Comparison of inflection and derivation

上海第二大学专升本考试大纲《高等数学》(一)（Advanced Mathematics for higher education in Shanghai Second University(1)）Previously looked at another upload document, the upload point documents shared with you!Shanghai second university upgraded examination syllabusAdvanced Mathematics (1)First, the nature of the examinationThe syllabus of advanced mathematics is formulated by Shanghai Second Polytechnic UniversityTwo, examination objectivesThe entrance examination of advanced mathematics emphasizes the investigation of students' basic knowledge, basic skills and thinking ability, computing ability, and the ability to analyze and solve problemsThree, the content and basic requirements of the examinationFunction, limit and continuity(1) examination contentsThe concept of function and basic characteristics; sequence, function limit; rules of limits; two important limits;comparison of infinitesimal and order; the continuity and discontinuity of function; properties of continuous functions on closed interval(two) examination requirements1. understand the concept of functionUnderstanding the parity, monotonicity, periodicity and boundedness of functionsUnderstand the concept of inverse function and understand the concept of composite functionUnderstanding the concept of elementary functionsA functional relationship between simple and practical problems is established2. understand the concept of sequence limit and function limit (not required to give)The two criterion of existence of the limit property (uniqueness, boundedness, number preserving) and limit (the forcing criterion and the monotone bounded criterion)3. grasp the operation of the limit of function; master the limit calculation methodGrasp two important limitsAnd use two important limits to find the limit4. understand the concepts of infinitesimal, infinity, higher order infinitesimal and equivalent infinitesimalThe limit of equivalent infinitesimal5. understand the concept of function continuity; understand the concept of function discontinuity pointThe types of discontinuity points (the first kind of removable, jump discontinuity points and second kinds of breakpoints) are distinguished6. understand the continuity of elementary functions; understand the properties of continuous functions on closed intervalsSome simple conclusions can be proved by the propertiesTwo. Derivative and differential(1) examination contentsThe concept of derivative and the rule of derivation; the derivative of function determined by implicit function and parametric equation; the derivative of higher order; the concept and arithmetic of differential(two) examination requirements1. understand the concept of derivative and its geometric meaningUnderstanding the relation between differentiable and continuous functionsThe tangent normal equation of plane curve;2. master the four operation rules of derivative and the derivation rule of compound function; master the derivation formula of basic elementary functionThe derivative of function is skilled3. master the implicit function and parameter equation of the derivative method (first order); grasp the logarithmic derivative method4. understand the concept of higher order derivativesGrasp the first and two order derivatives of elementary functionsThe n order derivatives of simple functions5. understand the concept of differentiationUnderstanding the operation of differential calculus and the invariance of first order differential formDifferentiation of functionsThree, mean value theorem and derivative application(1) examination contentsThe Rolle theorem and Lagrange theorem; L'Hospital Rule; function monotonicity and convexity and inflection point, extreme value curve(two) examination requirements1. understand the Rolle mean value theorem and Lagrange mean value theorem (the analysis and proof of the theorem is not required), and prove some simple conclusions with the mean value theorem2. master used l'Hopital's rule forThe method of equal infinitive limit3. understand the concept of function extremumThe method of judging the monotonicity of the function and the extremum of the function by derivative is mastered. The monotonicity of the function is used to prove the inequality, and the application problem of the simpler maximum and minimum is obtained4. judge the concavity and convexity of curves by derivativeThe inflection point of the curveFour, indefinite integral(1) examination contentsPrimitive function and indefinite integral conceptIndefinite integral substitution methodIndefinite Integration by parts(two) examination requirements1. understand the concepts and properties of primitive functions and indefinite integrals2. master the basic formula of indefinite integral, change element integration method and parts integration method (desalination special integration skills training)The general method of integral of rational function does not requireSome simple rational functions can be properly trained as examples of two kinds of integral methodsFive, definite integral and its application(1) examination contentsThe concept and properties of definite integralIntegral variable upper limit functionnewton-leibniz formulaIntegral integration method and partial integration method for definite integralThe generalized integral on infinite interval and the application of definite integral -- calculating the area of plane figure and volume of revolving body(two) examination requirements1. understand the concept of definite integralUnderstanding the properties of definite integral and the mean value theorem of integrals2. understand the concept and property of integral variable upper limit functionMaster Newton Leibniz formulaCorrect calculation of definite integral by using this formula correctly3. master definite integral change element method and partial integration method4. understand the element method of definite integralThe area of an accounting plane figure and the volume of a revolving body5. understand the concept of generalized integrals on infinite intervalsAnd the generalized integral on infinite interval is obtainedSix. Differential equations(1) examination contentsBasic concepts of differential equationsSeparable variable differential equations and homogeneous equationsLinear differential equation of first orderTwo order linear differential equation with constant coefficients(two) examination requirements1. understand the differential equations and the order, solution, general solution, initial conditions and particular solutions of differential equations2. master the solution of differential equations with separable variables3. solving homogeneous equations (which can be transformed into separable variable differential equations)4. understand the constant variation method of first order linear differential equationGrasp the solution of first order linear differential equation5. understand the structure of solutions of two order linear differential equationsGrasp the two order constant coefficient homogeneous linear differential equation solution method6. the special solution method of the two order constant coefficient non-homogeneous linear differential equation with the free term as the simple function by the method of undetermined coefficientsSeven 、 space analytic geometry vector algebra(1) examination contentsSpace rectangular coordinate system, vector and its operation, space plane and its equation, space straight line and its equation, two times curved surface(two) examination requirements1. understand the concept of space Cartesian coordinate systemUnderstand the concept of vector and its representation; find the distance between two points in space2. grasp the operation of vector (linear operation, scalar product, vector product)Understand the condition of two vectors vertical and parallel3. will seek plane equation, straight line equation4. master the plane and plane, straight line and plane, straight line and line parallel and vertical conditionsThe distance from point to plane will be calculated5. understand the concept of surface equationUnderstanding the equation and its figure of two quadric surfacesEight. Multivariate functional differential calculus(1) examination contentsThe concept of two variable function, the limit and continuity of two variables functionDerivation rules of partial derivative, total differential and multivariate functionImplicit function derivation formulaGeometric applications of multivariate functional differential calculusExtreme value of multivariate function(two) examination requirements1. understand the concept of two variable functionUnderstanding the concept of multivariate functions2. to understand the concept of limit and continuity of two variables functionThe limit of some simple functions of two variables3. understanding the concepts of partial derivatives and total differential functions of two variablesNecessary conditions and sufficient conditions for the existence of total differentialGrasp the calculation method of partial derivative and total differential of multivariate function4. grasp the first derivative of the multivariate composite function5. solving the first order partial derivative of implicitfunction6. understand the tangent of the curve and the normal plane, tangent plane and normal of the surfaceAnd they will find their equations;7. understanding the concept of extreme value and conditional extreme value of two variables functionThe extremum of a simple function of two variablesUnderstanding the Lagrange multiplier methodThe application of some simple maximum and minimum values will be discussedNine. Multivariate function calculus(1) examination contentsThe concept and properties of double integral and three integral, double integral and calculation of three integralCurvilinear integral and Green formula(two) examination requirements1. understand the concept and nature of double integral2. master the calculation method of double integral (Cartesiancoordinates, polar coordinates)3. understand the concept of three integralThree simple integrals (Cartesian coordinates, cylindrical coordinates) that can be calculated simply4. understand the concept of two types of curvilinear integralsUnderstanding the properties of two kinds of curvilinear integrals and the relation between two kinds of curve integralsGrasp the calculation method of two kinds of curve integral6. master Green formulaMastering the condition and application of plane curve integral and path independentTen, infinite series(1) examination contentsThe concept and properties of series of constant termsThe discrimination of convergence and divergence of constant term series and the concept and property of power seriesPower series expansion of function(two) examination requirements1. understand infinite series and the concepts of convergence, divergence, sumUnderstanding the basic properties of infinite series and the necessary conditions for convergence2. grasp the convergence of geometric series and series3. to grasp the ratio of positive series of convergence methodUnderstanding the comparison and convergence method of positive series4. master Leibniz's theorem of alternating seriesUnderstanding the concept of absolute convergence and conditional convergenceThe absolute convergence and conditional convergence of alternating series5. understand the concept of power seriesGrasp the convergence radius, convergence interval, convergence domain and the solution of sum function of power series6., the McLaughlin expansion uses some simple functions to expand into power seriesFour, teaching materialsA series of textbooks for advanced application talents training in the new centuryHigher mathematics (upper and lower)Chief editor, Department of Applied Mathematics, Tongji UniversityHigher Education PressFive. Reference booksAdvanced Mathematics (Sixth Edition)Upper and lower volumes)Tongji University Applied Mathematics Department editor in chief, Tongji University pressGuide to the complete solution of advanced mathematics exercisesEditor in chief of Applied Mathematics Department, Shanghai Second Polytechnic UniversitySix, examination rulesThe proportion of each part of the higher mathematics in the test paper is about one yuan function calculus, about 50%Space analytic geometry and multivariate function calculus about 30%The differential equation is about 10%Series 10% or soThe test paper includes three types of questions:multiple-choice questions, filling in the blanks and answering questionsMultiple-choice questions and cloze tests accounted for about 40% of the total scoreAnswer questions accounted for about 60% of the total scoreAccording to the relative difficulty, the test questions are divided into easy questions, middle questions and difficult questionsThese three difficulty questions accounted for 40%, 40% and 20% of the total score respectivelyThe questions of all types are sorted according to the principle of "easy to difficult"Calculators are not allowed in examsThe examination form is written in closed formThe exam time is 120 minutesThe full score of the test paper is 150 One。

英语专业（语言学）历年真题试卷汇编20(总分132,考试时间90分钟)1. 填空题1. As the lexical words carry the main content of a language while the grammatical ones serve to link its different parts together, the lexical words are also known as content words and grammatical ones______. (中山大学2008研)2. In traditional grammar, ______is the only word class which can function as a substitute for another item. (中山大学2006研)3. In terms of the meaning expressed by words, they can be classified into______words and ______words. (南开大学2007研)4. The______is the minimal distinctive unit in grammar, a unit which cannot be divided without destroying or drastically altering the meaning, whether lexical or grammatical. (北二外2008研)5. There are two fields of morphology: the study of______and the study of______. (人大2006研)6. A______morpheme is one that cannot constitute a word by itself. (北二外2003研)7. ______ is a branch of linguistics that studies the interrelationship between phonology and morphology. (南开大学2007研)8. ______is a **plex form of compounding in which a new word is formed by joining the initial part of one word and the final part of another word. For example, the English word smog is made from______and______. (人大2006研)9. Back-formation refers to an abnormal type of word-formation where a shorter word is derived by deleting an______affix from a longer form already in the language. (中山大学2006研)10. ______is a unit of expression that has universal intuitive recognition by native speakers, whether it is expressed in spoken or written form. It is the minimum free form. (中山大学2005研)11. Affix is the collective term for the type of formative that call be used only when added to another morpheme. Affixes are limited in number in a language, and are generally classified into three subtypes, namely, prefix, suffix, and______. (北京邮电大学2010研)12. Words can be classified into variable words and invariable words. As for variable words, they may have______changes. That is, the same word my have different grammatical forms but part of the word remains relatively constant (中山大学2011年研)13. Bound morphemes are classified into two types; ______and______root.14. A word formed by derivation is called a______, and a word formed by compounding is called a______.2. 判断题1. Some linguists maintain that a word group is an extension of word of a particular class. (清华2001研)A. 真B. 假2. Words are the most stable of all linguistic units in respect of their internal structure. (大连外国语学院2008研)A. 真B. 假3. Nouns, verbs, adjectives and many adverbs are content words. (北二外2008研)A. 真B. 假4. Pronouns, prepositions, conjunctions and articles are all open class items. (清华2001研)A. 真B. 假5. The words "loose" and "books" have a common phoneme and a common morpheme as well. (北二外2007研)A. 真B. 假6. Free morpheme may constitute words by themselves. (大连外国语学院2008研)A. 真B. 假7. Root also falls into two categories: free and bound. (北二外2006研)A. 真B. 假8. A stem is the base form of a word which cannot be further analyzed without total loss of identity. (对外经贸2006研)A. 真B. 假9. The words "water" and "teacher" have a common phoneme and a common morpheme as well. (北二外2006研)A. 真B. 假10. The words "boys" and "raise" have a common phoneme and a common morpheme as well. (北二外2008研)A. 真B. 假11. Analogic change refers to the reduction of the number of exceptional or irregular morphemes. (对外经贸2005研)A. 真B. 假12. The smallest meaningful unit of language is allomorph.A. 真B. 假3. 单项选择题1. Words like pronouns, prepositions, conjunctions, articles are______items. (北二外2003研)A. open-classB. closed-classC. neither open-class nor closed-class2. Nouns, verbs and adjectives can be classified as______. (西安交大2008研)A. lexical wordsB. grammatical wordsC. function wordsD. form words3. Bound morphemes do not include______. (西安交大2008研)A. rootsB. prefixesC. suffixesD. words4. ______other **pounds may be divided into roots and affixes. (大连外国语学院2008研)A. Polymorphemic wordsB. Bound morphemesC. Free morphemes5. ______refers to the way in which a particular verb changes for tense, person, or number.(西安外国语学院2006研)A. AffixationB. InflectionC. DerivationD. Conjugation6. Which two terms can best describe the following pairs of words: table—tables, day + break—daybreak. (大连外国语学院2008研)A. inflection **poundB. compound and derivationC. inflection and derivation7. Compound words consist of______ morphemes. (北二外2003研)A. boundB. freeC. both bound and free8. Which of the following words is formed by the process of blending? (对外经贸2006研)A. WTOB. MotelC. BookshelfD. red-faced9. Which of the following words are formed by blending? (对外经贸2005研)A. girlfriendB. televisionC. smogD. bunch10. The word UN is formed in the way of______. (西安交大2008研)A. acronymyB. clippingC. initialismD. blending11. Which of the following is NOT a process of the lexical change? (大连外国语学院2008研)A. INVENTION.B. ACRONYM.C. LEXICON.12. Language has been changing, but such changes are not so obvious at all linguistic aspects except that of______. (西安外国语学院2006研)A. phonologyB. lexiconC. syntaxD. semantics13. "Wife", which used to refer to any woman, stands for "a married woman" in modern English. This phenomenon is known as______. (西安交大2008研)A. semantic shiftB. semantic broadeningC. semantic elevationD. semantic narrowing14. It is true that words may shift in meaning, i. e. semantic change. The semantic change of the word tail belongs to______.A. narrowing of meaningB. meaning shiftC. loss of meaningD. widening of meaning15. A suffix is an affix which appears______.A. after the stemB. before the stemC. in the middle of the stemD. below the stem4. 简答题1. What is the distinction between inflectional affixes and derivational affixes? (四川大学2007研)2. What does the concept morphophoneme mean? What is the relationship between phoneme and morphophoneme?(南开大学2004研)3. What are phonologically conditioned and morphologically conditioned form of morphemes? (武汉大学2005研)4. How are affixes classified? (四川大学2008研)5. A number interesting word-formation processes can be discerned in the following examples. Can you identify what is going on in these?(a) The deceased's cremains were scattered over the hill.(b) He's always taking pills, either uppers or downers. (上海交通大学2007研)6. How to distinguish root and stem?7. Illustrate the relationship between morpheme and allomorph by examples.8. What are closed-class words and open-class words?6. 名词解释1. Open-class words (浙江大学2007研)2. Lexical word (武汉大学2005研)3. Morpheme (武汉大学2008研)4. Stem (四川大学2007研)5. inflectional morpheme (南开大学2004研)6. Free morphemes (西安交大2008研)7. Bound morpheme (上海交大2007研)8. Inflection (四川大学2007研)9. Compound (四川大学2007研)10. Allomorph (四川大学2006研)11. Back-formation(四川大学2008研；北外2010研)12. Prefix (北外2010研)13. cognate(南开大学2011年研)13. 举例说明题1. Illustrate lexical change proper with the latest examples in English, covering at least four aspects. (大连外国语学院2008研)2. Semantic change plays a very important role in widening the vocabulary of a language. (中山大学2008研)3. Illustrate the ways of lexical change. (武汉大学2005研)4. What are the major types of semantic Changes? (人大2006研)。

胡壮麟语言学术语英汉对照翻译表-(1)(DOC)胡壮麟语言学术语英汉对照翻译表1.语言的普遍特征: 任意性 arbitrariness多产性 productivity 移位性displacement:我们能用语言可以表达许 多不在场的东西 文化传播性 culturaltransmission2o 语言的功能:传达信息功能informative 人济功能：interpersonal 行事功能:Performative 表情功能：Emotive 寒暄功能：Phatic 娱乐功能recreatinal 元语言功能 metalingual3.语言学linguistics ：包括六个分支语音学Phonetics音位学phonology形态学 Morphology句法学syntax双层结构duality语义学semantics语用学pragmatics4.现代结构主义语言学创始人：Ferdinand de saussure提出语言学中最重要的概念对之一：语言与言语language and parole，语言之语言系统的整体，言语则只待某个个体在实际语言使用环境中说出的具体话语5.语法创始人：Noam Chomsky提出概念语言能力与语言运用competenceand performance1.Which of the following statements can be used to describe displacement. one of the unique properties of language:a.we can easily teach our children to learn a certain languageb.we can use both 'shu' and 'tree' to describe the same thing.c.we can u se language to refer to something not presentd.we can produce sentencesthat have never been heard before.2.What is the most important function of language?a.i nterpersonalb.phaticc.in formatived.metallingual3.The function of the sentence "A nice day, isn'tit ?"is __a informativeb.phaticc.directived.performative4.The distinction between competence and performance is proposed by __a saussureb.hallidayc.chomskyd.the prague school5.Who put forward the distinction between language and parole?a.saussureb.chomskyc.hallidayd anomymous第二节语音学1.发音器官由声带the vocal cords和三个回声腔组成2.辅音consonant there is an obstruction of the air stream at some point of the vocal tract.3.辅音的发音方式爆破音complete obstruction 鼻音nasals破裂音plosives咅B分阻塞辅音partial obstruction擦音fricatives 破擦音affricates等4.辅音清浊特征voicing辅音的送气特征aspiration5.元音vowel分类标准舌翘位置，舌高和嘴唇的形状6 双元音diphthongs有元音过渡vowel glides1.Articulatory phonetics mainly studies __.a.the physical properties of the sounds produced in speechb・the perception of soundsc.the combination of soundsd.the production of sounds2.The distinction between vowel s and consonantslies in __a.the place of articulationb.the obstruction f airstreamc.the position of the tongued.the shape of the lips3.What is the common factor of the three sounds: p, k ta.voicelessb.spreadc.voicedd.n asal4.What phonetic feature distinguish the p in please and the p in speak?a.voicingb.aspirationc.roundnessd.nasality5.Which of the following is not a distinctive feature in English?a.voicingb.n asalc.approximationd.aspiration6.The phonologicalfeatures of the consonantk are __a.voiced stopb.voiceless stopc.voiced fricatived.voiceless fricative7.p is divverent from k in __a.the manner of articulationb.the shape of the lipsc.the vibration of the vocal cordsd.the palce of articualtion8.Vibration of the vocal cords results in __a.aspirationb.n asalityc.obstructiond.voicing第三节音位学phonology1.音位学与语音学的区别：语音学着重于语音的自然属性，主要关注所有语言中人可能发出的所有声音；音位学则强调语音的社会功能，其对象是某一种语言中可以用来组合成词句的那些语音。

题型I．简答题5×1’=5’例：类似于自由词素、词根、词干、连着词素、曲折词素等待解释II．判断正误T/F 20×1’=20’例：动词是逆构词法中产生最多的词。

III．单项选择题20’例：奥斯丁、姆斯金、德莱斯提出的理论？IV．写音标10×1’=10’P35～36V．划分词素10×3×0.5’=15’VI．翻译10×1’=10’分英翻汉和汉翻英例：合作原则、聚合关系、组合关系、曲折后缀、词缀、前缀、后缀VII．选择答题2×5’=10’VIII．树形图给词，分析意思，是否有歧义？用树形图解释出来。

样卷AI．1. displacement2. pragnatics3. stem4. syntax5. hyponymyII. T/F9. Lang is arbitrary to the sense that there is no intrinsic connection between words and what these words actually refer to. F10. The meaning-distinctive function of the tone is especially important in English because English, unlike Chinese, is a typical tone language. F11. The syntactic rules of any language are finite in umber, and yet there is no limit to the umber of sentences native speakers of that language are able to produce and comprehend. F12. Agreement is the requirement that the forms of two or more words in a syntactic relationship should agree with each in terms of categories. T13. Speech Act Theory is the first major theory in the study of language in use; it originated with John Langs Shaw Austin. T14.15.Vibretion of the vocal cords results in a quality of speech sounds called voucing. F?16. The word “flower” is the super ordinate of the typonyms “rose” “tulip” and “rose”. T17．Chomsky defines competence as the ideal user’s knowledge of the rules of his language in linguistic communication. T18.The English sound [m]is a bilabial nasal voice. T19. A study of the features of the Chinese used in the Tang Dynasty in diachronic study. T?20.While English has borrowed most heavily form French, other languages have also made their contributions. F21. Inflectional affixs are those whose major function is to attach themselves to the morphemes to form a new word. F22. A syllable without a coda is a closed syllable. F23. Only words of the same parts of speech can be combined to form compounds. F24. The phrase “green house” with the first element stressed means “a house which is green in colour” F25. Sentences are not formed by randomly combining lexical items, but following a set of syntactic rules that arrange linguistic elements in a particular order. F26. The compound word “book store” is the place where books are sold. This indicates that the meaning of a compound is the sum total of the meaning of its compounments. F27. Only when a maxim under cooperative principle is blatantly violated can the hearer know that it’s being violated and conversational implications arise. T28. The word “photo graphically” is made up of 4 morphemes. TIII.29. The famous quotation from Romeo and Juliet arose by any other name world smell as sweet well illustrates: the conventional nature of language.30. If a linguistic study describes and analyses the language people actually use, it’s a said to be: descriptive.31. Which of the following is not a design feature of human language? Phonology32. Phonetially, the stress of a compound always falls on the first element.33. The description of a language as it changes through time is a diachronic… …36. The word “trasist~” is formed through: lending37. Number is a grammatical category used for the analysis of classed displaying such contrasts as singular, dual, plural, etc. In English, number is mainly observed in nouns.38. Concord is a type of control over the form of some words by other words in certain syntactic constructions.39. Chomsky uses the term performance to refer to the actual realization of a language user’s knowledge of the rules of his langua ge in linguistic com.40. In terms of the place of articulation, the following sounds [t][s][d][z][n] share the feature of P3541. Translate formational Generative Crammer was introduced by N. Chomsky in 1957.42. The relationship between “married/ single” is complementary.43. Of the 3 speech acts, linguists are most interested in the illocutionary act because of this kind of speech act is identical with the speaker’s intention.44. The pair of words “lend” and “borrow” are synomy~s.45. The function of the sentence “A nice day, isn’t it?” is 寒暄46.47. We can do things with words “this” is main idea of the speech act theory.48. The utterance “we are already working 25 hours a day, 8 days a week” obviously violates the maxim of quantity.IV.49. voiceless dentalfricative50. high front tense unroundedvowel51. voiced alveolarstop52. high back tense roundedvowel53. voiceless bilabialstop54. voiced labiodentalfricativeV.55. What are the 4 maxims of the cooperative Principle?56. What are the distinctions between inflectional affix and derivational affix?VIII.Leave the book on the shelf.1 leave the book on the shelfPut the book on the shelf.2 leave book on the shelfKeep away from the book on the shelf1. Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication.2. Design Features of LanguageArbitrariness (Saussure)This feature means that the forms of linguistic signs bear no natural relationship to their meanings.DualityThe elements of the spoken language are sounds that do not convey meaning in themselves.CreativityBy creativity we mean language is resourceful because of its duality and its recursiveness.DisplacementThis means that human languages enable their users to symbolize objects, events and concepts which are not present (in time and space) at the moment of communication.3. Functions of Language(1) Informative FunctionLanguage serves an informative function when it is used to tell what the speaker thinks, to give information about facts.(2) Interpersonal functionThis is by far the most important socio-logical use of language. People establish and maintain their status in a society.(3) Performative FunctionThis function is primarily to change the social status of persons. The kind of language employed in performative verbal acts is usually quite formal and even ritualized.(4) Emotive functionThe emotive function of language is one of the most powerful usesof language because it is so crucial in changing the emotional status of an audience for or against someone or something.(5) Phatic communionIt refers to the social interaction of language which is used for establishing an atmosphere or maintaining social contact rather than forexchanging information or ideas.Greetings, farewells and comments on the weather serve this function.(6) Recreational functionThis function refers to the use of language for the sheer joy of using it.(7) Metalingual functionOur language can be used to talk about language itself.4. What is linguistics?Linguistics is scientific discipline with the goal of describing language and speech in all relevant theoretical and practical aspects and their relation to adjoining disciplines.5. Main Branches of Linguistics*PhoneticsIt studies speech sounds, including the production of speech, that is how speech sounds are actually made, transmitted and received, the sounds of speech, the description and classification of speech sounds, words and connected speech.* MorphologyIt is concerned with the internal organization of words. It studies the minimal units of meaning---morphemes and word-formation processes.*PhonologyIt studies the rules governing the structure, distribution, and sequencing of speech sounds and the shape of syllables. It deals with sound system of a language by treating phoneme as the point of departure.*SyntaxIt is about principles of forming and understanding correct English sentences. The form or structure of a sentence is governed by the rules of syntax. These rules specify word order, sentence organization, andthe relationships between words, word classes and other sentence elements.*SemanticsIt examines how meaning is encoded in a language. It is not only concerned with meanings of words as lexical items, but also with levels of language below the word and above it.*PragmaticsIt is the study of meaning in context. It deals with particular utterances in particular situations and is especially concerned with the various ways in which the many social contexts of language performance can influence interpretation.6. Important Distinctions in Linguistics*Descriptive vs. prescriptiveA linguistic study is DESCRIPTIVE if it describes and analysesfacts observed; it is PRESCRIPTIVE it tries to lay down rules for “correct” behavior.* Synchronic vs. diachronicSynchronic description refers to a language description at some point in time;Diachronic description is about a language description as it changes through time.* Langue & paroleLANGUE refers to the abstract linguistic system shared by all the members of a speech community;PAROLE refers to the actualized language, or realization of langue.*Competence & performanceCompetence is the ideal language user’s knowledge of the rules of his language;Performance is the actual realization of this knowledge in utterance.7. CONSONANTS and VOWELSConsonants are produced by constricting or obstructing the vocal tract at some place to divert, impede, or completely shut off the flow of air in the oral cavity;A vowel is produced without such obstruction so no turbulence or atotal stopping of the air can be perceived.8. Manners of Articulation*Stop (or plosive)(爆破音): complete closure of the articulators involved so that the air-stream cannot escape through the mouth.There are two kinds of stops: oral stops and nasal stops* Fricative(摩擦音): close approximation of two articulators sothat the air-stream is partially obstructed and turbulent airflow is produced.* Approximant(无摩擦延续音):This is an articulation in which one articulator is close to another, but without the vocal tract being narrowed to such an extentthat a turbulent air-stream is produced.* Lateral(舌边音): obstruction of the air-stream at a point along the center of the oral tract, with incomplete closure between one orboth sides of the tongue and the roof of the mouth.* Affricates (破擦音)：When the obstruction, complete at first, is released slowly withthe friction resulting from partial obstruction (as in fricatives), the sounds thus produced are affricates. In English there are two affricates.* Nasals (鼻音):When the nasal passage is opened by lowering the soft palate at the back of the mouth and air is allowed to pass through it, the sounds thus produced are called nasals. There are three nasals in English.* Glides (滑音):They are sometimes called “semivowels”. They are produced with a narrower passage between the lips and the tongue and the hard palate to cause some slight noise from the local obstruction. In English, they are [w,j]9. The place of Articulation* Bilabial(双唇音):In the production of these sounds, the upper and the lower lips are brought together to create obstruction. In English, bilabial sounds include [p,b,m]* Labiodental(唇齿音):In the obstruction of these sounds, the lower lip is brought into contact with the upper teeth, thus creating the obstruction. The labiodental sounds in English are [f,v* dental(齿音):The obstruction is created between the tip of the tongue and the upper teeth. There are two dental sounds in English.* alveolar(齿龈音):The tip of the tongue is brought into contact with the upper teeth-ridge to create the obstruction. The alveolar sounds are [t,d,s,z,n,l,r]* palatal(颚音):The obstruction is between the back of the tongue and the hard palate.* velar(软腭音):The back of the tongue is brought into contact with the velum(软腭), or the soft palate.* glottal(喉音):The vocal cords are brought momentarily together to create the obstruction. There is only one glottal sound in English: [h].10. Classification of English vowels* Vowel sounds are differentiated by a number of factors: the position of the tongue in the mouth, the openness of the mouth, the shape of the lips, and the length of the vowels.11.12. The Phoneme theoryThe phoneme simply refers to a “unit of explicit sound contrast”13. Allophones(音位变体)Peak and speak are not actually pronounced as they are transcribed in dictionaries.We know that in English there is a rule that this sound is unaspirated after /s/ but aspirated in other places. In what we have talked about, different variants of a phoneme are called allophones of the same phoneme. In this case the allophones are said to be in complementary distribution(互补分布) because they never occur in the same context.14. Assimilation(同化)*This is a process by which one sound takes on some or all the characteristics of a neighboring sound.*There are two possibilities of assimilation:If a following sound is influencing a preceding sound, we call it regressive assimilation(逆同化);The converse process, in which a preceding sound is influencing a following sound, is known as progressive assimilation(顺同化).* Assimilation can occur across syllable or word boundaries, as shown in the following:pancakesunglassesYou can keep them.He can go now.Define the following termsconsonant phoneme allophoneWhat isassimilation?15. SuprasegmentalsThe syllable structureStressIntonationTone16. Identification of words*StabilityWords are the most stable of all linguistic units, in respect of their internal structure, i.e. the constituent parts of a complex word have little potential for rearrangement.* Relative uninterruptibility:This means that new elements are not to be inserted into a word even when there are several parts in a word. Nothing can be used to insert in the three parts of the word disappointment: dis+appoint+ment.* A minimum free form:This was first suggested by Leonard Bloomfield. He advocated treating sentence as “the maximum free form” and word “the minimum free form”, the latter being the smallest unit that can constitute a complete utterance.17. Classification of wordsVariable & invariable words*Variable words refer to those that we can find ordered and regular series of grammatically different word forms, for the word write, there are several grammatically different forms: wrote, written, writing* Grammatical words & lexical words:Those which express grammatical meanings, such as conjunctions, prepositions, articles, and pronouns, are grammatical words, also known as function words. Those which have lexical meanings,i.e. those which refer to substance, action and quality, such as nouns, verbs, adjectives, and adverbs, are lexical words, also known as content words.* Closed-class words and open-class words:A word that belongs to the closed-class is one whose membership is fixed or limited. New members are not regularly added such as pronouns, prepositions, conjunctions, articles, etc., are all closed items. The open-class is one whose membership is in principle infinite or unlimited.With the emergence of new ideas, inventions, etc.New expressions are continually and constantly being added to the lexicon. Nouns, verbs, adjectives and many adverbs are all open-class items.* Word class:Traditionally, we had such word classes as “n. adj. v. adv. prep. etc.” But here are some of the categories newly introduced:a. ParticlesThey include the infinitive marker “to”, the negative marker “not” and the subordinate units in phrasal verbs, such as “get by”, “do up”, “look back”.Chapter Three: Morphologyb. AuxiliariesAuxiliaries used to be regarded as verbs, but linguists today tend to define them as a separate word class:Negation: I can’t come.*I wantn’t come.Inversion: Is he coming? *Keeps he coming?Code: I’ll come and so will Bill.*I intend to come and so intend Bill.Emphasis: He has come. *He seems to come.c. Pro-formIn order to refer collectively to the items in a sentence which substitute for other items or constructions, it is advisable to regard pro-form as a separate word class.Pro-adjective: Your pen is red. So is mine.Pro-verb: He knows English better than he did.Pro-adverb: He hopes he’ll win and I hope so too.Pro-locative: Jane’s hiding there, behind the door.d. Determiners:This is a new word class which refer to words that are used before the noun acting as head of a noun phrase, and determine the kind of reference: the, a, some, all, etc.Quirk, et al proposes that there are three subclasses of determiners:Predeterminers: all, both, half, one-third,etc.Central determiners: the, a, this, that, these, those, etc.Postdeterminers.next, last, past, other, (a) few, much, etc.18. The formation of word* Morpheme & morphologyMorpheme is the smallest unit of language in terms of relationship between expression and content, a unit that cannot be divided into further smaller units without destroying or drastically altering the meaning, whether it is lexical or grammatical, e.g.boys---boy+-schecking---check+-ingdisappointment---dis-+appoint+-mentMorphology studies the internal structure of words, and the rules by which words are formed. For example, the verb purify consistsof two parts: pur(e) and –ify, from which we can work out a rule: a new form of verb can be created by adding –ify to an adjective. This is a morphological rule that may explain the formation, of a set of verbs ended with –ify, such as simplify, beautify, amplify,etc.。

《英语语言学概论》配套习题（五）（问答题）Chapter 1 Introduction to Linguistics1.What are design features of language?2.What are the characteristics of human language?3.Explain the characteristic of arbitrariness. What are the relationship betweenarbitrariness and convention?4.What does productivity mean for language?5.What functions does language have?6.Explain the metalingual function of language.7.What is the difference between synchronic linguistics and diachronic linguistics?8.What distinguishes prescriptive studies of language from descriptive studies oflanguage?Chapter 2 Phonology1.What does phonetics concern?2.How do the three branches of phonetics contribute to the study of speech sounds?3.How is the description of consonants different from that of vowels?4.In which two ways may consonants be classified?5.How do phoneticians classify vowels?6.To what extent does phonology differ from phonetics?7.What do minimal pair refer? Give an example to illustrate.8.What kind of phenomenon is complementary distribution?Chapter 3 Morphology1.What is a free morpheme? What is a bound morpheme?2.What is the difference between inflectional affixes and derivational affixes?3.What is compounding?4.What are the criteria of a compound word?5.What is acronymy?6.What is blending?7.Decide which way of word formation is used to form the following words.comsatmotellasememonightmareASEANROMbitbabysitcock-a-doodle-dogrunt8.What are closed-class words and open-class words?Chapter4 Syntax1.What is syntax?2.What is a simple, compound, or complex sentence?3.What is the hierarchical structure?4.How to distinguish immediate constituents from ultimate constituents?5.What are subordinate and coordinate constructions?6.What are deep and surface structures?7.Can you describe the syntactic structure of the sentence “The old tree swayed inthe wind” by using a tree diagram?8.How to reveal the differences in sentential meaning in the sentence “The motherof the boy and the girl will arrive soon” by drawing tree diagrams?Chapter 5 Semantics1.What is a semantic field? Can you illustrate it?2.What are the major types of synonyms in English?3.In what way do the following pairs offer contrast?4.Categorize the following pairs: child-kid, alive-dead, big-small, husband-wife.5.What is hyponymy composed of? Illustrate whether there is always asuperordinate to hyponyms, or hyponyms to a superordinate.6.How is meronymy different from hyponymy?7.Why may a sentence be ambiguous?8.What predication analysis? What is a no-place, one-place, two-place, orthree-place predicate? Give examples.Chapter 6 Pragmatics1.What does pragmatics study? How does it differ from traditional semantics?2.How are sentence meaning and utterance meaning related, and how do they differ?3.What is contextual meaning?4.Explain the meanings of locutionary act, illocutionary act, and perlocutionary actthrough examples.5.What is cooperative principle(CP)?6.What is conversational implicature?7.How does the violation of the maxims of CP give rise to conversationalimplicature?8.What is adjacency pair?Chapter 8 Language and Society1.What is sociolinguistics?2.What is speech community?3.What is dialect?4.What is Sapir-Whorf hypothesis?5.What is speech variety?6.What is standard language?7.What is pidgin?8.What is bilingualism?9.What is multilingualism?Chapter 10-11 Language Acquisition1.What is psycholinguistics?2.What is bottom-up processing and what is top-down processing?3.What are the six major types of speech error? Give examples of each.4.What is the critical period for language acquisition?5.What is language acquisition and what is L2 language acquisition? What is learnerlanguage and what is target language?6.What is interlanguage(IL)?7.What are the different views on language transfer?8.What is the difference between input and intake?。

1.判断题：We were all born with the ability to acquire language, which means the details of any language system can be genetically transmitted.正确错误参考答案：错误2.单选题：__________ deals with language application to other fields, particularly education.A. Linguistic theoryB. Practical linguisticsC. Comparative linguisticsD. Applied linguistics参考答案：D3.单选题：Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human __________A. contactB. communicationC. relationD. community参考答案：B4.判断题：Only human beings are able to communicate.正确错误参考答案：错误5.填空题：Saussure put forward two important concepts. _____refers to the abstract linguistic system shared by all members of a speech community.参考答案：langue6.判断题：The conventional nature of language is illustrated by a famous quotation from Shakespear’s play Romeo and Juliet: “A rose by any other name would smell as sweet”.正确错误参考答案：正确7.填空题：Linguistic potential is similar to Saussure’s langue and Chomsky’s_______参考答案：competence8.判断题：Speech and writing came into being at much the same time in human history.正确错误参考答案：错误9.填空题：The description of a language as it changes through time is a _______ study.参考答案：diachronic10.填空题：Linguistics is the______ study of language.参考答案：scientific11.填空题：One general principle of linguistic analysis is the primacy of _______ over writing. 参考答案：speech12.填空题：Modern linguistics is _______ in the sense that the linguist tries to discover what language is rather than lay down some rules for people to observe.参考答案：descriptive13.单选题：Which of the following words is entirely arbitrary?A. treeB. typewriterC. crashD. bang参考答案：A14.判断题： F. de Saussure, who made the distinction between langue and parole in the early 20th century, was a French linguist.正确错误参考答案：错误15.单选题：__________ refers to the actual realization of the ideal language user’s knowledge of the rules of his language in utterances.A. PerformanceB. CompetenceC. LangueD. Parole参考答案：A16.判断题：Language is written because writing is the primary medium for all languages.正确错误参考答案：错误17.单选题：Which of the following property of language enables language users to overcome the barriers caused by time and place, due to this feature of language, speakers of a language are free to talk about anything in any situation?A. TransferabilityB. DualityC. DisplacementD. Arbitrariness参考答案：C【quiz2 phonology】测试总分：18 分【jenny1027】的测试概况：(得分：18 分)1.填空题：In phonological analysis the words fail / veil are distinguishable simply because of the two phonemes /f/ - /v/. This is an example for illustrating _______参考答案：minimal pairs2.填空题：Speech takes place when the organs of speech move to produce patterns of sound. These movements have an effect on the coming ______from the lungs.参考答案：air stream3.判断题：According to the length or tenseness of the pronunciation, vowels can be divided into long vs. short or tense vs. lax.正确错误参考答案：正确4.判断题：In English, all the back vowels are rounded.正确错误参考答案：错误5.填空题：In English there are a number of_________, which are produced by moving from onevowel position to another through intervening positions.参考答案：diphthongs6.填空题：According to the feature of voicing, consonant sounds can be either ____ or ____ , while all vowel sounds are ____ .参考答案：voiced voiceless voiced7.单选题：Pitch variation is known as __________ when its patterns are imposed on sentences.A. intonationB. toneC. pronunciationD. voice参考答案：A8.单选题：Which one is different from the others according to places of articulation?A. [n]B. [m]C. [b]D. [p]参考答案：A9.判断题：In English, all the front vowels and the central vowels are unrounded.正确错误参考答案：正确10.单选题：Which branch of phonetics concerns the production of speech sounds?A. Acoustic phoneticsB. Articulatory phoneticsC. Auditory phoneticsD. None of the above参考答案：B11.单选题：What kind of sounds can we make when the vocal cords are vibrating?A. V oicelessB. V oicedC. Glottal stopD. Consonant参考答案：B12.填空题：Consonants differ from vowels in that the latter are produced without ______ .参考答案：obstruction13.判断题：Suprasegmental phonology refers to the study of phonological properties of units larger than the segment-phoneme, such as syllable, word and sentence.正确错误参考答案：正确14.判断题：[p] is a voiced bilabial stop.正确错误参考答案：错误15.判断题：Acoustic phonetics is concerned with the perception of speech sounds.正确错误参考答案：错误16.单选题：Which vowel is different from the others according to the characteristics of vowels?A. [i:]B. [u]C. [e]D. [i]参考答案：B【quiz3 Morphology】1.填空题：Bound morphemes are classified into two types: ______ and ______.参考答案：derivational morphemes inflectional morphemes2.填空题：______is a reverse process of derivation, and therefore is a process of shortening.参考答案：Back-formation3.单选题：The three subtypes of affixes are: prefix, suffix and __________.A. derivational affixB. inflectional affixC. infixD. back-formation参考答案：C4.单选题：Nouns, verbs and adjectives can be classified as __________.A. content wordsB. grammatical wordsC. function wordsD. form words参考答案：A5.填空题：______is extremely productive, because English had lost most of its inflectional endings by the end of the Middle English period, which facilitated the use of words interchangeably as verbs or nouns, verbs or adjectives, and vice versa.参考答案：Conversion6.单选题：__________ is a way in which new words may be formed from already existing words by subtracting an affix which is thought to be part of the old word.A. affixationB. back-formationC. insertionD. addition参考答案：B7.填空题：A small set of conjunctions, prepositions and pronouns belong to ______class, while the largest part of nouns, verbs, adjectives and adverbs belong to______ class.参考答案：closed open8.单选题：The words like smog and motel are formed by __________.A. blendingB. clippingC. back-formationD. acronymy参考答案：A9.单选题：In English –ise and –tion are called __________.A. prefixesB. suffixesC. infixesD. stems参考答案：B10.填空题：A word formed by derivation is called a ______, and a word formed by compounding is called a ______.参考答案：derivative compound11.单选题：The word DINK is formed in the way of __________.A. acronymyB. clippingC. compoundingD. blending参考答案：A12.单选题：There are __________ morphemes in the word denationalization.A. threeB. fourC. fiveD. six参考答案：C13.单选题：Morphemes that represent tense, number, gender and case are called __________ morpheme.A. inflectionalB. freeC. boundD. derivational参考答案：A【quiz4-syntax】1.填空题：Words which introduce the sentence complement are termed ______参考答案：complementizers2.判断题：Minor lexical categories are open because these categories are not fixed and new members are allowed for.正确错误参考答案：错误3.填空题：______is "a syntactic unit that functions as part of a larger unit within a sentence"参考答案：Constituent4.填空题：There are two levels of syntactic structures. The first, formed by the XP rule in accordance with the head’s sub-categorization properties, is called ______. The second, corresponding to the final syntactic form of the sentence which results from appropriate transformations, is called ______.参考答案：deep structure surface structure5.填空题：Infl is the short form of ______, an abstract category which indicates ______ and ______.参考答案：inflection tense agreement6.填空题：Major lexical categories play a very important role in sentence formation. They differ from minor lexical categories in that they are often ______ assumed to be the around which phrases are built.参考答案：heads7.判断题：In English syntactic analysis, four phrasal categories are commonly recognized and discussed, namely, noun phrase, verb phrase, infinitive phrase, and auxiliary phrase.正确错误参考答案：错误8.判断题： A noun phrase must contain a noun, but other elements are optional.正确错误参考答案：正确9.填空题：______ is the inversion operation involving the movement of a word from the head position in one phrase into the head position in another phrase.参考答案：head movement10.填空题：Sentence head---- ______ position can be taken by an ______ or an abstract category encoded in a verb which indicates the sentence’s ______.参考答案：Infl auxiliary tense11.填空题：Syntax is ______ that studies how words are combined to form sentences and the ______ the formation of sentences.参考答案：a branch of linguistics rules that govern12.判断题：Constituents that can be substituted for one another without loss of grammaticality belong to the same syntactic category.正确错误参考答案：正确13.判断题：In a complex sentence, the two clauses hold unequal status, one subordinating the other.正确错误参考答案：正确14.判断题：The syntactic rules of any language are finite in number, but there is no limit to the number of sentences native speakers of that language are able to produce and comprehend.正确错误参考答案：正确15.填空题：the XP rule (revised): XP--> ______ + ______ + ______参考答案：(Specifier) X (Complement*)16.填空题：Wh-movement: Move a wh-phrase to the position under CP.参考答案：specifier【quiz5 semantics】1.填空题：_______ opposites may be seen in terms of degrees of the quality involved.参考答案：Gradable2.单选题：The semantic components of the word “man”can be expressed as________.A. +human, +male, -adultB. +human, -male, -adultC. +human, +male, +adultD. +human, -male, +adult参考答案：C3.填空题：_______ analysis is based upon the belief that the meaning of a word can be divided into meaning components.参考答案：componential4.单选题： A word with several meaning is called___________.A. an abnormal wordB. a polysemic wordC. a synonymous wordD. None of the above参考答案：B5.单选题：What is the meaning relationship between the two words “flower/tulip”?A. PolysemyB. HomonymyC. HyponymyD. Antonymy参考答案：C6.填空题：The semantic component of the word _______ are +Human, +Adult, +male, -Married.参考答案：bachelor7.填空题：According to the “semantic triangle”presented by Ogden and Richards, the symbol or _______ refers to the linguistic elements(words, sentences, etc.), the _______ refers to the object in the world of experience and the thought or reference refers to concept.参考答案：form referent8.单选题：We call the relation between “animal”and “cow”as___________.A. polysemyB. antonymyC. homophonyD. hyponymy参考答案：D9.单选题：Which description of componential analysis for the word “woman”is right?A. +human, -adult, -maleB. +human, +adult, -maleC. +human, +adult, +maleD. +human, -adult, +male参考答案：B10.单选题：What is the meaning relationship between the two words “rose/tulip”?A. polysemyB. hyponymyC. homophonyD. co-hyponyms参考答案：D11.单选题：The pair of words “wide/narrow”are called__________.A. gradable oppositesB. complementary antonymsC. co-hyponymsD. relational opposites参考答案：A12.单选题：The pair of words “borrow/lend”are called __________.A. relational oppositesB. synonymsC. complementariesD. gradable opposites参考答案：A【quiz6 Pragmatics】1.单选题：What essentially distinguishes semantics and pragmatics is whether in the study of meaning _________ is considered.A. referenceB. speech actC. practical usageD. context参考答案：D2.单选题：According to Searle, the illocutionary point of the representative is ______.A. to get the hearer to do somethingB. to commit the speaker to something’s being the caseC. to commit the speaker to some future course of actionD. to express the feelings or attitude towards an existing state of affairs参考答案：B3.填空题：A(n) _______ act is the act of uttering words, phrases, clauses. It is the act of conveying literal meaning by means of syntax, lexicon and phonology.参考答案：locutionary4.单选题： A sentence is a _________ concept, and the meaning of a sentence is often studied in isolation.A. pragmaticB. grammaticalC. mentalD. conceptual参考答案：B5.填空题：A(n) _______ act is the act of expressing the speaker’s intention; it is the act performed in saying something.参考答案：illocutionary6.填空题：There are four maxims under the cooperative principle: the maxim of _______, the maxim of quality, the maxim of relation and the maxim of manner.参考答案：quantity7.判断题：The meaning of a sentence is abstract, but context-dependent正确错误参考答案：错误8.填空题：_______ were sentences that did not state a fact or describe a state, and were not verifiable.参考答案：Performatives9.判断题：It would be impossible to give an adequate description of meaning if the context of language use was left unconsidered.正确错误参考答案：正确10.单选题：When any of the maxims under the cooperative principle is flouted, _______ might arise.A. impolitenessB. contradictionsC. mutual understandingD. conversational implicatures参考答案：D11.判断题：The meaning of an utterance is decontexualized, therefore stable.正确错误参考答案：错误12.填空题：A(n) _______ is to express feelings or attitude towards an existing state.参考答案：expressive13.填空题：_______ were statements that either state or describe, and were thus verifiable.参考答案：Constatives14.判断题：Utterances always take the form of complete sentences.正确错误参考答案：错误15.判断题：Speech act theory was originated with the British philosopher John Searle.正确错误参考答案：错误16.单选题：All the acts that belong to the same category share the same purpose, but they differ __________.A. in their illocutionary actsB. in their intentions expressedC. in their strength or forceD. in their effect brought about参考答案：C17.单选题：If we think of a sentence as what people actually utter in the course of communication, it becomes a (n) _________.A. constativeB. directiveC. utteranceD. expressive参考答案：C18.判断题：Pragmatics treats the meaning of language as something intrinsic and inherent.正确错误参考答案：错误19.单选题：__________ is the act performed by or resulting from saying something; it is the consequence of, or the change brought about by the utterance.A. A locutionary actB. An illocutionary actC. A perlocutionary actD. A performative act参考答案：C20.填空题：A(n) _______ is commit the speaker himself to some future course of action.参考答案：commissive21.判断题：What essentially distinguishes semantics and pragmatics is whether in the study of meaning the context of use is considered.正确错误参考答案：正确。

The distinction between inflectional affixes and derivational affixes.Inflection indicates grammatical relations by adding inflectional affixes,such as number,person,finiteness,aspect and case;the adding of inflectional affixes will not change the grammatical class of the stems to which they are attached.For instance,(a) number:table/tables,apple/apples.(b)person:talk/talks/talking/talked.(c)case:boy/boy's.And derivation,in its restricted sense,refers to the process of how new words are formed.It can be further divided into two sub-types:the derivational type and the compound type.Therefore,"derivation"here is a cover term both for the derivation itself and for the compound.However,derivation shows a relationship between roots and affixes,it contrast to inflections,can make the word class of the original word either changed or unchanged.Word forms that come from derivation are relatively large and potentially open.The same is true for words ending with the same suffix.So,in English,there is usually one productive inflectional affix per word,but there may also arise multiple derivational affixes.Of course,some words can carry both prefixes and suffixes.On the other hand,the term compound refers to those words that consists of more than one lexical morpheme,or the way to join two separate words to produce a singlenew word.In compound,the lexical morphemes can be of different word classes,like noun compounds,verb compounds,adjective compounds,preposition pounds can be further divided into two kinds,the endocentric compound and the exocentric compound.So,we can distinguish inflectional affixes and derivational affixes from mainly four parts:first,inflectional affixes are generally less productive than derivational affixes:Inflectional affixes very often add a minute or delicate grammatical meaning to the stem.Therefore,they serve to produce different forms of a single word.In contrast,derivational affixes often often change the lexical meaning.Second,inflectional affixes don't change the word class of the word they attach to,such as flower,flowers,whereas derivational affixes might or might not,such as the relation between small and smallness for the former,and that between brother and brotherhood for the latter.Third,inflectional affixes are often conditioned by nonsemantic linguistic factorsoutside the word they attach to but within the phrase or sentence.For example,the choice of likes in "The boy likes to navigate on the internet."is determined by the subject the boy in the sentence,whereas derivational affixes are more often based on simple meaning distinctions.Fourth,in English,inflectional affixes are mostly suffixes,which are always word final.But derivational affixes can be prefixes or suffixes.All in all,we can distinguish inflectional affixes and derivational affixes from their function and position.First,functionally,inflectional affixes do not mark grammatical relations and never create new words while derivational affixes can create new words.Moreover,inflectional affixes do not cause a change in grammatical class while derivational affixes very often but not always cause a change in grammatical class.However,in term of position,inflectional affixes are suffixes while derivational affixes can be suffixes or prefixes.And inflectional affixes are always after derivational affixes if both are present.But derivational affixes are always before inflectional suffixes if both are present.References:Lyons.J,1997.Semantics,Cambridge University Press.George Lakoff and Mark Johnson,2006,Metaphors We Live By.Nattinger.J.Decarrio.J,2000,Lexical phrases and Language teaching.Halliday,M.A.K.2000,An Introduction to Functional Grammar.Beijing:Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press.Matthiessen,C.M.I.M and Halliday,M.A.K.2009,Systemic functional grammar:a first step into the theory.Beijing:Higher Eduction Press.Martin,J.R.and White,P.R.2008.The Language of Evaluation:Appraisal in English.Beijing:Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press.。

Chapter 3 MorphologyI. Multiple Choices1. The word “laze” is an example of _____________ in word formation.A. acronymB. blendingC. functional shiftD. back formation2. Pronouns, prepositions, conjunctions and articles are ___________.A. open-class wordsB. closed-class wordsC. both open-class words and closed-class wordsD. neither open-class words nor closed-class words3. “Kodak” is a/an __________.A. acronymB. blendingC. coinageD. clipping4. ___________ refers to those words which are made by combing the initial letters of a composite name. They can not be pronounced into one word.A. InitialismB. AcronymC. InventionD. Blending5. __________ refers to any morpheme or combination of morphemes to which an inflectional affix can be added. It can be equivalent to a root, or a root and a derivational affix.A. AffixB. RootC. StemD. Suffix6. In the following words foot/feet, goose/geese, the affixes belong to ___________.A. suffixB. infixC. prefixD. root7. Match each expression under A with the one statement under B that characterizes it.A B①Coke a. back-formation②smog b. acronym③prof c. abbreviation④UNESCO d. blending⑤edit e. invention8. Nouns, verbs and adjectives can be classified as _____________.A. lexical wordsB. grammatical wordsC. function wordsD. form words9. _____________ refers to the way in which a particular verb changes for tense, person or number.A. AffixationB. InflectionC. DerivationD. Root10. Which of the following words is formed by the process of blending?A. WTOB. motelC. bookshelfD. red-facedII. Complete each of the following statements.1. In the word “suitable”, “-able” is a __________________ morpheme rather than an inflectional one.2. A _____________ morpheme is one that cannot constitute a word by itself.3. Back-formation refers to an abnormal type of word-formation where a shorter word is derived by deleting a(n) _________________ affix from a longer from already in the language.4. ________________________ is a type of word-formation by which a shorter word is coined by the deletion of a supposed affix of a longer form already present in the language. For example, the word edit was formed from editor by dropping the supposed derivational suffix –or.5. The ______________ is the minimal distinctive unit in grammar, a unit which cannot be divided further without destroying or drastically altering the meaning, whether lexical or grammatical.6. A morpheme can convey two kinds of meanings : ______________ meaning and _______________ meaning.7. “Nation” is the ____________ of “internationalism”.8. Poly-morphemic words other than compounds may be divided into _______________ and ______________.9. _______________ is a branch of linguistics that studies the interrelationship between phonology and morphology.10. A word formed by derivation is called a derivative and a word by compounding is called __________________.III. Explain the following terms.1.open-class words2. stem3. free morpheme4. bound morpheme5. Morpheme6. Blending7. Clipping8. RootIV. Answer the following questions.1. Analyze the morphemic structure of the words “unacceptable”and “nonsmokers”, by using a tree diagram for each, with labels for morphological categories such as root, prefix and suffix.2. What is the distinction between inflectional affixes and derivational affixes?3. How can we distinguish root and stem?。

morph 词子-回复Morphology is a branch of linguistics that studies the internal structure of words and how they are formed. It examines the different morphemes, or meaningful units, that combine to create words. In this article, we will explore the intricacies of morphological analysis and its significance in understanding language structure.At its core, morphology seeks to understand how words are built from smaller components called morphemes. A morpheme is the smallest meaningful unit of a word. It can be a complete word itself, such as "book" or "cat," or a part of a word, such as the "s" at the end of "books" or the "un-" at the beginning of "undo." By examining these morphemes, linguists can gain insights into the rules and patterns that govern word formation.One of the main concepts in morphology is inflection. Inflection refers to changes made to a word to indicate grammatical features such as tense, number, gender, or case. For example, the verb "run" can be inflected into "ran" to indicate past tense. Similarly, the noun "mouse" can be inflected into "mice" to show plural form. These inflections play an essential role in conveying meaning andgrammar in a language.Another crucial concept in morphology is derivation. Derivation involves adding prefixes or suffixes to a base word to create a new word with a different meaning or part of speech. For instance, the addition of the prefix "un-" to the base word "happy" creates the new word "unhappy," changing its meaning to the opposite. Likewise, adding the suffix "-er" to the verb "teach" results in the noun "teacher." Derivation allows for the creation of a vast array of words and expands the vocabulary of a language.In addition to inflection and derivation, understanding morphological analysis requires recognizing the different types of morphemes. There are two fundamental types: free morphemes and bound morphemes. Free morphemes can stand alone as independent words with clear meanings. Examples include "cat," "book," and "run." On the other hand, bound morphemes cannot function independently and must be attached to a base word. Examples of bound morphemes include the plural marker "-s" and the past tense marker "-ed."Furthermore, it is essential to distinguish between derivationalmorphemes and inflectional morphemes. Derivational morphemes change the core meaning of a word and create new words or different parts of speech. Inflectional morphemes, on the other hand, modify the grammatical function of a word without changing its fundamental meaning. For instance, adding the derivational morpheme "-ish" to "child" creates "childish," a new word with a different meaning. However, adding the inflectional morpheme "-s" to "book" simply changes it from singular to plural.Morphological analysis allows linguists to uncover the underlying structure of words and understand how they relate to one another. By breaking down a word into its constituent morphemes, linguists can identify patterns and rules within a language. This analysis not only aids in language acquisition and comprehension but also contributes to the development of language resources such as dictionaries and grammar guides.Moreover, morphology plays a significant role in natural language processing and computational linguistics. By understanding morphological processes, researchers can develop algorithms and models to analyze and generate words automatically. This has applications in various fields, including machine translation,text-to-speech synthesis, and sentiment analysis.In conclusion, morphology is a fundamental aspect of linguistics that explores the internal structure of words and how they are formed. Through the analysis of morphemes and their interactions, linguists can uncover patterns and rules within a language. This understanding contributes to language acquisition, comprehension, and the development of language resources. Furthermore, morphology has practical applications in fields such as natural language processing. Overall, the study of morphology is crucial in unraveling the complexities of language and improving our understanding of its structure.。

1. Linguistics: Linguistics is generally defined as the scientific study oflanguage.2. Phonology: The study of how sounds are put together and used incommunication is called phonology.3. Syntax: The study of how morphemes and words are combined to formsentences is called syntax. .4. Design features: it referred to the defining properties of human languagethat tell the difference between human language that tell the differencebetween human language and any system of animal communication.5. Psycholinguistics: The study of language with reference to the workings ofmind is called psycholinguistics.6. Language: Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for humancommunication.7. Phonetics: The study of sounds which are used in linguistic communication iscalled phonetics.8. Morphology: The study of the way in which morphemes are arranged to formwords is called morphology.9. Parole: it referred to the actual phenomena or data of linguistics.10. P honology：Phonology studies the system of sounds of a particular language；it aims to discover how speech sounds in a language form patterns and how these sounds are used to convey meaning in linguistic communication.11. P honeme:The basic unit in phonology is called phoneme； it is a unit ofdistinctive value. But it is an abstract unit. To be exact， a phoneme is nota sound； it is a collection of distinctive phonetic features.12. A llophone:The different phones which can represent a phoneme in differentphonetic environments are called the allophones of that phoneme.13. I nternational phonetic alphabet： It is a standardized and internationallyaccepted system of phonetic transcription.14. I ntonation:When pitch， stress and sound length are tied to the sentencerather than the word in isolation， they are collectively known as intonation.15. P honetics:Phonetics is defined as the study of the phonic medium oflanguage； it is concerned with all the sounds that occur in the world' s languages16. A uditory phonetics:It studies the speech sounds from the hearer's point ofview. It studies how the sounds are perceived by the hearer.17. A coustic phonetics:It studies the speech sounds by looking at the soundwaves. It studies the physical means by which speech sounds are transmitted through the air from one person to another.18. P hone:Phones can be simply defined as the speech sounds we use whenspeaking a language. A phone is a phonetic unit or segment. It does not necessarily distinguish meaning.19. P honemic contrast:Phonemic contrast refers to the relation between twophonemes. If two phonemes can occur in the same environment and distinguish meaning， they are in phonemic contrast.20. T one： Tones are pitch variations， which are caused by the differing ratesof vibration of the vocal cords.21. M inimal pair： When two different forms are identical in every way except forone sound segment which occurs in the same place in the strings， the two words are said to form a minimal pair.22. M orphology： Morphology is a branch of grammar which studies the internalstructure of words and the rules by which words are formed.23. I nflectional morphology： The inflectional morphology studies the inflections24. D erivational morphology： Derivational morphology is the study of word-formation.25. M orpheme： It is the smallest meaningful unit of language.26. F ree morpheme： Free morphemes are the morphemes which areindependent units of meaning and can be used freely all by themselves or in combination with other morphemes.27. B ound morpheme： Bound morphemes are the morphemes which cannot beused independently but have to be combined with other morphemes， either free or bound， to form a word.28. R oot： A root is often seen as part of a word； it can never stand by itself al-though it bears clear， definite meaning； it must be combined with another root or an affix to form a word.29. A ffix： Affixes are of two types： inflectional and derivational. Inflectionalaffixes manifest various grammatical relations or grammatical categories， while derivational affixes are added to an existing form to create a word.30. P refix： Prefixes occur at the beginning of a word. Prefixes modify themeaning of the stem， but they usually do not change the part of speech of the original word.31. S uffix： Suffixes are added to the end of the stems； they modify themeaning of the original word and in many cases change its part of speech.32. D erivation：Derivation is a process of word formation by which derivativeaffixes are added to an existing form to create a word.33. C ompounding： Compounding can be viewed as the combination of two orsometimes more than two words to create new words.34. S yntax： Syntax is a subfield of linguistics. It studies thesentence structureof language. It consists of a set of abstract rules that allow words to be combined with other words to form grammatical sentences.35. S entence： A sentence is a structurally independent unit that usuallycomprises a number of words to form a complete statement， question or command. Normally， a sentence consists of at least asubject and a predicate which contains a finite verb or a verb phrase.36. C oordinate sentence： A coordinate sentence contains two clauses joined bya linking word called coordinating conjunction， such as "and"， "but"， "or".37. S yntactic categories： Apart from sentences and clauses， a syntacticcategory usually refers to a word （called a lexical category） or a phrase （called a phrasal category） that performs a particular grammatical function.38. G rammatical relations： The structural and logical functional relations ofconstituents are called grammatical relations. The grammatical relations of a sentence concern the way each noun phrase in the sentence relates to the verb. In many cases， grammatical relations in fact refer to who does what to whom.39. L inguistic competence： Universally found in the grammars of all humanlanguages， syntactic rules comprise the system of internalized linguistic knowledge of a language speaker known as linguistic competence.40. T ransformational rules： Transformational rules are the rules that transformone sentence type into another type.41. D-structure： D-structure is the level of syntactic representation that existsbefore movement takes place. Phrase structure rules， with the insertion of the lexicon， generate sentences at the level of D-structure.42. S emantics： Semantics can be simply defined as the study of meaning inlanguage.43. S ense： Sense is concerned with the inherent meaning of the linguistic form.It is the collection of all the features of the linguistic form； it is abstract and de -contextualized.44. R eference： Reference means what a linguistic form refers to in the real，physical world； it deals with the relationship between the linguistic element and the non-linguistic world of experience45. S ynonymy： Synonymy refers to the sameness or close similarity ofmeaning.46. P olysemy： Polysemy refers to the fact that the same one word may havemore than one meaning.47. H omonymy： Homonymy refers to the phenomenon that words havingdifferent meanings have the same form， i.e. different words are identical in sound or spelling， or in both.48. H omophones： When two words are identical in sound， they are calledhomophones.49. H omographs： When two words are identical in spelling， they arehomographs.50. C omplete homonyms： When two words are identical in both sound andspelling， they are called complete homonyms.51. H yponymy： Hyponymy refers to the sense relation between a moregeneral， more inclusive word and a more specific word.52. A ntonymy： Antonymy refers to the relation of oppositeness of meaning.53. C omponential analysis： Componential analysis is a way to analyze wordmeaning. It was proposed by structural semanticists. The approach is based on the belief that the meaning of a word can be divided into meaning components， which are called semantic features.54. T he grammatical meaning： The grammatical meaning of a sentence refersto its grammaticality， i.e. its grammatical well-formedness. The grammaticality of a sentence is governed by the grammatical rules of the language.55. P redication： The predication is the abstraction of the meaning of a sentence.56. A rgument： An argument is a logical participant in a predication. It isgenerally identical with the nominal element （s） in a sentence.57. P redicate： A predicate is something that is said about an argument or itstates the logical relation linking the arguments in a sentence.58. T wo-place predication： A two-place predication is one which contains twoarguments.59. P ragmatics： Pragmatics can be defined as the study of how speakers of alanguage use sentences to effect successful communication.60. C ontext： Generally speaking， it consists of the knowledge that is shared bythe speaker and the hearer. The shared knowledge is of two types： theknowledge of the language they use， and the knowledge about the world， including the general knowledge about the world and the specific knowledge about the situation in which linguistic communication is taking place.61. U tterance meaning： The meaning of an utterance is concrete， andcontext-dependent. Utterance is based on sentence meaning； it is realization of the abstract meaning of a sentence in a real situation of communication， or simply in a context.62. S entence meaning： The meaning of a sentence is often considered as theabstract， intrinsic property of the sentence itself in terms of a predication. 63. C onstative： Constatives were statements that either state or describe， andwere verifiable.64. P erformative： performatives， on the other hand， were sentences that didnot state a fact or describe a state， and were not verifiable. Their function is to perform a particular speech act.65. L ocutionary act： A locutionary act is the act of uttering words， phrases，clauses. It is the act of conveying literal meaning by means of syntax， lexicon and phonology.66. I llocutionary act： An illocutionary act is the act of expressing the speaker'sintention； it is the act performed in saying something.67. P erlocutionary act： A perlocutionary act is the act performed by or resultingfrom saying something； it is the consequence of， or the change brought about by the utterance； it is the act performed by saying something.68. C ooperative Principle： It is principle advanced by Paul Grice. It is a principlethat guides our conversational behaviours. The content is： Make your conversational contribution such as is required at the stage at which it occurs by the accepted purpose or the talk exchange in which you are engaged.69. S ociolinguistics： Sociolinguistics is the study of language in social contexts.70. S peech community： The social group isolated for any given study is calledthe speech community or a speech community is a group of people who forma community and share the same language or a particular variety oflanguage. The important characteristic of a speech community is that the members of the group must， in some reasonable way， interact linguistically with other members of the community. They may share closely related language varieties， as well as attitudes toward linguistic norms.71. S peech variety： Speech variety， also known as language variety， refersto any distinguishable form of speech used by a speaker or group of speakers. The distinctive characteristics of a speech variety may be lexical， phonological， morphological， syntactic， or a combination of linguistic features.72. L anguage planning： Language standardization is known as languageplanning. This means that certain authorities， such as the government or government agency of a country， choose a particular speech variety and spread the use of it， including its pronunciation and spelling systems， across regional boundaries.73. I diolect： An idiolect is a personal dialect of an individual speaker that com-bines aspects of all the elements regarding regional， social， and stylistic variation， in one form or another. In a narrower sense， what makes up one’s idiolect includes also such factors as voice quality， pitch and speech rhythm， which all contribute to the identifying features in an individual's speech.74. S tandard language： The standard language is a superposed， sociallyprestigious dialect of language. It is the language employed by the government and the judiciary system， used by the mass media， and taught in educational institutions， including school settings where the language is taught as a foreign or second language.75. N onstandard language： Language varieties other than the standard arecalled nonstandard languages.76. L ingua franca： A lingua franca is a variety of language that serves as amedium of communication among groups of people for diverse linguistic backgrounds.77. P idgin： A pidgin is a variety of language that is generally used by nativespeakers of other languages as a medium of communication.78. C reole： A Creole language is originally a pidgin that has become establishedas a native language in some speech community.79. D iglossia： Diglossia usually describes a situation in which two very differentvarieties of language co-exist in a speech community， each with a distinct range of purely social function and appropriate for certain situations.80. B ilingualism： Bilingualism refers to a linguistic situation in which twostandard languages are used either by an individual or by a group of speakers， such as the inhabitants of a particular region or a nation.81. E thnic dialect： Within a society， speech variation may come about becauseof different ethnic backgrounds. An ethnic language variety is a social dialect of a language， often cutting across regional differences. An ethnic dialect is spoken mainly by a less privileged population that has experienced some form of social isolation， such as racial discrimination or segregation. 82. S ociolect： Social dialects， or sociolects， are varieties of language used bypeople belonging to particular social classes.83. R egister： Registers are language varieties which are appropriate for use inparticular speech situations， in contrast to language varieties that are associated with the social or regional grouping of their customary users.Format reason， registers are also known as situational dialects.84. S lang： Slang is a casual use of language that consists of expressive butnon-standard vocabulary， typically of arbitrary， flashy and often ephemeral coinages and figures of speech characterized by spontaneity and sometimes by raciness.85. T aboo： T aboo， or rather linguistic taboo， denotes any prohibition by thepolite society on the use of particular lexical items to refer to objects or acts.86. E uphemism： A euphemism， then， is a mild， indirect or less offensive wordor expression substituted when the speaker or writer fears more direct wording might be harsh， unpleasantly direct， or offensive.。