光电式传感器论文中英文资料对照外文翻译

附件1：外文资料翻译译文光电式传感器的应用与发展摘要目前,光电式传感器的应用范围越来越广,这大大促进了光电式传感器的发展。

光电式传感器结构简单而且形式多样。

它具有精度高，响应速度快，非接触等优点。

在本文中，我们分析了光电式传感器的工作原理,介绍了光电式传感器的分类,然后重点介绍了光电式传感器的应用和使用原理,分析了光电式传感器的现状和未来的发展趋势。

关键词光电式传感器，光电式传感器的应用，光电式传感器的发展1 引言光电式传感器是一种将光学元件和电子元件作为检测部分的传感器。

光电检测技术具有精度高，响应速度快，非接触式等优点。

该传感器结构简单，形式灵活多样。

因此，光电式传感器被广泛运用于控制和测试领域。

它可用于检测由于光量变化导致的非电量变化，如光强，辐射温度，气体成分等等。

它也可以通过光的传输，阻隔，反射，干扰来测量各种物理量，如物体的大小，位移，速度，温度等。

所以它是一个具有广泛应用前景的至关重要的灵敏器件。

当使用光电式传感器时，光电式传感器不直接与被测物体接触，光束质量几乎为零，在测量过程中不存在摩擦力，且在被测物体上几乎没有任何压力。

因此，光电传感器在很多应用方面都比其他传感器具有明显的优势。

然而，它的缺点是在某些应用场合中光学器件和电子设备是比较昂贵的，而且在测量过程中对环境条件的要求较高。

近年来，新型光电子器件的不断涌现为光电式传感器的进一步应用开创了新的一页尤其是CCD图像传感器的出现。

2 光电传感器的原理光电传感器是以光电器件作为转换元件的传感器。

该光电传感器的原理是把被测量的变化转换成光信号的变化，然后借助光电元件进一步将光信号转换成电信号的光电组件。

光电传感器一般由光源、光学通路和光电元件三部分组成。

光电传感器的工作过程如图1所示。

图1 光电式传感器的工作过程光电器件的作用是将光信号转换成基于光电效应的电信号。

光电效应是一种物理现象，光照射到某些物质，并导致物体电性质发生重大改变。

Progress in Materials ScienceV olume 46, Issues 3–4, 2001, Pages 461–504The selection of sensorsJ Shieh,J.E Huber,N.A Fleck, ,M.F AshbyDepartment of Engineering, Cambridge University, Trumpington Street, Cambridge CB2 1PZ, UK Available online 14 March 2001./10.1016/S0079-6425(00)00011-6, How to Cite or Link Using DOI Permissions & ReprintsAbstractA systematic method is developed to select the most appropriate sensor for a particular application.A wide range of candidate sensors exist, and many are based on coupled electrical and mechanical phenomena, such as the piezoelectric, magnetostrictive and the pyro-electric effects. Performance charts for sensors are constructed from suppliers data for commercially available devices. The selection of an appropriate sensor is based on matching the operating characteristics of sensors to the requirements of an application. The final selection is aided by additional considerations such as cost, and impedance matching. Case studies illustrate the selection procedure.KeywordsSensors;Selection;Sensing range;Sensing resolution;Sensing frequency1. IntroductionThe Oxford English Dictionary defines a sensor as “a device which detects or measures some condition or property, and records, indicates, or otherwise responds to the information received”. Thus, sensors have the function of converting a stimulus into a measured signal. The stimulus can be mechanical, thermal, electromagnetic, acoustic, or chemical in origin (and so on), while the measured signal is typically electrical in nature, although pneumatic, hydraulic and optical signals may be employed. Sensors are an essential component in the operation of engineering devices, and are based upon a very wide range of underlying physical principles of operation.Given the large number of sensors on the market, the selection of a suitable sensor for a newapplication is a daunting task for the Design Engineer: the purpose of this article is to provide a straightforward selection procedure.The study extends that of Huber et al. [1] for the complementary problem of actuator selection. It will become apparent that a much wider choice of sensor than actuator is available: the underlying reason appears to be that power-matching is required for an efficient actuator, whereas for sensors the achievable high stability and gain of modern-day electronics obviates a need to convert efficiently the power of a stimulus into the power of an electrical signal. The classes of sensor studied here are detailed in the Appendices. 2. Sensor performance chartsIn this section, sensor performance data are presented in the form of 2D charts with performance indices of the sensor as axes. The data are based on sensing systems which are currently available on the market. Therefore, the limits shown on each chart are practical limits for readily available systems, rather than theoretical performance limits for each technology. Issues such as cost, practicality (such as impedance matching) and reliability also need to be considered when making a final selection from a list of candidate sensors.Before displaying the charts we need to introduce some definitions of sensor characteristics; these are summarised in Table 1.1 Most of these characteristics are quoted in manufacturers' data sheets. However, information on the reliability and robustness of a sensor are rarely given in a quantitative manner.Table 1. Summary of the main sensor characteristicsRange maximum minus minimum value of the measured stimulusResolution smallest measurable increment in measured stimulusSensing frequency maximum frequency of the stimulus which can be detectedAccuracy error of measurement, in% full scale deflectionSize leading dimension or mass of sensorOpt environment operating temperature and environmental conditionsReliability service life in hours or number of cycles of operationDrift long term stability (deviation of measurement over a time period)Cost purchase cost of the sensor ($ in year 2000)Full-size tableIn the following, we shall present selection charts using a sub-set of sensor characteristics: range, resolution and frequency limits. Further, we shall limit our attention to sensors which can detect displacement, acceleration, force, and temperature.2 Each performance chart maps the domain of existence of practical sensors. By adding to the chart the required characteristics for a particular application, a subset of potential sensors can be identified. The optimal sensor is obtained by making use of several charts and by considering additional tabular information such as cost. The utility of the approach is demonstrated in Section 3, by a series of case studies.2.1. Displacement sensorsConsider first the performance charts for displacement sensors, with axes of resolution δversus range R, and sensing frequency f versus range R, as shown in Fig. 1 and Fig. 2, respectively.Fig. 1. Resolution versus sensing range for displacement sensors. View thumbnail imagesFig. 2. Sensing frequency versus sensing range for displacement sensors.View thumbnail images2.1.1. Resolution —sensing range chart (Fig. 1)The performance regime of resolution δversus range R for each class of sensor is marked by a closed domain with boundaries given by heavy lines (see Fig. 1). The upper limit of operation is met when the coarsest achievable resolution equals the operating range δ=R. Sensors of largest sensing range lie towards the right of the figure, while sensors of finest resolution lie towards the bottom. It is striking that the range of displacement sensor spans 13 orders of magnitude in both range and resolution, with a large number of competing technologies available. On these logarithmic axes, lines of slope +1 link classes of sensors with the same number of distinctmeasurable positions, . Sensors close to the single position line δ=R are suitable as simple proximity (on/off) switches, or where few discrete positions are required. Proximity sensors are marked by a single thick band in Fig. 1: more detailed information on the sensing range and maximum switching frequency of proximity switches are summarised in Table 2. Sensors located towards the lower right of Fig. 1 allow for continuous displacement measurement, with high information content. Displacement sensors other than the proximity switches are able to provide a continuous output response that is proportional to the target's position within the sensing range.Fig. 1 shows that the majority of sensors have a resolving power of 103–106 positions; this corresponds to approximately 10–20 bits for sensors with a digital output.Table 2. Specification of proximity switchesProximity switch typeMaximum switching distance (m) Maximum switchingfrequency (Hz) Inductive6×10−4–1×10−1 5–5000 Capacitive1×10−3–6×10−2 1–200 Magnetic 3×10−3–8.5×10−2 400–5000 Pneumatic cylinder sensors (magnetic) Piston diameter 8×10−3–3.2×10−1300–5000 Ultrasonic1.2×10−1–5.2 1–50 Photoelectric 3×10−3–300 20–20,000Full-size tableIt is clear from Fig. 1 that the sensing range of displacement sensors cluster in the region 10−5–101 m. To the left of this cluster, the displacement sensors of AFM and STM, which operate on the principles of atomic forces and current tunnelling, have z-axis-sensing ranges on the order of microns or less. For sensing tasks of 10 m or above, sensors based on the non-contacting technologies of linear encoding, ultrasonics and photoelectrics become viable. Optical linear encoders adopting interferometric techniques can achieve a much higher resolution than conventional encoders; however, their sensing range is limited by the lithographed carrier (scale).A switch in technology accounts for the jump in resolution of optical linear encoders around the sensing range of 0.7 m in Fig. 1.Note that “radar ”, which is capable of locating objects at distances of several thousand kilometres,3 is not included in Fig. 1. Radar systems operate by transmitting high-frequency radio waves and utilise the echo and Doppler shift principles to determine the position and speed of the target. Generally speaking, as the required sensing range increases, sensors based on non-contact techniques become the most practicable choice due to their flexibility, fast sensing speed and small physical size in relation to the length scale detected. Fig. 1 shows that sensors based on optical techniques, such as fibre-optic, photoelectric and laser triangulation, cover the widest span in sensing range with reasonably high resolution.For displacement sensors, the sensing range is governed by factors such as technology limitation, probe (or sensing face) size and the material properties of the target. For example, the sensing distance of ultrasonic sensors is inversely proportional to the operating frequency; therefore, a maximum sensing range cut-off exists at about R=50 m. Eddy current sensors of larger sensing face are able to produce longer, wider and stronger electromagnetic fields, which increase their sensing range. Resolution is usually controlled by the speed, sensitivity and accuracy of the measuring circuits or feedback loops; noise level and thermal drift impose significant influences also. Sensors adopting more advanced materials and manufacturing processes can achieve higher resolution; for example, high-quality resistive film potentiometers have a resolution of better than 1 μm over a range of 1 m (i.e. 106 positions) whereas typical coil potentiometers achieve only 103 positions.2.1.2. Sensing frequency — sensing range chart (Fig. 2)When a displacement sensor is used to monitor an oscillating body, a consideration of sensing frequency becomes relevant. Fig. 2 displays the upper limit of sensing frequency and the sensorrange for each class of displacement sensor. It is assumed that the smallest possible sensing range of a displacement sensor equals its resolution; therefore in Fig. 2, the left-hand side boundary of each sensor class corresponds to its finest resolution.4 However, sensors close to this boundary are only suitable as simple switches, or where few discrete positions are to be measured.Lines of slope −1 in Fig. 2 link classes of sensors with the same sensing speed, fR. For contact sensors such as the LVDT and linear potentiometer, the sensing speed is limited by the inertia of moving parts. In contrast, many non-contact sensors utilise mechanical or electromagnetic waves and operate by adopting the time-of-flight approach; therefore, their maximum sensing speed is limited by the associated wave speed. For example, the maximum sensing speed of magnetostrictive sensors is limited by the speed of a strain pulse travelling in the waveguide alloy, which is about 2.8×103 m s−1.The sensing frequency of displacement sensors is commonly dependent on the noise levels exhibited by the measuring electronic circuits. Additionally, some physical and mechanical limits can also impose constraints. For example, the dynamic response of a strain gauge is limited by the wave speed in the substrate. For sensors with moving mass (for example, linear encoder, LVDT and linear potentiometer), the effects of inertial loading must be considered in cyclic operation. For optical linear encoders the sensing frequency increases with range on the left-hand side of the performance chart, according to the following argument. The resolution becomes finer (i.e. δdecreases in an approximately linear manner) with a reduced scan speed V of the recording head. Since the sensor frequency f is proportional to the scan speed V, we deduce that f increases linearly with δ, and therefore f is linear in the minimum range of the device.2.2. Linear velocity sensorsAlthough velocity and acceleration are the first and second derivatives of displacement with respect to time, velocity and acceleration measurements are not usually achieved by time differentiation of a displacement signal due to the presence of noise in the signal. The converse does not hold: some accelerometers, especially navigation-grade servo accelerometers, have sufficiently high stability and low drift that it is possible to integrate their signals to obtain accurate velocity and displacement information.The most common types of velocity sensor of contacting type are electromagnetic, piezoelectric and cable extension-based. Electromagnetic velocity sensors use the principle of magnetic induction, with a permanent magnet and a fixed geometry coil, such that the induced (output) voltage is directly proportional to the magnet's velocity relative to the coil. Piezo-velocity transducers (PVTs) are piezoelectric accelerometers with an internal integration circuit which produces a velocity signal. Cable extension-based transducers use a multi-turn potentiometer (or an incremental/absolute encoder) and a tachometer to measure the rotary position and rotating speed of a drum that has a cable wound onto it. Since the drum radius is known, the velocity and displacement of the cable head can be determined.5Optical and microwave velocity sensors are non-contacting, and utilise the optical-grating or Doppler frequency shift principle to calculate the velocity of the moving target. Typical specifications for each class of linear velocity sensor are listed in Table 3.Table 3. Specification of linear velocity sensorsSensor class Maximum sensingrange (m/s)Resolution (number ofpositions)Maximum operatingfrequency (Hz)Magnetic induction 25–360 5×104–5×105 100–1500Sensor class Maximum sensingrange (m/s)Resolution (number ofpositions)Maximum operatingfrequency (Hz)PVT 0.25–1.3 1×105–5×105 ∼7000Cable-extension 0.7–15 1×105–1×106 1–100Optical andmicrowave13–165 ∼1×105 > 10,000目录1. 简介 (8)2. 传感器性能图表 (9)2.1．位移传感器 (10)2.1.1．分辨率- 感应范围图（图1） (11)2.1.2.检测频率–检测范围图（图2） (12)2.2．线性速度传感器 (12)问题3-4，2001年第46卷，页461-504传感器的选择J Shieh,J.E Huber,N.A FleckM.F Ashby剑桥大学工程系，英国剑桥CB2的1PZ，，Trumpington街________________________________________摘要对于一个特定的应用系统来说要选择最为合适的传感器。

英文文献及中文翻译一种精确测量倾斜角度的光学传感器摘要本文主要介绍了一种新型光学传感器，它可以同时准确地测量倾斜角或两轴倾斜角度。

这种传感器是基于激光干涉原理，因此具有很高的精度。

设计制作了一个传感器的模型来论证这个新的方法，这是一个光电传感器,传感器中没有移动的部分。

由正交于铅垂面的流动水平面提供参考面。

传感器和绝对水平面之间的角度随着被测量的物体倾斜而改变，这些变化反映在条纹图案的中心位置的转移方式。

不同的干涉条纹的中心位置随倾斜角的变化而改变。

干涉条纹图案进行记录和处理，转化为两轴、水平和垂直倾斜角度。

当使用1024*1024像素的传感器时，测量范围为700弧秒，其精度可高达+/ - 1弧秒。

关键词：倾斜角度传感器，倾斜仪，激光干涉I 介绍市场上目前有几种类型的商业倾斜角度测量传感器。

有些是角度传感器，有些是倾斜仪，它们的工作原理不同。

电解液体、电容和钟摆是现在大多数倾斜角度传感器和倾斜仪的三个主要工作原理。

在这里，我们提出了一种新的光学方法，建立了一个用激光、光学元件和图像传感器的光电传感器，它可以同时做精确的倾斜角度测量，不需要进行机械的移动，其工作原理是基于光学干涉，相干激光作为光源。

光线通过一个装满液态油的玻璃油盒。

由正交于铅垂面的流动水平面提供参考面。

当激光束穿过油箱有两束光线反射回来，一束是液体的表面产生的，另一束是容器玻璃产生的，干涉条纹就是由这两条光线形成的，条纹图案将随着倾斜角度的变化产生相应的变化，条纹图案采集和处理后将反映倾斜角度信息，光学工作原理使它不受磁场的影响。

该传感器可以同时测量两轴倾角。

流动的水平面确保了参考面是一个绝对的水平面。

高灵敏度光学干涉测量原理，保证了较高的精度。

II 原理图1说明了工作原理示意图，O点是光线扩大镜头的焦点，O点可以看作是点光源，它发出球面波。

由于地球重力的影响，液体油面始终保持水平，因此用油面作为参考平面。

该容器是玻璃材料的。

当传感器被放在目标表面时，其底部表面将连同目标对象一起倾斜。

传感器技术论文中英文对照资料外文翻译文献Development of New Sensor TechnologiesSensors are devices that can convert physical。

chemical。

logical quantities。

etc。

into electrical signals。

The output signals can take different forms。

such as voltage。

current。

frequency。

pulse。

etc。

and can meet the requirements of n n。

processing。

recording。

display。

and control。

They are indispensable components in automatic n systems and automatic control systems。

If computers are compared to brains。

then sensors are like the five senses。

Sensors can correctly sense the measured quantity and convert it into a corresponding output。

playing a decisive role in the quality of the system。

The higher the degree of n。

the higher the requirements for sensors。

In today's n age。

the n industry includes three parts: sensing technology。

n technology。

and computer technology。

Sensor technologyA sensor is a device which produces a signal in response to its detecting or measuring a property ,such as position , force , torque , pressure , temperature , humidity , speed , acceleration , or vibration .Traditionally ,sensors (such as actuators and switches )have been used to set limits on the performance of machines .Common examples are (a) stops on machine tools to restrict work table movements ,(b) pressure and temperature gages with automatics shut-off features , and (c) governors on engines to prevent excessive speed of operation . Sensor technology has become an important aspect of manufacturing processes and systems .It is essential for proper data acquisition and for the monitoring , communication , and computer control of machines and systems .Because they convert one quantity to another , sensors often are referred to as transducers .Analog sensors produce a signal , such as voltage ,which is proportional to the measured quantity .Digital sensors have numeric or digital outputs that can be transferred to computers directly .Analog-to-coverter(ADC) is available for interfacing analog sensors with computers .Classifications of SensorsSensors that are of interest in manufacturing may be classified generally as follows:Machanical sensors measure such as quantities aspositions ,shape ,velocity ,force ,torque , pressure , vibration , strain , and mass .Electrical sensors measure voltage , current , charge , and conductivity .Magnetic sensors measure magnetic field ,flux , and permeablity .Thermal sensors measure temperature , flux ,conductivity , and special heat .Other types are acoustic , ultrasonic , chemical , optical , radiation , laser ,and fiber-optic .Depending on its application , a sensor may consist of metallic , nonmetallic , organic , or inorganic materials , as well as fluids ,gases ,plasmas , or semiconductors .Using the special characteristics of these materials , sensors covert the quantity or property measured to analog or digital output. The operation of an ordinary mercury thermometer , for example , is based on the difference between the thermal expansion of mercury and that of glass.Similarly , a machine part , a physical obstruction , or barrier in a space can be detected by breaking the beam of light when sensed by a photoelectric cell . A proximity sensor ( which senses and measures the distance between it and an object or a moving member of a machine ) can be based on acoustics , magnetism , capacitance , or optics . Other actuators contact the object and take appropriate action ( usually by electromechanical means ) . Sensors are essential to the conduct of intelligent robots , and are being developed with capabilities that resemble those of humans ( smart sensors , see the following ).This is America, the development of such a surgery Lin Bai an example, through the screen, through a remote control operator to control another manipulator, through the realization of the right abdominal surgery A few years ago our country theexhibition, the United States has been successful in achieving the right to the heart valve surgery and bypass surgery. This robot has in the area, caused a great sensation, but also, AESOP's surgical robot, In fact, it through some equipment to some of the lesions inspections, through a manipulator can be achieved on some parts of the operation Also including remotely operated manipulator, and many doctors are able to participate in the robot under surgery Robot doctor to include doctors with pliers, tweezers or a knife to replace the nurses, while lighting automatically to the doctor's movements linked, the doctor hands off, lighting went off, This is very good, a doctor's assistant.Tactile sensing is the continuous of variable contact forces , commonly by an array of sensors . Such a system is capable of performing within an arbitrarythree-dimensional space .has gradually shifted from manufacturing tonon-manufacturing and service industries, we are talking about the car manufacturer belonging to the manufacturing industry, However, the services sector including cleaning, refueling, rescue, rescue, relief, etc. These belong to the non-manufacturing industries and service industries, so here is compared with the industrial robot, it is a very important difference. It is primarily a mobile platform, it can move to sports, there are some arms operate, also installed some as a force sensor and visual sensors, ultrasonic ranging sensors, etc. It’s surrounding environment for the conduct of identification, to determine its campaign to complete some work, this is service robot’s one of the basic characteristicsIn visual sensing (machine vision , computer vision ) , cameral optically sense the presence and shape of the object . A microprocessor then processes the image ( usually in less than one second ) , the image is measured , and the measurements are digitized ( image recognition ) .Machine vision is suitable particularly for inaccessible parts , in hostile manufacturing environments , for measuring a large number of small features , and in situations where physics contact with the part may cause damage .Small sensors have the capability to perform a logic function , to conducttwo-way communication , and to make a decisions and take appropriate actions . The necessary input and the knowledge required to make a decision can be built into a smart sensor . For example , a computer chip with sensors can be programmed to turn a machine tool off when a cutting tool fails . Likewise , a smart sensor can stop a mobile robot or a robot arm from accidentally coming in contact with an object or people by using quantities such as distance , heat , and noise .Sensor fusion . Sensor fusion basically involves the integration of multiple sensors in such a manner where the individual data from each of the sensors ( such as force , vibration , temperature , and dimensions ) are combined to provide a higher level of information and reliability . A common application of sensor fusion occurs when someone drinks a cup of hot coffee . Although we take such a quotidian event for granted ,it readily can be seen that this process involves data input from the person's eyes , lips , tongue , and hands .Through our basic senses of sight , hearing , smell , taste , and touch , there is real-time monitoring of relative movements , positions , and temperatures . Thus if the coffee is too hot , the hand movement of the cup toward the lip is controlled and adjusted accordingly .The earliest applications of sensor fusion were in robot movement control , missile flight tracking , and similar military applications . Primarily because these activities involve movements that mimic human behavior . Another example of sensor fusion is a machine operation in which a set of different but integrated sensors monitors (a) the dimensions and surface finish of workpiece , (b) tool forces , vibrations ,and wear ,(c) the temperature in various regions of the tool-workpiece system , and (d) the spindle power .An important aspect in sensor fusion is sensor validation : the failure of one particular sensor is detected so that the control system maintains high reliability . For this application ,the receiving of redundant data from different sensors is essential . It can be seen that the receiving , integrating of all data from various sensors can be a complex problem .With advances in sensor size , quality , and technology and continued developments in computer-control systems , artificial neural networks , sensor fusion has become practical and available at low cost .Movement is relatively independent of the number of components, the equivalent of our body, waist is a rotary degree of freedom We have to be able to hold his arm, Arm can be bent, then this three degrees of freedom, Meanwhile there is a wrist posture adjustment to the use of the three autonomy, the general robot has six degrees of freedom. We will be able to space the three locations, three postures, the robot fully achieved, and of course we have less than six degrees of freedomFiber-optic sensors are being developed for gas-turbine engines . These sensors will be installed in critical locations and will monitor the conditions inside the engine , such as temperature , pressure , and flow of gas . Continuous monitoring of the signals from thes sensors will help detect possible engine problems and also provide the necessary data for improving the efficiency of the engines .传感器技术传感器一种通过检测某一参数而产生信号的装置。

中英文对照外翻译Basic knowledge of transducersA transducer is a device which converts the quantity being measured into an optical, mechanical, or-more commonly-electrical signal. The energy-conversion process that takes place is referred to as transduction.Transducers are classified according to the transduction principle involved and the form of the measured. Thus a resistance transducer for measuring displacement is classified as a resistance displacement transducer. Other classification examples are pressure bellows, force diaphragm, pressure flapper-nozzle, and so on.1、Transducer ElementsAlthough there are exception ,most transducers consist of a sensing element and a conversion or control element. For example, diaphragms,bellows,strain tubes and rings, bourdon tubes, and cantilevers are sensing elements which respond to changes in pressure or force and convert these physical quantities into a displacement. This displacement may then be used to change an electrical parameter such as voltage, resistance, capacitance, or inductance. Such combination of mechanical and electrical elements form electromechanical transducing devices or transducers. Similar combination can be made for other energy input such as thermal. Photo, magnetic and chemical,giving thermoelectric, photoelectric,electromaanetic, and electrochemical transducers respectively.2、Transducer SensitivityThe relationship between the measured and the transducer output signal is usually obtained by calibration tests and is referred to as the transducer sensitivity K1= output-signal increment / measured increment . In practice, the transducer sensitivity is usually known, and, by measuring the output signal, the input quantity is determined from input= output-signal increment / K1.3、Characteristics of an Ideal TransducerThe high transducer should exhibit the following characteristicsa) high fidelity-the transducer output waveform shape be a faithful reproduction of the measured; there should be minimum distortion.b) There should be minimum interference with the quantity being measured; the presence of the transducer should not alter the measured in any way.c) Size. The transducer must be capable of being placed exactly where it is needed.d) There should be a linear relationship between the measured and the transducer signal.e) The transducer should have minimum sensitivity to external effects, pressure transducers,for example,are often subjected to external effects such vibration and temperature.f) The natural frequency of the transducer should be well separated from the frequency and harmonics of the measurand.4、Electrical TransducersElectrical transducers exhibit many of the ideal characteristics. In addition they offer high sensitivity as well as promoting the possible of remote indication or mesdurement. Electrical transducers can be divided into two distinct groups:a) variable-control-parameter types,which include:i)resistanceii) capacitanceiii) inductanceiv) mutual-inductance typesThese transducers all rely on external excitation voltage for their operation.b) self-generating types,which includei) electromagneticii)thermoelectriciii)photoemissiveiv)piezo-electric typesThese all themselves produce an output voltage in response to the measurand input and their effects are reversible. For example, a piezo-electric transducer normally produces an output voltage in response to the deformation of a crystalline material; however, if an alternating voltage is applied across the material, the transducer exhibits the reversible effect by deforming or vibrating at the frequency of the alternating voltage.5、Resistance TransducersResistance transducers may be divided into two groups, as follows:i) Those which experience a large resistance change, measured by using potential-divider methods. Potentiometers are in this group.ii)Those which experience a small resistance change, measured by bridge-circuit methods. Examples of this group include strain gauges and resistance thermometers.5.1 PotentiometersA linear wire-wound potentiometer consists of a number of turns resistance wire wound around a non-conducting former, together with a wiping contact which travels over the barwires. The construction principles are shown in figure which indicate that the wiperdisplacement can be rotary, translational, or a combination of both to give a helical-type motion. The excitation voltage may be either a.c. or d.c. and the output voltage is proportional to the input motion, provided the measuring device has a resistance which is much greater than the potentiometer resistance.Such potentiometers suffer from the linked problem of resolution and electrical noise. Resolution is defined as the smallest detectable change in input and is dependent on thecross-sectional area of the windings and the area of the sliding contact. The output voltage is thus a serials of steps as the contact moves from one wire to next.Electrical noise may be generated by variation in contact resistance, by mechanical wear due to contact friction, and by contact vibration transmitted from the sensing element. In addition, the motion being measured may experience significant mechanical loading by the inertia and friction of the moving parts of the potentiometer. The wear on the contacting surface limits the life of a potentiometer to a finite number of full strokes or rotations usually referred to in the manufacture’s specification as the ‘number of cycles of life expectancy’, a typical value being 20*1000000 cycles.The output voltage V0 of the unload potentiometer circuit is determined as follows. Let resistance R1= xi/xt *Rt where xi = input displacement, xt= maximum possible displacement, Rt total resistance of the potentiometer. Then output voltage V0= V*R1/(R1+( Rt-R1))=V*R1/Rt=V*xi/xt*Rt/Rt=V*xi/xt. This shows that there is a straight-line relationship between output voltage and input displacement for the unloaded potentiometer.It would seen that high sensitivity could be achieved simply by increasing the excitation voltage V. however, the maximum value of V is determined by the maximum power dissipation P of the fine wires of the potentiometer winding and is given by V=(PRt)1/2 .5.2 Resistance Strain GaugesResistance strain gauges are transducers which exhibit a change in electrical resistance in response to mechanical strain. They may be of the bonded or unbonded variety .a) bonded strain gaugesUsing an adhesive, these gauges are bonded, or cemented, directly on to the surface of the body or structure which is being examined.Examples of bonded gauges arei) fine wire gauges cemented to paper backingii) photo-etched grids of conducting foil on an epoxy-resin backingiii)a single semiconductor filament mounted on an epoxy-resin backing with copper or nickel leads.Resistance gauges can be made up as single elements to measuring strain in one direction only,or a combination of elements such as rosettes will permit simultaneous measurements in more than one direction.b) unbonded strain gaugesA typical unbonded-strain-gauge arrangement shows fine resistance wires stretched around supports in such a way that the deflection of the cantilever spring system changes the tension in the wires and thus alters the resistance of wire. Such an arrangement may be found in commercially available force, load, or pressure transducers.5.3 Resistance Temperature TransducersThe materials for these can be divided into two main groups:a) metals such as platinum, copper, tungsten, and nickel which exhibit and increase in resistance as the temperature rises; they have a positive temperature coefficient of resistance.b) semiconductors, such as thermistors which use oxides of manganese, cobalt, chromium, or nickel. These exhibit large non-linear resistance changes with temperature variation and normally have a negative temperature coefficient of resistance.a) metal resistance temperature transducersThese depend, for many practical purpose and within a narrow temperature range, upon the relationship R1=R0*[1+a*(b1-b2)] where a coefficient of resistance in ℃-1,and R0 resistance in ohms at the reference temperature b0=0℃ at the reference temperature range ℃.The international practical temperature scale is based on the platinum resistance thermometer, which covers the temperature range -259.35℃ to 630.5℃.b) thermistor resistance temperature transducersThermistors are temperature-sensitive resistors which exhibit large non-liner resistance changes with temperature variation. In general, they have a negative temperature coefficient. For small temperature increments the variation in resistance is reasonably linear; but, if large temperature changes are experienced, special linearizing techniques are used in the measuring circuits to produce a linear relationship of resistance against temperature.Thermistors are normally made in the form of semiconductor discs enclosed in glass vitreous enamel. Since they can be made as small as 1mm,quite rapid response times are possible.5.4 Photoconductive CellsThe photoconductive cell , uses a light-sensitive semiconductor material. The resistance between the metal electrodes decrease as the intensity of the light striking the semiconductor increases. Common semiconductor materials used for photo-conductive cells are cadmium sulphide, lead sulphide, and copper-doped germanium.The useful range of frequencies is determined by material used. Cadmium sulphide is mainly suitable for visible light, whereas lead sulphide has its peak response in the infra-red regionand is, therefore , most suitable for flame-failure detection and temperature measurement. 5.5 Photoemissive CellsWhen light strikes the cathode of the photoemissive cell are given sufficient energy to arrive the cathode. The positive anode attracts these electrons, producing a current which flows through resistor R and resulting in an output voltage V.Photoelectrically generated voltage V=Ip.RlWhere Ip=photoelectric current(A),and photoelectric current Ip=Kt.BWhere Kt=sensitivity (A/im),and B=illumination input (lumen)Although the output voltage does give a good indication of the magnitude of illumination, the cells are more often used for counting or control purpose, where the light striking the cathode can be interrupted.6、Capacitive TransducersThe capacitance can thus made to vary by changing either the relative permittivity, the effective area, or the distance separating the plates. The characteristic curves indicate that variations of area and relative permittivity give a linear relationship only over a small range of spacings. Thus the sensitivity is high for small values of d. Unlike the potentionmeter, the variable-distance capacitive transducer has an infinite resolution making it most suitable for measuring small increments of displacement or quantities which may be changed to produce a displacement.7、Inductive TransducersThe inductance can thus be made to vary by changing the reluctance of the inductive circuit. Measuring techniques used with capacitive and inductive transducers:a)A.C. excited bridges using differential capacitors inductors.b)A.C. potentiometer circuits for dynamic measurements.c) D.C. circuits to give a voltage proportional to velocity for a capacitor.d) Frequency-modulation methods, where the change of C or L varies the frequency of an oscillation circuit.Important features of capacitive and inductive transducers are as follows:i)resolution infiniteii) accuracy+- 0.1% of full scale is quotediii)displacement ranges 25*10-6 m to 10-3miv) rise time less than 50us possibleTypical measurands are displacement, pressure, vibration, sound, and liquid level.8、Linear Variable-differential Ttransformer9、Piezo-electric Transducers10、Electromagnetic Transducers11、Thermoelectric Transducers12、Photoelectric Cells13、Mechanical Transducers and Sensing Elements传感器的基础知识传感器是一种把被测量转换为光的、机械的或者更平常的电信号的装置。

Electro-optical target system for position and speed measurementAbstractThis paper introduces an electro-optical target system(EOTS) covering the speed range from subsonic to supersonic. This microcomputer-based system has a novel structure and shows the capability of precisely detecting the position as well as the velocity of small caliber projectiles in real time. A prototype EOTS whose target area is 1m2 has been constructed and tested. A speed accuracy of better than 0.3% was achieved. A position accuracy, mainly dependent on the spacing between photodiodes in EOTS, of better than 1mm on a target area of 1m2was also accomplished.Keywords: External ballistics, No contact measurement, Electro-optical techniques, Position measurement, Speed measurement1 IntroductionThe speed and position measurements of projectiles are two important items in ballistic research. To determine these parameters precisely one needs an accurate measuring system. A conventional method, namely the hanging up(and taking down) of target discs[l], though accurate in position measuring, is time consuming. A shot-position indicator(SPI), described in Reference 2, can measure the position of a high speed projectile by acoustic measurement. However, the SPI does not provide the speed information; neither does the conventional method. Besides, the SPI is used within the limits of supersonic projectiles.To measure the speed and position of projectiles rapidly and simultaneously, different electro-optical based systems have been proposed 3-5]. These systems have the ability to cover the speed range from subsonic to supersonic. One system, called the target measurement system(TMS)[3], uses vertical and horizontal banks of light sources to form two perpendicular light grids that construct the target area. Another system, called the electro-optical projectile analyzer[4], uses the same principle as TMS, but simplifies light sources with fiber optics bundles and a single light source in each light grid. The other system, called the electronic yaw screen(EYS)[5], uses a solid state laser that is collimated and directed to a one-dimensional beam expander system to form a fan-shaped light screen. This light screen then is reflected by a mirror to construct a portion of the target area. The light screen is more precise than the light grid because there is no dead zone in the target area as with the light grid system.From the aspect of speed and position measurement, we take advantage of the above systems and propose a novel system; the electro-optical target system(EOTS)[6]. We use a cylindrical mirror that reflects the incident laser beam into a 90º fan-shaped light screen. Two such light screens construct a two-dimensional positioning system. We even propose a bent cylindrical mirror to generate a 90º light screen with a few degrees extended in a direction normal to the light screen to reduce the sensitivity to vibrations.A prototype EOTS, whose target area is 1m2 and measured speed range is from 50m/s to 1200m/s, has been constructed and tested. A speed range of up to 5000m/s can also be expected according to the simulation results from the electronic circuit using PSpice[7]. Finally, a nine-point testing result from a 0.38in. pistol is shown in this paper. The result shows that the standard deviation of position accuracy is less than 1mm.2 Basic principle of EOTSFig. 1 shows the optical configuration of EOTS. A laser beam from a He-Ne laser is directed onto a cylindrical mirror. The reflected laser beams create a fan-shaped light screen and are directed onto photodiodes that are neatly arranged into an L-shaped photodiode array. EOTS uses two laser sources, two cylindrical mirrors and two photodiode arrays, which are arranged on the opposite sides of the EOTS body to form two fan-shaped light screens. Each light screen is combined with its own signal processing circuit to construct an optical gate. Although there is a distance between the two parallel light screens, viewed from a distance point, these fan beams intersect in a region of space called the target area (Fig. 2). A projectile can be measured only if it travels through this target area.Fig. 1 Optical configuration of EOTSFig. 3 shows the shot position of the projectile is calculated. The target area, for the convenience of illustration, is a square of dimension D on each side. The number of photodiodes on the L-shaped photodiode array is 2N . Each photodiode is numbered in order, as shown in the figure. For illustration clarity, only the photodiode array and the cylindrical mirror of the first optical gate are shown. The projectile is considered to be incident normally to the first and to the second optical gate in sequence. When the projectile blocks the light screens, the respective photodiodes will be activated by the disturbance. In the first optical gate, the laser beam from the cylindrical mirror to each photodiode makes a unique angle with the y-axis. This angle is measured counter-clockwise from the axis. The angle with respect to a photodiode, numbered n, can be calculated as 12()()arctan ,1n n n N Nδ1-=≤≤ (1) and12()arctan ,12(2)N n N n N N n δ1=+≤≤-+ (2) If certain photodiodes, numbered from j to k , are activated by projectiles, then the shot-position angle δ1, is given by()()2j k δδδ111+= (3)Fig. 2 Intersections of the two light screens in the target area Similarly, the shot-position angle of the second optical gate δ2, measured clockwise from the minus y-axis, is decided. After the two angles have been measured, theFig. 3 Illustration of shot-position calculation shot position of the projectile is deduced in Cartesian coordinates as212tan tan tan D y δδδ=+ (4) and1tan z y δ= (5)If S is the distance between the two light screens, then the average speed v for the projectile passing through the distance S is given byS v T= (6) where T is the time interval for the projectile to pass through distance S .3 Configuration of EOTS3.1 Optical system of EOTSWe use a He-Ne laser directed onto a cylindrical mirror to create a light screen. The relation among the laser beam diameter d, the cylindrical mirror diameter w and the beam expanding angle φ is shown in Fig. 4. This relation can be calculated as2arcsind w φ=2 (7) To create a light screen of which φ equals 90º, the ratio of w to d is 2.8. Because the He-Ne laser beam has Gaussian distribution and each photodiode on the photodiode array has a different distance to the cylindrical mirror, the received laser power at each photodiode is not constant. This will influence the speed accuracy of EOTS (see Fig. 6 and Section 4.1).3.2 Analogue circuitryEOTS has 2N analogue channels in each of its two optical gates. Every analogue channel has the same structure. Each analogue channel contains a photodiode, a linear amplifier, a band-pass filter and a comparator. The linear amplifier amplifies the signal coming from the photodiode. The band-pass filter filters noises such asFig.4 Laser beam directs on a cylindrical mirrorbugs flying through the light screen and flicker of other light sources nearby. The comparator compares the output V0 , coming from the filter with a threshold voltage V TH. If V0is higher than V TH, then the comparator will activate a flip-flop (FF) to change the state.3.3 Digital circuitryFig.5 is the block diagram of the digital signal processing circuit. Input coming from the analogue channel is fed to a relative FF. When the projectile blocks the light screen of the first optical gate, the state-changed FF s will make the output of the NAND gate U1 change state. The U1 locks all FF s of the first optical gate to protect genuine projectile data from the influence of shock waves behind the projectile, and starts the counter U5 that operates at a clock frequency of 10MHz. As the projectile blocks the light screen of the second optical gate, the circuit of the second optical gate functions as the circuit of the first optical gate did, but stops the counter. Moreover, the NAND gate U2 passes an interrupt signal (INT) to the central processing unit (CPU) while U5 is being stopped. The CPU then recognizes the interrupt request, picks the projectile data up, and resets U5 and all FF s for the next shot, in sequence. In Fig. 5, the counter relates the time interval T in eqn. 6. Besides, every photodiode is assigned a specific FF and every FF is given a relative address. Therefore, the CPU will be able to identify which photodiode generates the signal, to decide the impact position of eqns. 1-5, and to calculate the speed of the projectile.Fig. 5 Block diagram of digital signal processing circuit 4 Accuracy of EOTS4.1 Accuracy of speed measurementThe accuracy of projectile velocity measurement with sky-screens has been deduced by Hartwig [8] asS v T v v S∆+∆∆≤ (8) where parameters were the same as eqn. 6 used. Δv , ΔS and ΔT are values of maximum error in v , S and T , respectively. In EOTS, photodiodes are directed by nonuniform optical power, as described in Section 3.1, which implies that different analogue channels will have different response times, as though they are activated in the same way. Fig. 6 describes the typical input and output waveforms of an analogue channel when a projectile passes through the light screen. The dotted line is theFig. 6 Typical input and output waveform of analogue channelresponse of the weaker optical input with respect to the solid line. In this Figure, the optical power density directed onto the photodiode is considered to be constant along the x-axis. Referring to the solid line, the projectile touches the light screen at T1and entirely blocks laser beams at T2; the activated photodiode current I D drops from I DH to I DL.The output voltage V0of the analogue channel then rises to a saturation voltage V sat. The counter is not triggered until V0is larger than V TH. The interval from T1 to the time that V0equals V TH is called the response time t r From Fig. 6, we can realise that a different input power variation with time will produce a different output response time t r. Therefore, the ΔT of eqn. 8 should include Δt r, for EOTS, where Δt r, is the worst-case difference, i.e., the largest t r of the first optical gate minus the smallest t r of the second optical gate. Table 1 lists the simulation results of Δt r of the analogue circuit with respect to different projectile velocities using PSpice.Table 1 Simulation results of Δt, respect to projectile speed4.2 Accuracy of position measurementConsidering an EOTS structure in Fig. 3, if a photodiode, numbered n, is activated by a projectile, the exact shot-position angle δe , will be within the range1arctan()arctan(),1e n n n N N Nδ-≤≤≤≤ (9) orarctan()arctan(),12212e N N N n N N n N nδ≤≤+≤≤-+- (10) Referring to eqns. 1 and 2, eqns. 9 and 10 express that the worst-case deviation of δe , Δδ is caused by half-photodiode-spacing shift of measuring ambiguity. Thus, the deviations of the y-axis and z-axis can be deduced as1212y y y δδδδ∂∂∆=∆+∆∂∂ (11) and1212z z z δδδδ∂∂∆=∆+∆∂∂ (12) Where Δδ1 and Δδ2 are Δδ of the first and the second optical gate, respectively.2122112sec tan (tan tan )D y δδδδδ∂=-∂+ (13) 2122212tan sec (tan tan )D y δδδδδ∂=∂+ (14) 22122112sec tan (tan tan )D z δδδδδ∂=∂+ (15) and22122212tan sec (tan tan )D z δδδδδ∂=∂+ (16) It is obvious from eqns 9-16 that N has to be increased as the position accuracy needs to be better for a same size of D.Fig. 2 shows the intersection of the two light screens in the target area where intervals between photodiodes are considered to be constant. As indicated in this Figure, different detector positions will produce different resolutions. Fig. 7 shows simulation results of the worst-case deviations on the y-axis (or z-axis). The shot-position angle δ1, is fixed at 45º and the activated photodiode of the second optical gate varies from number 40 to 360 on an EOTSwith D = 1000mm and 2N = 400. Fig. 7 shows deviations on the y-axis (or z-axis) of less than 1mm corresponding to certain photodiodes that are numbered approximately from 120 to 280.A pentagon-shaped region, which is shown in Fig. 2 and has an accuracy better than 1mm, also corresponds to those photodiodes.Fig. 7 The worst-case deviation on y-axis and z-axis as δ1 is fixed at 45º5 Experimental resultsA prototype EOTS was used in the experiments. The main specifications of the system are listed as follows: d = 0.81mm, w = 2.5mm, S = 635mm, D = 1000mm, 2N = 384 and laser output optical power P = 7.5mW. We hung up a paper target behind EOTS for comparison. Fig. 8 shows the y and z coordinates of nine impact points from a 0.38in. pistol. The impact positions and the velocities were measured by EOTS. In Fig. 8, the two crosses at the bottom indicate the positions of cylindrical mirrors. Table 2 compares the results generated by EOTS with the measurement results from the paper target. The standard deviation is less than 1mm.6 Discussion and conclusionsThis paper presents a novel electro-optical target system for small calibre projectiles. Position and speed data can be generated instantaneously by the microcomputer-based control unit with the addition of appropriate software. The most accurate region of positioning, which is a pentagon-shaped area, distributes over the centre of the target area. The accuracy of position and speed measurement has been analyzed in this paper. To improve the speed accuracy, we should reduce the influence of the response time difference. To increase the distance between the two light screens, of course, is another method to improve the speed accuracy, but the position accuracy will become worse. To improve position accuracy, the photodiode array which has less space between two adjacent photodiodes is suggested.Fig. 8 The computer printout of EOTS, origin is shifted to centre of the target area The measured speed range of EOTS is from subsonic to supersonic. A speed accuracy of better than 0.3% is accomplished. With a different design concept, EOTS need not synchronized with the firing signal as EYS. It is always ready for any advancing projectile as the power of EOTS has been turned on.Fig. 9 Laser beam directs on a bent cylindrical mirrorIf a slightly bent cylindrical mirror were used (Fig. 9), the light screen could extend a few degrees in the x-direction. This makes optics alignment easier and insensitive to vibrations. However, the surface quality of the cylindrical mirror is critical to the uniformity of the fan-shaped beam in the x-direction. The nonuniformity of the fan beam in the x-direction will enhance the sensitivity to vibrations.Table 2 List of results measured by EOTS and by artificialComparing EOTS with EYS and other conventional methods, EOTS has the following advantages:(a) It can measure position and speed precisely and simultaneously.(b) Its optical system is simple and easy to set up.(c) It is insensitive to vibrations if a bent cylindrical mirror is used.(d) Its speed range covers subsonic to supersonic.References[1] BETTERMANN, P, and MAYER, F. Handbook on weaponry. Rheinmetall GmbH, Dusseldorf, 1982.[2] FARRAR, C.L., and LEEMING, D.W. Military ballistics. Brassey’s Publishers Limited, 1983.[3] CRITTENDEN, E.C., KING, R.A., and ANDREWS, T.C. Target measurement system for precise projectile location. US Paten No.3727069, 1973.[4] BAILEY, T.B., and BATES, J. Electro-optical projectile analyzer. US PatentNo.4272189, 1981.[5] DECK, L.L. An optical device for rapid measurement of the speed, dispersion, attack angle and shock wave of high velocity small caliber projectiles. Proceeding of 10th International Symposium on Ballistics, 1987, 1,pp. 1-9.[6] LU, S.T., YU, A.T, and CHOU, C. Electro-optics target for position and speed measurement, Proc. SPIE, 1988, 981, pp.250-254[7] TUINENGA, P.W. SPICE a guide to circuit simulation and analysis using PSpice. Prentice-Hall, 1988.[8] HARTWIG, R. Accuracy of velocity measurement of projectiles with fins and tracers by means of sky-screens. J. Ballistics, 1986, 9, (3), pp.2299-2310.光电目标位置和速度测量系统摘要本文介绍了一种光电目标系统(EOTS)，其速度测量范围从亚音速到超音速。

毕业论文外文文献翻译Sensor-technology传感器技术毕业设计（论文）外文文献翻译文献、资料中文题目：传感器技术文献、资料英文题目：Sensor-technology文献、资料来源：文献、资料发表（出版）日期：院（部）：专业：班级：姓名：学号：指导教师：翻译日期： 2017.02.14Sensor technologyA sensor is a device which produces a signal in response to its detecting or measuring a property ,such as position , force , torque , pressure , temperature , humidity , speed , acceleration , or vibration .Traditionally ,sensors (such as actuators and switches )have been used to set limits on the performance of machines .Common examples are (a) stops on machine tools to restrict work table movements ,(b) pressure and temperature gages with automatics shut-off features , and (c) governors on engines to prevent excessive speed of operation . Sensor technology has become an important aspect of manufacturing processes and systems .It is essential for proper data acquisition and for the monitoring , communication , and computer control of machines and systems .Because they convert one quantity to another , sensors often are referred to as transducers .Analog sensors produce a signal ,such as voltage ,which is proportional to the measured quantity .Digital sensors have numeric or digital outputs that can be transferred to computers directly .Analog-to-coverter(ADC) is available for interfacing analog sensors with computers .Classifications of SensorsSensors that are of interest in manufacturing may be classified generally as follows:Machanical sensors measure such as quantities aspositions ,shape ,velocity ,force ,torque , pressure , vibration , strain , and mass .Electrical sensors measure voltage , current , charge , and conductivity .Magnetic sensors measure magnetic field ,flux , and permeablity .Thermal sensors measure temperature , flux ,conductivity , and special heat .Other types are acoustic , ultrasonic , chemical , optical , radiation , laser ,and fiber-optic .Depending on its application , a sensor may consist of metallic , nonmetallic , organic , or inorganic materials , as well as fluids ,gases ,plasmas , or semiconductors .Using the special characteristics of these materials , sensors covert the quantity or property measured to analog or digital output. The operation of an ordinary mercury thermometer , for example , is based on the difference between the thermal expansion of mercury and that of glass.Similarly , a machine part , a physical obstruction , or barrier in a space can be detected by breaking the beam of light when sensed by a photoelectric cell . A proximity sensor ( which senses and measures the distance between it and an object or a movingmember of a machine ) can be based on acoustics , magnetism , capacitance , or optics . Other actuators contact the object and take appropriate action ( usually by electromechanical means ) . Sensors are essential to the conduct of intelligent robots , and are being developed with capabilities that resemble those of humans ( smart sensors , see the following ).This is America, the development of such a surgery Lin Bai an example, through the screen, through a remote control operator to control another manipulator, through the realization of the right abdominal surgery A few years ago our country the exhibition, the United States has been successful in achieving the right to the heart valve surgery and bypass surgery. This robot has in the area, caused a great sensation, but also, AESOP's surgical robot, In fact, it through some equipment to some of the lesions inspections, through a manipulator can be achieved on some parts of the operation Also including remotely operated manipulator, and many doctors are able to participate in the robot under surgery Robot doctor to include doctors with pliers, tweezers or a knife to replace the nurses, while lighting automatically to the doctor's movements linked, the doctor hands off, lighting went off, This is very good, a doctor's assistant.Tactile sensing is the continuous of variable contact forces , commonly by an array of sensors . Such a system is capable of performing within an arbitrarythree-dimensional space .has gradually shifted from manufacturing tonon-manufacturing and service industries, we are talking about the car manufacturer belonging to the manufacturing industry, However, the services sector including cleaning, refueling, rescue, rescue, relief, etc. These belong to the non-manufacturing industries and service industries, so here is compared with the industrial robot, it is a very important difference. It is primarily a mobile platform, it can move to sports, there are some arms operate, also installed some as a force sensor and visual sensors, ultrasonic ranging sensors, etc. It’s surrounding environment for the conduct of identification, to determine its campaign to complete some work, this is service robot’s one of the basic characteristicsIn visual sensing (machine vision , computer vision ) , cameral optically sense the presence and shape of the object . A microprocessor then processes the image ( usually in less than one second ) , the image is measured , and the measurements are digitized ( image recognition ) .Machine vision is suitable particularly for inaccessible parts , in hostile manufacturing environments , for measuring a large number of small features , and in situations where physics contact with the part may cause damage .Small sensors have the capability to perform a logic function , to conducttwo-way communication , and to make a decisions and take appropriate actions . The necessary input and the knowledge required to make a decision can be built into a smart sensor . For example , a computer chip with sensors can be programmed to turn a machine tool off when a cutting tool fails . Likewise , a smart sensor can stop a mobile robot or a robot arm from accidentally coming in contact with an object or people by using quantities such as distance , heat , and noise .Sensor fusion . Sensor fusion basically involves the integration of multiple sensors in such a manner where the individual data from each of the sensors ( such as force , vibration ,temperature , and dimensions ) are combined to provide a higher level of information and reliability . A common application of sensor fusion occurs when someone drinks a cup of hot coffee . Although we take such a quotidian event for granted ,it readily can be seen that this process involves data input from the person's eyes , lips , tongue , and hands .Through our basic senses of sight , hearing , smell , taste , and touch , there is real-time monitoring of relative movements , positions , and temperatures . Thus if the coffee is too hot , the hand movement of the cup toward the lip is controlled and adjusted accordingly .。

中英文资料对照外文翻译文献综述附录A英文原文Designing the Testing and Controlling Instrument of the Photoelectric Rotating Speed Sensor Based on AT89C52AbstractAiming at the necessity of performance test of photoelectric rotating speed sensor and the limitation of traditional testing instruments,by using dual-processormodular structure of AT89C52, a new testing instrument is designed and developed, which is a generation of advanced instrument with practical high performance and high reliability. The photoelectric rotating speed sensor is driven and tested by the instrument.The drive and test of the photoelectric rotating speed sensor are implemented. The hardware design of drive and test circu it module in testing and controlling instrument are introduced, and the software design is also presented by drive and test circu it procedures of step motor. The practical running indicates the developed testing and controlling instrument improves working efficiency and testing objective reality, it has definitely practical value.Key words:Pulse Sensor Microprocessor StepmotorB.1 IntroductionTQG15 locomotive the Photoelectric Rotating Speed Sensoris used for detecting the speed of Railway locomotive vehicle wheel, it provides electric pulse signal for locomotive electric control system,and is one of the main parameters of the locomotive safety, reliability,normal work. To ensure the TQG15 locomotive photoelectric rotational speed sensor quality and performance, The test is very important.The traditional detection devices are based on manual operation, only a few limited performance indicators of detection, there is a high precision and productivity low disadvantages. With the continuous development of electronic technology, especially the Single-chip technology in intelligent instrument widely application, development a new generation of high performance and practical the testing and controlling instrument of the photoelectric sensor is imperative.B.2 TQG15 locomotive the Photoelectric Rotating Speed SensorB.2.1 Structure and working principleTQG15 locomotive the Photoelectric Rotating Speed Sensor consists of fulcrum bearing institutions、rotation shaft and universal united shaft driving、optoelectronic conversion circuit.Optoelectronic conversion circuit 's the core is small circuit boards which consists of grating plate and photosensitive transistor,grating plate fixed in the hinge shaft ends,through seven-core cable to connect a small circuit board and the external circuit,Seven-core cable is divided into two groups A and B,each group has three lines,two of the lines to add 15V DC power,other output pulse signals.After TQG15 locomotive the Photoelectric Rotating Speed Sensor connected to 15V power supply, using light-emitting diodes (leds) as the light source, grating plate rotating driven by the wheel shaft, because the blocking effect of grating plate，thus the light source becomes intermittent light, then lead the light interrupters photosensitive transistor switch interchangeably to produce the pulse signals, through the magnifying circuit reshaping, output square-wave pulse that it and speed is proportional, in order to meet the electrical control system of locomotive work needs.B.2.2 Performance index and test contentthe Testing and Controlling Instrument required performance index for: Dc working power: (15±15% )V, power dissipation current less than: 50mA, output pulse amplitude(Whenthe load resistor is 3kΩ)：high-level≥9V，low-level≤2V，phase position：90°±50%，rotational speed range：0~1 000 r/min，the number of pulses per circle:200, the dutyfactor of output pulse: (50±20)%.the Testing and Controlling Instrument required test parameters for: rotational speed、pulse number、The lowest high-level、The highest low-level and the dutyfactor of pulse.B.2 The Tes ting and Controlling Instrument’s hardware designThe AT89C52 is a low-power, high-performance CMOS 8-bit microcontroller with 8K bytes of in-system programmable Flash memory and 256 bytes of RAM, the development of instrument chosen AT89C52 microcontroller.According to the work principle of photoelectric sensor, the main performance indexes and test content, the Testing and Controlling Instrument’s general principle structure schematic instrument is shown in figure 1Fig·1Hardware structure of measuring and controlling instrument Its working process:through the keyboard of initialization and function after setting,then execute AT89C52 applications,output pulse signal,drive stepp motor and photoelectric sensors rotate,through the signal circuit and A/D converter,then photoelectric sensor output pulse signals into digital signals,into the AT89C52 microcontroller,after data processing,sendto monitor and micro printer output..Stepmotor lifting speed control need two timer interrupt handling;Although photoelectric speed sensor pulse signal test content can be a step-by-step process,but in testing dutyfactor、when two channel's phase difference is equal,all need two timers.but AT89C52 Chip can only provide three timer/counter,the AT89C52 single resources are not qualified for the testing and controlling instrument’s job.Besides,in order to simplify the operation of the testing and controlling instrument and use,the testing and controlling instrument adopts the dual structure of AT89C52 microprocessor, therefore, the testing and controlling instrument of the photoelectric rotating speed sensor divided into drive circuit and signal measuring circuit two functional modules.B.2.1 Driving circuit module designIn order to drive photoelectric sensors rotate and easily adjust its speed,you need to select suitable for the system characteristics and applications of motor,as the photoelectric rotating speed sensor’s powerplant. sepmotor has four characters: ①Step angle and speed size only and proportional to the pulse frequency; ②By changing the size of the pulse frequency range can adjust motor speed; ③To achieve quick start-up, brake, inversion; ④High control accuracy and reliable operation. Stepmotor characteristics of these four aspects,applicable to the system,therefore, in the test apparatus-driven part of the selection of the stepper motor as a power plant.Stepmotor is a type of electric pulse into angular displacement of motor.the power to drive by special offers a series of stepping motor with certain regularity of electrical signals,each input an electrical pulse,it further before stepping motor,its angular and pulse proportional to the number of,motor speed proportional to the pulse frequency,rotating speed and r otating direction are connected with each phase windings’ way of electricity[1].Use AT89C52 MCU photoelectric speed sensor drive circuit module,output the desired frequency pulse signals.according to the function requirement of drive circuit and the principle of stepping motor,the testing and controlling instrument driver module hardware principle as shown in Figure 2:Fig·2Structure schematic of drivermoduleIn Figure 2 for the stepper motor speed grading control, In AT89C52 microcontroller P1 port pin access control 300, 500, 700 and 900 four speed (r/min) work in the press. Take advantage of some of the P2 port pin drive light-emitting diode, indicates the current step motor speed segment. While, P2.0 tube feet output stepping motor required pulse signal, control stepper motors work. Besides,P1 • 6 and P1 • 7 pin used to implement the drive circuit and test circuit of simple communication,namely stepper motor work needed to speed, take advantage of P1 • 6 control test circui try for testing, while the test is completed, with P1.7 control stepper motor can work to the next file.B.2.2 Test circuit module designAccording to the photoelectric sensor output speed electric pulse signal characteristics and the required test parameters, the testing and controlling instrument of measurement circuit module hardware configuration as shown in Figure 3Fig·3Structure schematic of test circuitFigure 3 the measuring circuit consists of four parts: ①Signal conditioning and acquisition circuit, the photoelectric speed sensor 15V square wave signal converting can receive the CMOS AT89C52 level. used to measure photoelectric sensor’s the number of pulses, pulse duty cycle and phase parameters.besides, using high-performance ADC AD574A achieve pulse signal high-low amplitude measurement; ②Switch control circuit, take advantage of the P1 port selection through A, B channel pulse signals; meet A and B channel pulse signal testing work; ③The I/O circuit, one is to use the keyboard input circuit of the relevant information about realizing function keys of initialization and different test content, the second is to use the LCD display the work of the test instrument in time, three is the use of micro-printer to print the test results archive. ④SCM AT89C52, AT89C52 is the core of the test circuit, to achieve coordination of data input, output, operation and processing.B.3 software designThe software design based on the system function, performance, and user requirements, and adopt modularized structure and "top-down" approach to design job.To improve the work efficiency,run-time minimizing manual intervention and action,while,system initializationwork status online adjustable, intuitive display.according to the testing and controlling instrument hardware structure layout and functionality requirements,software design content mainly includes the stepmotor driver and signal testing two basic modules,the following is a description.B.3.1 Stepmotor driver developmentPhotoelectric sensor performance parameters of the test,need a multi-level speed driven by its output signal of electrical impulses along with any exceptions to those conditions test. Stepping motor speed is the use of multistage AT89C52 application system,by changing the frequency of driven pulse to implementation,in addition there is a limit to start stepping motor and the frequency and maximum working frequency,that is, the acceleration and deceleration excessive exist-problem, in devising their control program is to give full consideration[2] As shown in Figure 4 is in accordance with the requirements for the design of driving part of the main module flowchart.Fig·4Flowchart ofmain control program for stepmotorWhen developing a stepper motor driver, you should also deal with three issues: first, on the work of the State flag of motor planning and application; the second is the stepper motor acceleration and deceleration of discrete tranche and the correspondence between the operating frequency;the third is determined by pulse frequency is the SCM timer interrupt output, but the initial timer interrupt response and there is an additional delay of Mount, the program performs processing necessary[2].B.3.2 Software development of testing modulesTest modules of software into the monitoring program and the interrupt service program, where each part consists of a number of functional modules. Monitor mainly includes initialization modules, self-diagnostics and test module, display module and key scanning and processing module; interrupt service program mainly consists of A/D conversion, data read, timer, and clock handling function module.Depending on the test circuit functional requirements, which monitor the overall process as shown in Figure 5. Various monitoring module of key features are: initialize module is used to initialize the extension interface, internal RAM and SFR (special function register) and work status flag; test and diagnostic module, used to check the data input and output channels, DAC and display hardware circuit is functional; display module, used to display the test work parameters and the work of the State; key scanning and processing module, complete key recognition and execution of the function, each key to set the flags. The main function keys and function keys for lot number is used to set the test batch; date key is used to set the test day channel key toggles the A/B test pulse output channel; keys are used to perform the testing capabilities; print key control miniature printer output test reports.Fig·5Flowchart ofmonitoring programDepending on the system needs, pulse more performance indicators of measurement, is in the main test key control for itemized testing, test module to process as shown in Figure 6. To test the implementation requires the combination of appropriate sub modules, the interrupt service program and hardware wiring.Fig·6Operational flowchart of testingmoduleTest method for main parameters: its a number of measurement, pulse, qualified grating spare should open with 200 tanks, according to the stepper motor speed, you can determine a desired time, scheduled count total; Secondly, the pulse of high and low level measurement, belong to the analog test, the use of pulse of rising and falling edge as the interrupt flag, with A/d converter, converts the analog voltage digital; its three, duty cycle measurement, pulse input to the external interrupt interface, with its rising and falling edge control two timer start and stop; fourth, two channel phase difference measurement, in the phase difference function keys under the control of the complete switch about wiring, makes A, B channel pulse signal received two external interrupt port, and then use a timer to determine its latency, combined with pulse signal cycle can determine the phase difference between the two.B.4 conclusionThe development of the Testing and Controlling Instrument of the Photoelectric Rotating Speed Sensor with dual microprocessor architecture, in the system's hardware and software,both in terms of structure, its control operations simple and practical, work performance and high reliability. The actual running shows that the design of the instrument has high utility value.Article From：Xi'an University of Technology附录B中文翻译基于AT89C52的机车光电转速传感器测控仪设计摘要针对光电转速传感器性能指标测试的必要性和传统测试仪的局限性,引入AT89C52双微处理器模块结构,设计开发出先进而实用的高性能、高可靠性的新一代光电转速传感器测控仪,实现光电转速传感器的驱动和测试工作。