestation. Moreover, deforestation also leads to climate change. It harms migrating species.Native plants and animals survive when they interact with the environment freely. It would be best not to disturb them in their natural habitat. Thus, humans need to take responsibility for their actions, and consciously stop polluting the environment.The government is preserving biodiversity by restoring the natural habitat and assigning protected areas. Furthermore, an initiative to safeguard the forest-dwelling animals, the government is prohibiting wildlife trading and poaching. The government will take further actions to mainstream biodiversity conservation. The government is working towards capping fisheries, mining, farming, concrete construction in green zone areas, etc. enabling multiple species to interact and interconnect freely.Short Essay on Conservation of Biodiversity 200 words in EnglishShort Conservation of Biodiversity Essay in English for Classes 6 and BelowBelow we have given a short essay on ‘Conservation of Biodiversity’ of 150 to 200 words. This short piece on the topic ‘Conservation of Biodiversity’ is perfect f or all students of grade 6 and below. Biodiversity consists of all living organisms on the earth. It includes a variety of life forms, from plants, animals, bacteria, to fungi. However, in today’s time, the earth is losing flora and fauna as well as genetic diversity.Owing to the dominating human species, several other species of plants and animals are becoming extinct at an alarming rate. Pollution, deforestation, global warming, over-exploitation of the ecosystem, and impulsive hunting of animals dimini sh the earth’s natural biodiversity.Human beings are the greatest threat to biodiversity. Scientists have identified more than thirty regions in the world as global biodiversity hotspots. On the one hand, these areas have abundant resources. On the other hand, these are high-risk areas of endangered species. In ecosystems, every creature is interdependentand interconnected. Elimination of a single species can disrupt the entire food chain.In the quest to conserve biodiversity, it is compelling to reduce carbon footprints. Afforestation, reusing, recycling, and reducing waste can contribute to protecting biodiversity from further harm. The creation of wildlife sanctuary and biodiversity reserves can aid in the natural restoration of biodiversity. Thus, for the survival of every species, including humans, we must conserve biodiversity. We should set an example to inspire the next generation to follow the same path.10 lines on Conservation of Biodiversity Essay in EnglishStudents who are preparing for competitive examinations or entrance examinations can use this piece on ‘Conservation of Biodiversity’ for reference. Moreover, children can take note of these points to help them deliver a speech on the stage. Children who are planning to participate in literary work or debate competition can also find it very useful.Biodiversity is a mixture of several species of plants, animals, and microbial organisms coexisting on the planet earth.The recent study reveals the existence of 8.7 million different species worldwide.Human activities worldwide are threatening biodiversity.Deforestation, burning of fossil fuels, an infestation of alien species, climate change, fragmentation of habitat are some of the reasons behind dwindling biodiversity.Scientists have identified more than thirty regions in the world as biodiversity hotspots.We should participate in conserving biodiversity.We should not disturb the native plants and animals so they can live freely in their natural habitat.Land fragmentation and deforestation is making several species homeless.The government made law to preserve biodiversity and create wildlife sanctuaries.Humans also need to take responsibility for their actions, and consciously stop polluting the environment.F AQ’s on Conservation of Biodiversity EssayQuestion 1.Which factor is responsible for dwindling biodiversity?Answer:Humans are responsible for dwindling biodiversity.Question 2.What is the figure of different species that inhabit the planet earth?Answer:Approximately 8.7 million different species inhabit the planet earth.Question 3.What do you mean by biodiversity hotspots, and how many are there currently?Answer:Biodiversity hotspots are biological-rich regions around the world that are threatened by the loss of inhabitants. Currently, there are over 30 biodiversity hotspots that the world recognizes.Question 4.How can an ordinary person conserve biodiversity?Answer:It is essential to cut down on exploiting the earth’s resources. Humans should restrict their activities that are harming the natural environment. We should make a collective effort to stabilize various species around the world.。
植物野生保护英语作文In the vast tapestry of our planet's ecosystems, plants playa pivotal role in sustaining life. They are the foundation of food chains, providing nourishment to countless species, including humans. Moreover, they contribute to the balance of our atmosphere by absorbing carbon dioxide and releasing oxygen. However, with the rapid expansion of human activities, many plant species are facing the threat of extinction. This essay aims to underscore the significance of plant conservation in the wild and the steps we can take to protect them.First and foremost, the diversity of plant life is a treasure trove of medicinal resources. Many of the medicines we relyon today are derived from plants. The Amazon rainforest, for instance, is home to a multitude of plants with medicinal properties that are yet to be discovered. Preserving these species in their natural habitats ensures that we continue to benefit from their potential healing powers.Secondly, plants are integral to the fight against climate change. Forests, in particular, act as carbon sinks,absorbing large amounts of carbon dioxide from the atmosphere. This helps to mitigate the greenhouse effect and slow down global warming. Protecting wild plant populations is, therefore, a critical component of our climate change mitigation strategies.Another aspect of plant conservation is the preservation of biodiversity. Biodiversity is essential for the resilience of ecosystems. It allows them to adapt to changes in the environment and recover from disturbances such as disease outbreaks or natural disasters. When we protect wild plants, we are safeguarding the intricate web of life that supports a myriad of species, including our own.Education and awareness are key in promoting plant conservation. By educating the public about the importance of plants and the threats they face, we can foster a sense of responsibility and stewardship. This can lead to changes in behavior, such as reducing the use of harmful pesticides or supporting policies that protect natural habitats.Legislation and enforcement are also vital. Governments and international bodies must enact and enforce laws that protect endangered plant species and their habitats. This includes establishing protected areas, regulating trade in endangered species, and combating illegal logging and poaching.Lastly, sustainable development practices can play a significant role in plant conservation. By integrating conservation efforts into economic development plans, we can ensure that growth does not come at the expense of our natural heritage. This includes promoting sustainable agriculture, forestry, and land-use practices that minimize harm to plant life.In conclusion, the conservation of wild plants is a multifaceted issue that requires a concerted effort fromindividuals, communities, and governments. By recognizing the value of plants and taking action to protect them, we can help to preserve the rich tapestry of life on Earth forfuture generations.。
微生物生态学英文Microbial Ecology: Exploring the Unseen WorldThe world we inhabit is teeming with life, both visible and invisible. Among the most fascinating and influential forms of life on our planet are the microscopic organisms known as microbes. These tiny, yet incredibly diverse, creatures play a crucial role in the intricate web of life, shaping the very foundations of our ecosystems. Microbial ecology, the study of the relationships between microbes and their environment, offers a fascinating glimpse into this hidden realm.At the heart of microbial ecology lies an understanding of the myriad ways in which microbes interact with their surroundings. From the depths of the ocean to the soil beneath our feet, microbes are ubiquitous, adapting to a wide range of habitats and conditions. These microscopic organisms are the unsung heroes of our planet, responsible for driving essential biogeochemical cycles, maintaining the delicate balance of our ecosystems, and even shaping the evolution of other living beings.One of the most remarkable aspects of microbial ecology is thesheer diversity of the microbial world. Bacteria, archaea, fungi, and viruses – each group represents a vast and intricate tapestry of life, with countless species and subspecies, each possessing unique characteristics and adaptations. This diversity is not only a testament to the resilience and adaptability of microbes, but also a reflection of the complex and dynamic nature of the environments they inhabit.As we delve deeper into the study of microbial ecology, we uncover a world of fascinating interactions and interdependencies. Microbes engage in a constant dance of cooperation and competition, forming intricate communities and networks that are essential to the functioning of ecosystems. From symbiotic relationships, where microbes and other organisms work in harmony, to the fierce battles for resources and survival, the microbial world is a dynamic and ever-evolving landscape.One of the most captivating aspects of microbial ecology is the role microbes play in shaping the global environment. Through their involvement in biogeochemical cycles, microbes are responsible for the cycling of essential elements like carbon, nitrogen, and sulfur, which are crucial for the sustenance of all life on Earth. These microscopic organisms are the unsung heroes of our planet, quietly maintaining the delicate balance that allows complex ecosystems to thrive.Beyond their ecological significance, microbes also have a profound impact on human health and well-being. The human microbiome, the diverse community of microbes that reside within our bodies, plays a crucial role in our overall health, influencing everything from digestion and immune function to mental health and susceptibility to disease. Understanding the intricate relationships between microbes and their human hosts has become a rapidly growing field of research, with the potential to revolutionize our approach to healthcare and disease prevention.As we continue to explore the vast and complex world of microbial ecology, new discoveries and insights are constantly emerging. Advances in technology, such as high-throughput sequencing and bioinformatics, have opened up new avenues for studying the microbial world, allowing us to uncover the hidden diversity and interconnectedness of these microscopic organisms.The future of microbial ecology holds immense promise, with the potential to unlock the secrets of the unseen world and harness the power of microbes for the benefit of humanity and the planet. From developing sustainable agricultural practices to finding innovative solutions to environmental challenges, the field of microbial ecology is poised to play a crucial role in shaping the future of our world.In conclusion, the study of microbial ecology is a captivating andever-evolving field that offers a window into the hidden workings of our planet. By understanding the intricate relationships between microbes and their environment, we can gain valuable insights into the complex systems that sustain life on Earth. As we continue to explore this fascinating realm, we can unlock the secrets of the microbial world and leverage its power to create a more sustainable and resilient future for all.。
节约生物资源的英文作文英文：Our planet is facing a grave challenge from the depletion of natural resources, including biological resources. The relentless demand for resources, combined with unsustainable production and consumption patterns, has led to the degradation of ecosystems and the extinction of many species. It is time for all of us to take action and adopt measures that will ensure the conservation and sustainable use of these critical resources. One such measure is to conserve biological resources by reducing waste and reusing them. Reducing waste not only saves resources but also reduces the amount of pollution generated by the disposal of waste. Reusing resources means that they remain in circulation for longer, reducing the need for new production. Another way to conserve biological resources is to adopt organic farming methods that are environmentally friendly and sustainable. By using natural fertilizers and compost, we can reduce the use of synthetic fertilizers, which can harm the environment and lead to water pollution.Moreover, we can also recycle biodegradable waste into usefulproducts, such as compost or biofuels. This not only reduces the amount of waste generated but also creates new sources of income for individuals and communities.中文：我们地球正面临着生物资源枯竭的严重挑战。
环境微生物英语In the microscopic world of our surroundings, environmental microbes play a crucial role. These tiny organisms are the unsung heroes of our ecosystem, breaking down waste and recycling nutrients.From the soil beneath our feet to the air we breathe, microbes are at work. They decompose organic matter, aidingin the natural cycle of decay and renewal. Without them, waste would accumulate, and our environment would suffer.Despite their small size, environmental microbes have a significant impact on our health. Some bacteria can purify water, while others can even produce antibiotics. They are essential for maintaining the balance of our natural world.However, not all microbes are beneficial. Some can cause harm to humans and other organisms. It's important to study these microorganisms to understand how to manage theireffects on our environment.As we continue to explore the world of environmental microbes, we uncover more about how they interact with their surroundings. Their ability to adapt to various conditions is a testament to their resilience.In conclusion, environmental microbes are a vital part of our world. They contribute to the health of our planet andthe well-being of its inhabitants. Understanding their role is key to preserving our environment for future generations.。
新西兰小作物用药计划批准第一个小作物用农药
嵇丽丽
【期刊名称】《农药科学与管理》
【年(卷),期】2014(35)2
【摘要】陶氏益农的杀虫剂甲氧虫酰肼成为新西兰第一个登记在小作物上使用的农药。
该产品已被新西兰初级产业部可持续农业基金项目-“小作物农药可持续登记”批准用于防治蓝莓卷叶蛾。
项目涉及12个种植组、农药公司和初级产业部。
超过9．69亿美元的基金目的是简化小作物用农药登记。
【总页数】1页(P26-26)
【关键词】农药公司;新西兰;作物;用药;基金项目;甲氧虫酰肼;可持续农业;农药登记【作者】嵇丽丽
【作者单位】
【正文语种】中文
【中图分类】S311
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A/ CanadaProf A. Mulchandani (University of California), Prof J. Zhou (University of Oklahoma),Global market values for enzymes in biocatalysis10307802507030V a l u e s i n m i l l i o n ($)Global values for enzymes in bioconversion Pharmaceuticals Agrochemicals2500010000V a l u e s i n m i l l i o n ($)Global Markets for Microbial products Singh et al 2010 Trend BiotechnolTotal industrial markets for microbial enzymes: several trillions/ yearGlobal markets of remediationTotal global market is estimated at US $ 1 trillionSource: Singh et al. 2009 124.85550313124*Also includes other environmental industriesWhy remediation/ bioremediation?•Regulatory requirements•Sustainable development•Re-use of land•Commercial benefitsTypes of remediation technologies1.Biological processes: microbial remediation,phytoremediation, bioventing2.Chemical processes: Oxidising agents, chemicalextractions3.Physical processes: Soil washing, vapour extractions4.Thermal processes: Incineration, supercritical oxidationTypes of bioremediation technologies 1. Microbial bioremediation: Bacteria, fungi, archaea and theirproductsA. BioaugmentationB. BiostimulationC. Intrinsic bioremediation2. Phytoremediation:Plant assistedbioremediationBioremediation Some success storiesOP compounds and problemsLeaving groupOPH enzymeSingh , BK (2009). Nature Rev. Microbiol.1.~ 38% of total pesticide usages2.World-wide usageed in large quantities4.Extreme mammalian toxicity &structurally similar to nerve agents OP (Organophosphorus compounds)OP compounds and medical problems 1.3 Million poisoning incidence-Medicalproblem.2.200,000 death per year due to OP–poisoning3.Lot of un-used OP Chemical warfareagents as potential source for terroristattacksNo effective treatment availablefor overwhelming poisoningSingh and Walker, 2006. FEMs Microbiol. Rev.Eddleston et al., 2008, LancetOP and sources of contamination and toxicitySources of acute toxicity1.Manufacturing wasterge scale use e.g. Cattle dips3.Accidental spillage4.Terrorist attacksSmall release and chronic effects 1.Spraying2.Cleaning of containers and equipment3.Bioaccumulation through food chainCurrent bioremediation technologies are inefficient, expensive and time consumingBiofilter for Coumaphos remediation in USA110100100010000025101820C o u m a p h s d e g r a d a t i o nDaysBiofilter Control•Comasphos waste generated from cattle dips (conc: 2000 mg/ litre)•11,000 litre biofilter has been successfully used for number of years for decontaminationMulbry et al; 1998, 20005101520250246810P a r a t h i o n (m g /k g )Parathion-control Parathion05101520250246810D i a z i n o n (m g /k g )Diazinon-control Diazinon05101520250246810C o u m a p h o s (m g /k g )Time (Days)Coumaphos-control Coumaphos5101520250246810I s a z o f o s (m g /k g )Time (Days)Isazofos-control IsazofosBioremediation in SoilsSingh et al., 2003; 2006But significant numbers of bioremediation approaches failWHY?of four different OP compounds by Enterobacter sp in soilsAbiotic properties Vs Microbial activitySoil pH V microbial activity•Compounds-chlorpyrifos & fenamiphos• 2 acidic, 2 alkaline and 1 neutral pH soilsy = 0.1993x -0.8401R² = 0.950.10.20.30.40.50.60.70.80.9456789o p d g e n e (R A )Soil pHSoil pH vs opd geney = 137.14e -5.216xR² = 0.9602040608010000.20.40.60.81C h l o r p y r o s (% r e s i d u e )opd gene abundanceChlorpyrifos Vs opd geneSoil abiotic vs gene Vs functionSingh (2009) Nat Rev MicrobiolDegradation pathway of OP compoundsLeaving groupOPH enzymeSingh and Walker 2006. FEMS-MRChlorpyrifosFenamiphosChemical structure and degradationBond cleavageBond cleavageKarpouzas and Singh 2006, AMPMicrobial diversityand xenobiotic degradationy = 804.04e -5.846xR² = 0.910204060801000.30.50.70.9C h e m i c a l A (% r e s i d u e )Relative diversity (Geochip)Diversity Vs function (biodegradation)Adapted from Singh et al 2003; 2009; 2014y = -138.5ln(x) -1.642R² = 0.49260204060801000.50.60.70.80.91C h e m i c a l A (% r e s i d u e )Relative diversity (16s DNA)Structural diversity vs function•Pyrosequencing (~20,000 seq)Functional diversity vs function•Geochip (>50,000 genes)These understandings have provided outstanding Successes-------Engineered Biopile Technology•Bioremediation of contaminated soils:•Bioaugmentation and Biostimunationn•Better control of oxygen, moisture, nutrient levels,pH and mixingA. Singh et al.,Examples of bioreactors operating atfull scaleExample of an integrated approachOily sludge management in oily pitsA three-phase centrifuge for oil recoveryOily waste pit Engineered Biopile for contaminated sandBioreactors for inoculum prep and oil sludgeOil extracted was worth more than the cost of remediationA Singh Lystek LtdConstraints associated withmicrobial bioremediation1.Sustaining a stable population of microorganisms2.Sustaining the activity of the microorganisms3.Other factors can influence activityAnother solution: use to Freedegrading enzymesAdvantage of using enzymes :1.Rapid decontamination2.No requirements of nutrients3.Theoretically could be re-suesDisadvantage:ck of enzyme diversity2.Problem with large scale production3.Low stability in fermenter/ biofilterck of mechanism to protect fromenvironmental protease204060801001200261018244872O P d e g r a d a t i o n HoursBacteria Enzymes ControlLandguard Tm is a good examples (A CSIRO + Orica product)Use of existing enzymes for bioremediation& industrial usages1. 1 g soil = ~104bacterial species = `1 million putative enzymes2.Soil contains 5 X 1030bacterial cells3.Environmental microbes areenormous source of new enzymesSingh, BK (2009). Nature Rev.Microbiol .1.Several microbes can degradeOPs but only 3 -5 types of enzymes 2. All enzymes from cultured bacteria(>99% microbes are unculturable)Solution from emerging and genomicsapproaches1.Metagenomics: For enzyme diversity2.Genome sequencing3.Metabolic Engineering: For enzyme and bioremediationefficiency4.Nanotechnology for stability and protectionOld approachOmic technologiesSlide: Hangwei HuOld technologies VS new technologiesBut microbes are enormously diverse and a conservative estimate suggests 2 millionclones/ sample need to be screenedSingh (2010). Trend. Biotechnol.MetagenomicsNow Before13 years $ 3 billion Human genome3.3x109 (10x coverage)8 days$ 4,000 Not possible Deep sequencingof somatic mutations(5000x coverage)60 days E. coli4.7x106 (5x coverage)14 months D. melanogaster1.4x108 (5x coverage) Improvements coming with the new sequencing technologies10 hours< 2 daysYES2007/20081-1.5Gb200810Gb200950Gb201095Gb1800Gb30x Coverage 18 Human Genomes=1 run HiSeq HxHiSeq HxGA/GA IIxIllumina output increased over thelast seven yearsConstraints:1. Bioinformatics support2. Loss of novel functions2011600Gb2014Soil from contaminated sitesStable isotope probingMetagenomic libraryScreen clones for OP degradation function12C DNA 13C DNASingh et al. (2010). Trend. Biotechnol.Nanotechnological formulationTherapeutic and prophylacticefficacyBioremedial efficacyFrom metagenome to applicationsDNA/RNA extraction12C DNA13C DNASeparation of 13C –12C nucleic acids inCsCl density centrifugationFractionationStable isotope probing (SIP)13C12CPulse label with 13CpesticideHarvest Singh (2010), Trend. Biotechnolo.Selective enrichment of DNA forpesticide degrading bacteria1.Isolation of five more efficientenzymes2.Success rates increase byseveral hundreds foldsSingh (2010). Trend. Biotechnol.SIP-Metagenomics13 nm40 nmEnzymeNano-porous mediaAbsorbed enzymes in nano-porous mediaCross-linked enzymes aggregated via GA treatment+NanotechnologyXProtease and mechanical sharing resistant enzymes for human treatment and bioremediation0204060801000123456P e s t i c i d e (%)Time (Hours)1st round 4th round0204060801000123456P e s t i c i d e (%)Time (Hours)1st round 4th round 25th roundFree-enzymesEnzymes in nano-porous structureNanotechnology and effects onre-usability of enzymesSignificant outcomesThis approach has already resulted a few novel enzymes for degradation which can be potentially used for1.Cheap and re-usable bioremediation technology for OP compounds2. A potential medical treatment for OP poisoning3.An effective prophylactic measures against OP poisoning4.Development of a rapid biosensor for OPcompoundsEarth is a microbial planet&Solutions to most tasks can be found in microbial communityThank youPhytoremediationFrom Ma et al (2010). BIOTECHNOLOGY ADVANCES, 28,367-374Problems with mixed organic and metalwastes•Forty percent of hazardous waste sites in the United States are co-contaminated with organic and metal pollutants•Metals affect organic biodegradation through impacting both the physiology and ecology of organic-degradingmicroorganismsEnvironmental Health Perspectives • VOLUME 111 | NUMBER 8 | June 2003BIOREMEDIATION IN THERHIZOSPHERECl -CO 2cell masscontaminantcontaminant-removing, root-colonizing bacteriaPCB, TCE, MetalsPHYTOREMEDIATION •Current problems associated with Phytoremediation•Plants Lack of growth due metal and organiccontaminationvolatilisation of organic compoundsstore them in leaves/shoots•This makes it less efficient and prevent using tree/ plants for any other purposesWe developed a novel technology called‘Designer Plants’•This technology brings multiple commercial and environmental benefits•A custom made solution for mix pollutants based on type and nature of contaminantsFungi RootsBacteriametalsOC 1OC 2OC 3Designer PlantsComplex level of contaminatione.g. mining siteAbhilash and Singh 2012 TIBIndustry Transport HeatingP y r o l y s i sB i o f u e lContaminated siteMixed: metals + organicAfforestation with bioenergy tree WoodBiomass energyAccelerated bioremediation & C sequestrationEnergy sourceMetal extractionEnhanced ecosystem Health & C farmingBenefits of ‘Designer Plants’Rapid pollutant removalBioremediation Designer plantsRayu & Singh 2012 Biodegrad。
