Monitoring the invasion

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Monitoring the invasion of an exotic tree (Ligustrum lucidum )from 1983to 2006with Landsat TM/ETM+satellite data and Support Vector Machines in Córdoba,ArgentinaGregorio I.Gavier-Pizarro a ,⁎,Tobias Kuemmerle b ,g ,Laura E.Hoyos c ,Susan I.Stewart d ,Cynthia D.Huebner e ,Nicholas S.Keuler f ,Volker C.Radeloff aaDepartment of Forest and Wildlife Ecology,University of Wisconsin,Madison,1630Linden Drive,Madison,WI 53706,United StatesbEarth System Analysis,Potsdam Institute for Climate Impact Research (PIK),P.O.Box 601203,Telegraphenberg A62,D-14412Potsdam,Germany cInstituto Multidisciplinario de Biología Vegetal (IMBIV-CONICET),and Facultad de Ciencias Exactas,Físicas y Naturales,Universidad Nacional de Córdoba,Av.Vélez Sars ﬁeld 299,C.C.495,5000Córdoba,Argentina dUSDA-Forest Service Northern Research Station,1033University Place,Suite 360,Evanston,IL 60201,United States eUSDA-Forest Service Northern Research Station,180Can ﬁeld St,Morgantown,WV 26505,United States fDepartment of Statistics,University of Wisconsin,Madison,1300University Avenue,Madison,WI 53706,United States gGeography Department,Humboldt-Universität zu Berlin,Unter den Linden 6,10099Berlin,Germanya b s t r a c ta r t i c l e i n f o Article history:Received 21February 2011Received in revised form 22August 2011Accepted 10September 2011Available online 16February 2012Keywords:Exotic tree invasionsNon-native invasive species Ligustrum lucidum Change detectionSupport Vector Machines classi ﬁcation Urban expansionLandsat Thematic Mapper Argentina Sierras Chicas CórdobaIn central Argentina,the Chinese tree glossy privet (Ligustrum lucidum )is an aggressive invasive species replacing native forests,forming dense stands,and is thus a major conservation concern.Mapping the spread of biological invasions is a necessary ﬁrst step toward understanding the factors determining invasion patterns.Urban areas may function as propagule sources for glossy privet because it has been used as a landscaping tree for over a cen-tury.The objectives of this paper were to 1)map the patterns of glossy privet expansion from 1983to 2006using a time series of Landsat TM/ETM+images,and 2)analyze the spatial pattern of glossy privet stands with regard to urban ing six summer Landsat TM images (1983,1987,1992,1997,2001,and 2006)the expansion of glossy privet was analyzed using Support Vector Machines (SVM),a non-parametric classi ﬁer which we applied to a stack of all images simultaneously,a novel approach in its application to monitor non-native tree invasions.We then measured the area of glossy privet in a series of 200-m buffers at increasing distances around urban areas in 1983and 2006,and compared it with the amount of privet expected in proportion to buffer area.Glossy privet in the study area has spread very rapidly during the 23years that we studied and the SVM resulted in highly ac-curate classi ﬁcations (Kappa Index 0.88,commission error 0.07,omission error 0.16).Between 1983and 2006glossy privet area increased 50times (from 50to 2500ha),and 20%of all forest in the study area is now dominat-ed by glossy privet.Most of the glossy privet dominated stands were located within 600m of urban areas.However,the rate of glossy privet expansion accelerated substantially after 1992and new glossy privet dominat-ed stands tend to be located away from urban areas.This suggests that glossy privet is now self-sustaining,but expected urban growth in the area could further foster glossy privet invasion.Management and development plans should include mitigation efforts to contain this species and prevent invasion into native forests,and citizens should be informed about the risk of invasion associated with the use of glossy privet for landscaping.©2012Elsevier Inc.All rights reserved.1.IntroductionBiological invasions are one of the main components of global change,negatively affecting ecosystem functioning and biodiversity (Theoharides &Dukes,2007;Vitousek et al.,1996).Invasions of non-native plants in particular can have strong effects on natural eco-systems,changing the dominant vegetation type (e.g.,shrubland tograssland conversions),soil properties,biogeochemical cycles,pat-terns of herbivory,and disturbance regimes (Brooks et al.,2004;Mack et al.,2000).Invading non-native trees may result in the most substantial negative ecosystem impacts (Richardson et al.,1994).For example,pine invasion in the southern hemisphere has reduced the structural diversity,changed vegetation patterns,and altered nu-trient cycling of grasslands and shrublands (Richardson,1998;Zalba &Villamil,2002).Many factors determine invasion success and patterns,but most bi-ological invasions are connected to human activities (Lonsdale,1999;Williamson &Fitter,1996).One of the potential factors related to the distribution of invasive non-native plants is the expansion of urban areas which is occurring rapidly in many parts of the world (Antrop,Remote Sensing of Environment 122(2012)134–145⁎Corresponding author at:Instituto Nacional de Tecnología Agropecuaria (INTA),Centro de Investigación en Recursos Naturales (CIRN-IRB),De los Reseros y Las Cabañas S/N,HB1712WAA Hurlingham,Buenos Aires,Argentina.Tel./fax:+541144812360int.125.E-mail address:ggavier@.ar (G.I.Gavier-Pizarro).0034-4257/$–see front matter ©2012Elsevier Inc.All rights reserved.doi:10.1016/j.rse.2011.09.023Contents lists available at SciVerse ScienceDirectRemote Sensing of Environmentj o u r n a l h om e p a g e :ww w.e l s e v i e r.c o m /l o c a t e /r s e2000,2004).Non-native plants in residential areas can invade adjacent natural areas(Sullivan et al.,2005;Wania et al.,2006)and housing de-velopment creates habitat that can easily be invaded(due to the crea-tion of forest edges,soil exposure,etc.;De Candido,2004;Hobbs& Huenneke,1992;Wania et al.,2006).As a result,rural housing and ur-banization in suburban areas often cause the invasion of adjacent for-ests by non-native plants originally planted for landscaping(Duguay et al.,2007;Gavier-Pizarro et al.,2010a,b;Moffatt et al.,2004).In an increasingly globalized world,the frequency and spatial scale of biological invasions are growing rapidly,and thus,there is a growing need for monitoring the spread,and forecasting future distri-butions of non-native plants invasions(Meyerson&Mooney,2007; Vitousek et al.,1996).Detailed maps of invasive species'spread pro-vide the baseline data needed for deﬁning the factors associated with their successful invasion and are a necessaryﬁrst step for suc-cessful management action(Elton,1958;Mack et al.,2000).However, detailed and up-to-date maps of invasive species are often lacking.Remote sensing is a very promising tool to map invasive non-native plants across broad geographic extents.The availability of satellite image archives permits mapping non-native invasive plants spread retro-spectively(Cohen&Goward,2004;Rejmanek&Pitcairn,2002;Wulder et al.,2008).However,most existing studies have used high-resolution or hyperspectral imagery covering a relatively small area and analyzed only a single point in time or a short time(Akasheh et al.,2008;Hestir et al.,2008).The limitation of such approaches in a management context is their high cost,limiting their use for long-term assessments of invasive plants spread particularly in developing countries(Asner et al.,2008; Hunt et al.,2003;Lass et al.,2005;Noujdina&Ustin,2008)and the gen-eral lack of historic data,thus limiting the use of change detection tech-niques to monitor the invasion process over time.The Landsat program has been extensively used for ecosystem monitoring(Cohen&Goward,2004;Goward&Masek,2001)and the almost40year long record of Landsat imagery provides a rich dataset to map the invasion of trees at the landscape ndsat images are now available at no cost(Woodcock et al.,2008)and that makes it feasible to analyze both larger areas,and denser time ndsat TM/ETM+(Landsat5Thematic Mapper and Landsat 7Enhanced Thematic Mapper Plus)images with their30-m resolu-tion do not permit mapping of individual trees and it can be difﬁcult to distinguish tree species(Foody et al.,2005).However,Landsat TM/ ETM+images have been successfully used to map invasions for sin-gle points in time for invading plants that form homogeneous patches larger than0.5ha and have a different phenology from the surround-ing native vegetation(Peterson,2005).Although Landsat TM images have been successfully used to map non-native plant invasions be-tween two points in time(Bradley&Mustard,2006),we are not aware of research that takes full advantage of multi-temporal Landsat images availability to develop detailed time series analysis of non-native plants invasion,particularly for trees.Digital change detection can map changes in vegetation composi-tion,and is thus a powerful tool for mapping the spread of invasive posite analysis is a type of change detection where all im-ages are combined into one multi-temporal dataset and change clas-ses are directly classiﬁed(Coppin&Bauer,1994).Composite analysis allows inclusion of more than two points at a time,while accounting for inaccuracies associated with comparing two images classiﬁed in-dependently(Coppin et al.,2004;Pu et al.,2008).Landcover change classes obtained from multi-temporal datasets are often characterized by complex class distributions(multi-modal, non-normal).Non-parametric classiﬁers such as decision trees,neu-ral networks,or Support Vector Machines(SVM)are therefore better suited for change classiﬁcations than parametric classiﬁcation algo-rithms(e.g.maximum likelihood)(Foody&Mathur,2004).More-over,SVM have successfully been applied to analyze landcover changes using Landsat TM/ETM+images(Baumann et al.,2011; Kuemmerle et al.,2008,2009;Nemmour&Chibani,2006).However,the suitability of SVM to map biological invasions combined with change detection techniques has not been tested yet.We were particularly interested in invasions by non-native trees in Argentina because these invasions entail high ecological and eco-nomic costs(Chaneton et al.,2004;Grau&Aragón,2000;Zalba& Villamil,2002).One of the most widespread invasive trees in central Argentina is the glossy privet(Ligustrum lucidum W.T.Aiton),native to China and imported for use as an ornamental plant(Montaldo, 1993,2000;Ribichich&Protomastro,1998).Glossy privet is particu-larly widespread in the Sierras Chicas of Córdoba(central Argentina), where it was introduced around1900as an ornamental plant(Río& Achával,1904)and has become a very successful invader of forested sites resulting in dense stands that eliminate most native vegetation (Gavier&Bucher,2004;Grau&Aragón,2000;Hoyos et al.,2010). Glossy privet is an aggressive invader in many other countries as well,including Australia and New Zealand(Cronk&Fuller,1995).Glossy privet invasion results in profound negative ecological im-pacts.Glossy privet grows fast under both shaded and full-sun condi-tions,reaching heights of up to15m.Dispersal occurs through abundant,bird-dispersed seeds and via vegetative propagation (Aragón&Morales,2003;Aragón&Groom,2003).Once it reaches the canopy,glossy privet can outcompete most native plant species by cre-ating conditions of low luminosity that hinder the regeneration of other species,ultimately resulting in glossy privet dominance(Grau& Aragón,2000).The regeneration of native tree species in the glossy privet invaded areas is very rare(Hoyos et al.,2010).Optimal conditions for the dominant native tree Lithraea molleoides seed germination(i.e., complete sun exposure and moderate humidity,Bianco,1989;Marco &Páez,2000)are not found under the dense evergreen canopy of glossy privet stands,which cast strong shade all year longGlossy privet-dominated stands are very different in terms of their vertical structure and composition from native forests,with a sub-stantial loss of native tree species and much less cover in both the herbaceous and the shrubby strata.As a consequence,there is a sub-stantial biodiversity and habitat loss in glossy privet stands compared with native forest stands(Hoyos et al.,2010).Many animal species could be negatively affected by the habitat lost,while others,such as birds that feed heavily on glossy privet seed,will potentially be fa-vored.Other potential consequences may include changes in nutrient cycling,soil properties,and disturbance regimes(Hoyos et al.,2010).The Sierras Chicas of Córdoba have also experienced widespread landscape change since1970,especially forest loss,forest fragmentation, and urban growth(Gavier&Bucher,2004).Glossy privet has been wide-ly used as a landscaping tree,and privet expansion may thus be con-nected to the region's urban growth.Nevertheless,the relationship between privet expansion and urban growth remains to date largely hy-pothetical.While earlier work has shown the potential for mapping glossy privet from Landsat TM/ETM+images(Gavier&Bucher,2004; Hoyos et al.,2010),no previous research has assessed privet expansion. Hence,the glossy privet invasion provides an excellent case to test the use of SVM as a change detection technique for the detailed monitoring of biological invasions using a time series of Landsat TM/ETM+images.The objectives of this paper were to1)map the spread of glossy priv-et stands in the Sierras Chicas between de Córdoba(Argentina)be-tween1983and2006,2)analyze the rates and spatial patterns of privet invasions,and3)assess the relationship between privet expan-sion and urban development.We hypothesized that glossy privet dom-inated stands are spatially related to the distribution of urban areas, because urban areas act as a source of propagules and have associated disturbances(e.g.clearing of properties)that facilitate the invasion of glossy privet.2.Study areaThe study area encompasses380km2on the eastern slope of the Sierras Chicas of Córdoba,Argentina(−31°17.4′S;64°30′W).135G.I.Gavier-Pizarro et al./Remote Sensing of Environment122(2012)134–145Elevation ranges from450m on the eastern plain to1350m on the pla-teau(Sierras Chicas)in the western part.Climate is temperate semi-arid with a monsoonal rain regime,average annual rainfall of949mm and mean annual temperature of18.9°C(Capitanelli,1979a,b;Gavier &Bucher,2004).Natural vegetation consists of four vegetation zones: Llanura(plains b750m,dominated by Aspidosperma quebracho-blanco, Prosopis spp.and Acacia spp.forests),Serrano forest(sierras between 1200and700m and dominated by Lithraea molleoides and Fagara coco forest),shrubland(between1100and1000m),and grassland (usually>1000m)(Gavier&Bucher,2004;Luti et al.,1979;Zak& Cabido,2002)(Fig.1).Land uses,especially cattle grazing,open mining,and intense log-ging(both clearcutting and selective logging),have substantially al-tered natural vegetation communities across the entire area.Current deforestation rates are high(2.8%of remaining forest cover per year)and are increasing forest fragmentation.The remaining forest patches are under pressure from grazing,selective logging,ﬁre,and non-native invasive plants(Gavier&Bucher,2004).Urban areas have grown rapidly(from577to1950ha from1970to 1997)with a substantial increase of growth rate after1990(adjusted for same study area,Gavier&Bucher,2004)and reaching2460in 2006(Data extracted from Hoyos et al.,2010).Urban growth expansion has been fueled by people moving out of Cordoba city(1.3million in-habitants)which is within30km of the study area.Between1991and 2001,population increased from30,124to42,696inhabitants(INDEC, 1991,2001).Urban growth was particularly strong in forested valleys as people moved closer to natural amenities(Gavier&Bucher,2004; Zak&Cabido,2002)(Figs.1and3).Glossy privet is widespread,occupying1783ha in2006(17%of the forested area)and forming sometimes stands larger than150ha (Gavier&Bucher,2004;Hoyos,2007;Hoyos et al.,2010).Relative crown cover of glossy privet in heavily invaded stands can exceed 80%,and regeneration of native trees is practically absent.Glossy privet is also distributed outside the heavily invaded stands,as isolat-ed individuals mixed with native trees(Hoyos et al.,2010).3.Methods3.1.DatasetsTo map the glossy privet invasion we used six Landsat TM and ETM+images(scene path229/row82)from1983(December8th), 1987(February4th),1992(January17th),1997(November14th), 2001(January1st),and2006(March12th)obtained from the United States Geological Survey Earth Resources Observation and Science Data Center(USGS EROS)()(1983,1987,1992, 2001,2006),and the National Argentine Commission of Spatial Activ-ities(CONAE,.ar)(1997).All images dated from sum-mer or late spring after the onset of the rainy season when vegetation was in full vigor.Images were almost cloudless;the remaining few clouds were masked.Images were orthorectiﬁed and georeferenced with an RMS error b1pixel(approximately25m)using1:15,000Fig.1.Study area in Córdoba province,Argentina,north of the city of Córdoba.False color composite image of bands3(red),2(green)and1(blue)from a Landsat ETM+image from January1st2001.136G.I.Gavier-Pizarro et al./Remote Sensing of Environment122(2012)134–145topographic maps from the Geographic Military Institute of Argenti-na,30control points,and10km of road surveyed on the ground with a GPS unit(geopositional error b10m).The six multispectral bands of the six images were combined into a single multi-temporal stack with36bands that was a subset of the extent of the study area.A digital elevation model was built digitizing all the altitude contours(25-m altitude intervals)from the topographic maps and a hillshade image based on the sun position parameters of the2006 Landsat image was included in the stack to account for shading caused by topography.3.2.Change detection analysisWe identiﬁed eight classes from the multitemporal image stack. One class represented the distribution of glossy privet in1983(‘Privet 1983’);ﬁve classes represented glossy privet expansion(‘Expansion 1983–1987’,‘Exp.1987–1992’,‘Exp.1992–1997’,‘Exp.1997–2001’,‘Exp.2001–2006’);one class represented native forest dominated areas in all image dates(‘Permanent forest’);and one class repre-sented all other cover types in all image dates(‘Other’,i.e.,grasslands, shrubs,urban,cropland,water,and changes among these classes).Training areas for the eight different classes were digitized on the raw Landsat TM/ETM+images using ArcGIS9.2(ESRI,2006).To fa-cilitate the interpretation of Landsat TM/ETM+images,we calculated the Normalized Difference Vegetation Index(NDVI)and the bright-ness,greenness,and wetness components of the Tasseled Cap Trans-formation(Crist&Cicone,1984)for each image.Glossy privet-dominated stands differ substantially in structural and physical characteristics from native forest stands.Privet canopies are more dense and closed,resulting in higher absorption in the visible domain and higher reﬂection in the near-infrared domain and thus a higher NDVI(Hoyos et al.,2010)(Fig.2).Both‘Privet1983’and‘Permanent forest’training areas were digi-tized based onﬁeld visits in October2007.From the1983Landsat imag-ery,we selected sites with high NDVI that we visited in theﬁeld and checked if they were dominated by glossy privet trees older than 60years(see below for a description of tree rings analysis).The age of the trees indicated that the canopy of the stand was already dominated by glossy privet trees in1983,particularly the largest stand of glossy privet in1983(located on the outskirts of Rio Ceballos).We then used the1987NDVI image to select training sites of glossy privet expansion for the period1983–1987.We searched the 1987NDVI image for spots that had undergone a substantial NDVI in-crease compared to the1983NDVI image.We compared the spectral signature of the areas considered privet expansion between1983and 1987,with the spectral signature(from the1987image)of the refer-ence site.The same procedure was applied to select training site poly-gons for the privet expansions in the subsequent time periods.WeFig.2.Examples of differences in the appearance of glossy privet and native forest canopy in theﬁeld,in Landsat TM/ETM+images,and in the spectral feature space.A)Differences in color and density of glossy privet and native forest canopies on the ground.B)Spectral values in bands2,3and4in a Landsat TM image of2006for a random sample of100pixels of glossy privet stands and native forest.Digital numbers in band4(near infrared)are substantially higher for glossy privet stands than for native forests.C)Color composite of bands4(blue),3(red)and2(green)in1997.Bright red areas indicate higher values of band4(near infrared).D)NDVI,dark green areas indicate more dense photosynthetic active tissue.137G.I.Gavier-Pizarro et al./Remote Sensing of Environment122(2012)134–145restricted the selection of training sites within a mask of forested areas developed from a2006Landsat image classiﬁcation(Hoyos et al.,2010).Once training polygons were digitized,a random sample of400lo-cations(pixels)for each class was selected from the polygons.For two classes(‘Privet1983’and‘Expansion1987–1992’),relatively few training polygons could be located because glossy privet domi-nated areas were still rare back then and we therefore used all avail-able training pixels(150and250,respectively).The training sites were used to parameterize a Support Vector Machines(SVM)classiﬁer.The basic idea of SVM is to deﬁne a hyper-plane that separates points corresponding to two different classes in a multidimensional space(Foody&Mathur,2004;Huang et al.,2002). The hyperplane that best discriminates two classes has a maximum distance between the hyperplane and the closest training samples (the support vectors)(Burges,1998;Pal&Mather,2005).When clas-ses are not linearly separable,a kernel function transforms training data into a higher dimensional space where a separating linear hyper-plane can beﬁtted(Huang et al.,2002;Pal&Mather,2005).This al-lows SVM to handle complex class distributions and makes SVM well suited for multitemporal classiﬁcations where complex class dis-tributions are frequent(Kuemmerle et al.,2008).We used a Gaussian kernel function,which requires setting a pa-rameterγto control the kernel width,and a parameter C to deter-mine the magnitude of penalty given to misclassiﬁed training samples.C is thus a regularization parameter that considers the dis-tance that the misclassiﬁed training sample is away from the corre-spondent hyperplane(Foody&Mathur,2004).To apply the SVM to classify satellite images we systematically tested a wide range ofγand C combinations and compared them based on cross-validation errors(Janz et al.,2007).A potential limitation of SVM is that it was designed for binary classiﬁcations,but in landcover classiﬁcation usually more than two classes are mapped.We used a one-against-all strategy,where one individual class is classiﬁed at a time,and all the other classes are grouped into a single class also included in the classiﬁcation.When a pixel is classiﬁed in two or more classes,a conﬁdence criterion(de-pendent on the distance of a pixel to the hyperplane)is calculated and the pixel is labeled to the class with maximum conﬁdence criteria (Vapnik,1995).Once optimal parameters were found for all binary problems,we used the resulting SVM to classify the multitemporal stack of the six Landsat TM images and to derive a map of glossy privet expansion. The SVM parameterization and classiﬁcation were performed with the software imageSVM(Janz et al.,2007,www.hu-geomatics.de). To obtain aﬁnal map of glossy privet expansion all patches b4pixels (using a4-neighbor rule)were eliminated by merging them into the largest neighboring patch,to eliminate small artifacts from the classi-ﬁcation(minimum mapping unit approximately0.5ha).3.3.Field data and classiﬁcation accuracyThree data sets were used to validate our glossy privet map.First, we measured diameter at breast height(DBH)of all glossy privet trees larger than10cm,and of all native trees,in a stratiﬁed sample of46plots,each100m2in size,in October and November2007 (Elzinga et al.,1998;Hays et al.,1981).In a20-m radius circle,we also cored the three largest glossy privet individuals to estimate tree age(Avery&Burkhart,2002;Elzinga et al.,1998).Although the use of tree cores has been applied to analyze the history of trees invasions (Zalba&Villamil,2002),we applied it as a novel approach to validate classiﬁcations of invasion expansions in a satellite image time series. The sampling plots were distributed based on a preliminary glossy privet map derived from the1983,1997and2001Landsat images. Tree cores were sanded and growth rings counted using a magnifying glass in eighty cores for which reliable counting was possible.Growth ring counts were used toﬁt a linear regression to relate DBH to tree age.Second,we used a set of93sample plots of100m2recorded in 2002in areas of glossy privet and native forest stands(Hoyos, 2007).Finally,we added85random validation points for the “other”class,considering its extension and different land covers in-cluded,31points recorded in theﬁeld and54using Quickbird images (available in Google EarthTM,).Using all three datasets we calculated a confusion matrix,error of omission and commission,and the overall and individual classes Kappa index. Kappa index ranks between0(total disagreement)and1(total agreement)(Congalton,1991;Foody,2002).3.4.Relationship of privet expansion and urban areasWe calculated the area of glossy privet dominated stands in mul-tiple rings of200m width around urban areas to analyze the spatial relationship between glossy privet stands and urban areas.The pro-portion of the total glossy privet area located in each interval was compared to the proportion of the total study area contained in that ring,as an index of the expected glossy privet distribution under ran-domness(e.g.proportional to the available area in each buffer).To analyze the relationship between urban growth and glossy privet ex-pansion we measured the area of glossy privet stands in200-m wide intervals from urban areas in1983(urban areas mapped with a max-imum likelihood classiﬁer from the Landsat TM image of1983),and 2006(urban areas extracted from the map of the study area pre-sented in Hoyos et al.,2010),and for the expansion of glossy privet stands from2001to2006.4.Results4.1.Expansion of glossy privet standsBetween1983and2006,glossy privet dominated stands expand-ed in the study area from50to more than2500ha(Table1).In2006, glossy privet stands represented more than20%of the total forest present in the study area.The expansion of glossy privet was relative-ly slow between1983and1992(326ha,36.2ha per year),but inva-sion rates increased rapidly between1992and2006(2125ha,152ha per year)(Table1).In1983,most glossy privet dominated areas were contained in a few small stands located in the urban areas of Rio Ceballos and Salsi-puedes,as well as a few hectares of glossy privet south of Rio Ceballos located between urban areas and native forest stands.Between1983 and1987,glossy privet expanded particularly in native forests locat-ed on the slopes west of the town of Rio Ceballos,following a south-west direction along a river located west of Rio Ceballos and in a few stands west of the town of Salsipuedes.Between1987and1992,a few new glossy privet dominated stands appeared in the area be-tween Rio Ceballos and Salsipuedes,and also as an expansion of the glossy privet stands on the slopes west of Rio Ceballos(Fig.3).Table1Expansion of glossy privet dominated stands in5year time steps between1983and 2006.Year Glossy privetstand area(ha)Privet expansion(ha)Percent growth ofglossy privet area 1983501987293243486199******** 19971075699186 2001178370866 2006250171840Forest in20069440Other classes in200626,048138G.I.Gavier-Pizarro et al./Remote Sensing of Environment122(2012)134–145。

关于监控的利与弊英语作文

关于监控的利与弊英语作文Monitoring has become an integral part of modern society. It can bring benefits in terms of security, efficiency, and productivity. However, it also raises concerns about privacy invasion, trust issues, and ethical implications.监控已经成为现代社会的一个重要组成部分。

它可以在安全、效率和生产力方面带来好处。

但是，它也引发了有关侵犯隐私、信任问题和伦理问题的担忧。

On the one hand, monitoring systems help prevent crimes and ensure public safety. For example, surveillance cameras can deter criminal activities and provide evidence for investigations. This can create a safer environment for everyone.一方面，监控系统有助于预防犯罪并确保公共安全。

例如，监控摄像头可以遏制犯罪活动并为调查提供证据。

这可以为每个人创造更安全的环境。

On the other hand, constant surveillance can infringe on individuals' privacy rights. People may feel uncomfortable knowing that they arebeing monitored without their consent. This can lead to a sense of distrust towards authorities and a feeling of being constantly watched.另一方面，持续的监视可能侵犯个人的隐私权利。

我们作为家长监督好孩子带手机的英语作文

全文分为作者个人简介和正文两个部分：作者个人简介：Hello everyone, I am an author dedicated to creating and sharing high-quality document templates. In this era of information overload, accurate and efficient communication has become especially important. I firmly believe that good communication can build bridges between people, playing an indispensable role in academia, career, and daily life. Therefore, I decided to invest my knowledge and skills into creating valuable documents to help people find inspiration and direction when needed.正文：我们作为家长监督好孩子带手机的英语作文全文共3篇示例，供读者参考篇1As Students, We Need Our Parents to Monitor Our Smartphone UseMy name is Jamie, and I'm 16 years old. I'm pretty much glued to my smartphone from the moment I wake up until I goto sleep at night. I'm definitely addicted to it, and I know most of my friends are too. We're constantly texting each other, scrolling through social media feeds, watching videos, and playing games. It's just such an ingrained habit that we don't even think about it anymore.But I have to admit, there are times when I realize just how much this smartphone addiction is negatively impacting my life. I'll be sitting in class, completely zoning out and missing everything the teacher is saying because I'm absorbed in some meaningless group chat or TikTok video. Or I'll stay up way too late because I just can't put the phone down, and then I'm a zombie the next day because I'm so sleep deprived.The sad truth is, we teenagers just don't have theself-control and maturity yet to manage our own smartphone usage in a healthy way. Our brains are still developing and we are hard-wired to crave constant stimulation and dopamine hits from things like social media likes and notifications. We need our parents to step in and monitor our smartphone habits for our own benefit.I know what you're thinking – we kids will just rebel and find ways around any rules or restrictions our parents try to set. And yeah, you're probably right to some degree. We can be prettysneaky and stubborn when we want to be. But I still believe parental monitoring of our smartphone use, when done in a caring but firm way, can be really beneficial.For example, my parents have set reasonable time limits on my smartphone usage through Apple's Screen Time feature. After two hours of total screen time per day, all my apps are basically locked down and I can only use my phone for calling, texting, and a few educational apps. At first I fought this rule like crazy. But eventually I realized that having these limits actually forced me to live more in the present moment and not just robotically burn through hours mindlessly staring at my phone.My parents have also completely banned smartphones from the dinner table, in the bedroom after a certain time at night, and during homework time. Again, this was really hard adjustment at first. But honestly, not having my phone as a constant distracting temptation during meals, at night before bed, and when doing schoolwork has allowed me to be more focused and present.Another rule that I begrudgingly have come to appreciate is that my parents regularly go through my phone to check my social media use, text messages, internet browsing history, etc. As invasive as it feels, it has made me more aware of my digital footprint and motivated me to be a bit more responsible in how Iuse technology. Knowing they could see it has prevented me from saying or doing anything too stupid or inappropriate online.I also have to give my parents credit for educating themselves on the latest apps, social media platforms, and general tech trends that kids are into these days. Most adults want to just bury their heads in the sand when it comes to things like SnapChat, TikTok, Discord, etc. But my parents have made an effort to understand how these technologies work so they can better relate to the pressures and issues we face online. It makes their monitoring feel more contextualized and effective.At the end of the day, we teenagers simply lack the life experience and developmental maturity to make smart choices 100% of the time about our smartphone usage. That's why parental monitoring, while unpopular, is so important and necessary. We need that external accountability.And parents, I get that this monitoring can sometimes feel like an invasion of privacy or like you're being the bad guy. But I promise you, as frustrating as it is for us as kids in the moment, we ultimately do appreciate the boundaries and guidance you're providing. You're helping build habits that we'll hopefully carryinto adulthood around things like time management, focus, and digital wellness.So to all my fellow students: instead of fighting your parents on their smartphone rules, try to have an open dialogue about it. Explain the pressures you feel to be constantly connected and about things like FOMO (fear of missing out). But also be receptive to learning from your parents about the potential negative impacts of smartphone addiction. Their guidance is coming from a good place.And to the parents: keep moderating our smartphone use through technical controls, routines, and wellness education. We may roll our eyes or argue with you about it now, but we need that structure. Just also be sure to model good habits yourself by putting down your own devices and being present with us kids. Smartphone overuse is an issue that cuts both ways.Our generation has been called the "smartphone zombies" - the first to grow up in a world utterly dominated by mobile devices and social apps. While smartphones can indeed be awesome tools for connecting and learning, their overuse is also rewiring our brains in concerning ways. We have become overly distracted, inactive, sleep-deprived, and disconnected from thepresent moment - constantly bouncing from one digital blip of information or entertainment to the next.Parents, we need you to be that external force helping us navigate and balance our relationship with technology and our online lives. Left unchecked, this smartphone obsession will only get more extreme and damaging. With your guidance, however, maybe we can become masters of our devices instead of being enslaved by them.篇2As students, we all know how addictive and distracting mobile phones can be. From messaging our friends to scrolling through social media to watching videos and playing games, these pocket-sized devices have a way of monopolizing our attention for hours on end. And as much as we may hate to admit it, this obsession with our phones often comes at the expense of our studies, extracurricular activities, and quality time with family.That's why I believe parents need to step in and monitor our phone usage – not to be overbearing or violate our privacy, but because we sometimes lack the self-control and foresight to make wise choices on our own. After all, our brains are stilldeveloping during our childhood and teenage years, making us more susceptible to impulsive behavior and less capable of weighing long-term consequences.I've seen firsthand how parental supervision over phone use can be beneficial. One of my best friends, let's call him Jack, was essentially addicted to his phone a couple of years ago. He would bring it everywhere, constantly checking for notifications and new content. His grades began slipping, he stopped showing up for basketball practice, and he became irritable whenever his parents tried to pull him away from the screen.Finally, Jack's parents intervened. They set strict time limits on his phone usage during the week and outright banned it during homework hours and mealtimes. It wasn't easy at first –Jack protested vehemently and accused his parents of being overbearing. But eventually, he adjusted to the new rules, and his academic performance, extracurriculars, and overall mood all improved dramatically.Now, I'm not saying that all parents need to enforce draconian rules about phone use. But some degree of monitoring and limit-setting is important, in my view. According to researchers, excessive smartphone use has been linked to issues like poor sleep, increased anxiety and depression, lowerproductivity and attention span, and even musculoskeletal problems from being hunched over a small screen. As young people whose brains and habits are still being formed, we can benefit greatly from parental guidance in establishing healthy device habits.Ideally, this monitoring would be paired with an open dialogue between parents and children. Parents could educate us on the downsides of smartphone overuse and involve us in setting reasonable time limits or technology-free times and spaces. They could also model healthy device habits themselves, so we're not just receiving mixed messages.At the same time, I think it's important for parents to be understanding and flexible when it comes to phone rules. If we have a big group project to work on, maybe we could negotiate extended phone access so we can collaborate with classmates. If we're facing a stressful time with exams, perhaps our parents could temporarily relax restrictions so we can use our phones for breaks and stress relief in moderation.The key is striking a balance – providing enough freedom and trust for us to build responsibility, but also enough oversight to save us from our own worst impulses. Because let's face it, resisting the lure of viral videos, addictive games, and constantsocial media updates takes willpower that even many adults struggle with, let alone kids and teenagers like us.Looking around at my peers, I see so many who have trouble putting their phones away to concentrate during class, who are sleep-deprived from staying up too late online, and who seem to be living more through their curated digital personas than in the real world. And it's not entirely their fault – companies like Instagram, Snapchat, and TikTok have teams of psychologists leverage human psychology to maximum addictive potential.So while at a certain age, we should be given the autonomy and critical thinking skills to self-regulate our screen time, adolescence is a precarious time when the judgement centers of our brains are still catching up to our impulsive urges. That's why I believe parental supervision, transparently motivated by care and wisdom rather than overbearing control, can make a huge positive impact when it comes to our phone habits and overall wellbeing.I'll be the first to admit that as a teenager, I don't always appreciate my parents nagging me to get off my phone and focus on homework or chores. In the heat of the moment, it's easy to get defensive and view their rules as unfair constraints on my freedom and autonomy. But taking a step back, I know theirintentions are good – to prevent me from falling into the traps of procrastination, escape, and distraction that constantly tempt our tech-savvy generation.Ultimately, our success in life depends on developing important "human" skills like discipline, focus, emotional intelligence, and the ability to form deep connections with others. And while our smartphones can be powerful tools when used prudently, we also need guidance and boundaries to keep them from becoming cages that stunt our growth.So to all the parents out there reading this – please don't be afraid to stay involved in monitoring our phone use, at least until we've developed the habits and maturity to self-regulate effectively. Your wisdom and interjections, firmly grounded in care for our wellbeing rather than blind control, could be just what we need to strike the right balance in our hyper-connected world. We may protest, we may even resent the rules sometimes. But deep down, we know you have our best interests at heart, and that makes all the difference.篇3As students, we all know that mobile phones have become an integral part of our daily lives. We use them for everythingfrom staying connected with friends and family to accessing information and entertainment. However, as much as mobile phones have become a necessity, they can also be a source of distraction and even danger if not used responsibly. That's why it's crucial for our parents to monitor and supervise our use of these devices.Let's face it, we're just kids and teens. Our brains are still developing, and we don't always have the best judgment when it comes to managing our time and making responsible choices. That's where our parents come in. They have the wisdom and experience to guide us in the right direction and ensure that we're using our mobile phones in a way that doesn't interfere with our studies, our relationships, or our overall well-being.One of the biggest concerns our parents have is the impact that mobile phones can have on our academic performance. It's easy to get sucked into the endless scroll of social media or the latest viral video when we should be focusing on our homework or studying for an exam. That's why it's important for our parents to set clear boundaries and limits on our phone usage during study time or school hours.Another issue that our parents need to be aware of is the potential for cyberbullying and online harassment. With theanonymity of the internet, it's all too easy for people to say hurtful things or spread rumors without consequence. Our parents need to educate us on the dangers of cyberbullying and monitor our online activity to ensure that we're not being targeted or engaging in harmful behavior ourselves.But it's not just about academics and online safety. Our parents also need to be mindful of the physical and mental health implications of excessive mobile phone use. Staring at a screen for hours on end can lead to eye strain, headaches, and poor posture. And the constant stream of notifications and social media updates can be overwhelming and contribute to anxiety and depression.That's why our parents need to encourage us to take breaks from our phones and engage in more active pursuits like exercise, reading, or spending time with friends and family in person. They should also be on the lookout for signs of addiction or unhealthy obsession with our devices and be willing to intervene if necessary.Of course, it's not just about enforcing rules and setting limits. Our parents also need to lead by example. If they're constantly glued to their own phones, it sends a mixed message and undermines their efforts to promote responsible phone use.They need to practice what they preach and model healthy habits when it comes to mobile phone usage.At the end of the day, our parents are just trying to look out for our best interests. They want us to be successful in school, build strong relationships, and maintain our physical and mental well-being. By supervising our use of mobile phones, they're helping us develop the self-discipline and time management skills that will serve us well in the long run.It's not always easy to have our parents monitoring our every move, especially when it comes to something as personal as our phones. But we have to remember that they're doing it out of love and concern for our well-being. And if we're honest with ourselves, we know that we could all use a little more guidance and structure when it comes to managing our screen time.So let's embrace our parents' efforts to supervise our mobile phone usage, and even take it a step further by involving them in the process. We could have open and honest conversations about our habits and concerns, and work together to develop strategies and boundaries that work for our individual needs and circumstances.At the end of the day, our parents just want to see us succeed and thrive in this increasingly digital world. And byworking together and finding a healthy balance when it comes to our mobile phone usage, we can ensure that these powerful devices enhance our lives rather than detract from them.。

社交媒体对个人隐私的侵犯英语作文

社交媒体对个人隐私的侵犯英语作文全文共3篇示例，供读者参考篇1Social media has become an integral part of our daily lives, allowing us to connect with others, share content, and stay informed about the world around us. However, the growing popularity of social media has raised concerns about the invasion of personal privacy. In this essay, I will explore how social media infringes on individual privacy and discuss potential solutions to this issue.Firstly, social media platforms collect a vast amount of personal data from their users, including their browsing history, location, online purchases, and interactions with other users. This data is often used to target users with personalized advertisements, which can feel intrusive and invasive. Additionally, social media companies may sell this data to third parties without the user's consent, leading to further privacy violations.Furthermore, social media users may inadvertently share sensitive information about themselves on these platforms, suchas their location, relationship status, or personal photographs. This information can be used by hackers or malicious individuals to commit identity theft, blackmail, or other forms of cybercrime. Additionally, employers, universities, and other institutions may use social media profiles to screen potential candidates, leading to discrimination and bias based on a person's online presence.Moreover, social media users may be subjected to cyberbullying, harassment, and online stalking by other users. This can have severe consequences for the mental health and well-being of the victim, leading to anxiety, depression, and even suicide in extreme cases. Furthermore, social media users may experience feelings of isolation, envy, and inadequacy when comparing themselves to the curated and idealized versions of their peers' lives on social media.To address these concerns, individuals can take steps to protect their privacy online, such as adjusting their privacy settings, being cautious about what they share online, and regularly reviewing their online presence. Additionally, social media companies should be more transparent about how they collect and use personal data, provide users with more control over their data, and implement stronger security measures to protect user information from unauthorized access.In conclusion, while social media has greatly enriched our lives by connecting us with others and providing a platform for self-expression, it also poses a significant threat to individual privacy. By raising awareness about the risks of using social media and implementing stronger safeguards to protect user data, we can mitigate the impact of privacy violations and create a safer and more secure online environment for everyone.篇2The invasion of personal privacy by social media has become a growing concern in today's digital age. With the rise of platforms such as Facebook, Instagram, Twitter, and Snapchat, individuals are sharing more personal information online than ever before. While social media has its benefits, such as connecting with friends and family, sharing updates and photos, and staying informed about current events, it also poses serious risks to personal privacy.One of the main ways that social media invades personal privacy is through data collection and tracking. Social media platforms often collect a vast amount of data about their users, including their location, browsing history, likes, dislikes, and preferences. This data is then used to target users with personalized ads and content, creating a digital profile of eachindividual. In some cases, this data is shared with third-party companies for marketing purposes, leading to concerns about how it is being used and who has access to it.Another way that social media invades personal privacy is through the sharing of personal information. Many users post intimate details about their lives on social media, from their relationship status and political views to their daily activities and whereabouts. While this information may seem harmless at first, it can be used against individuals in a variety of ways, such as identity theft, harassment, stalking, and even targeted advertising. Additionally, social media profiles can be easily accessed by anyone, making it difficult to control who sees this information and how it is used.Furthermore, social media platforms often change their privacy policies without notifying users, leading to confusion and frustration among those who are trying to protect their personal information. Many users are unaware of the extent to which their data is being collected and shared, and may not realize the risks until it is too late. This lack of transparency and accountability on the part of social media companies is concerning, as it leaves users vulnerable to privacy breaches and violations.In conclusion, the invasion of personal privacy by social media is a serious issue that needs to be addressed. While social media has many benefits, it is important for users to be aware of the risks and take steps to protect their personal information online. This includes being mindful of what they post, adjusting their privacy settings, and staying informed about changes to privacy policies. By taking these precautions, individuals can help to safeguard their personal privacy in an increasingly digital world.篇3The Invasion of Personal Privacy by Social MediaIn this digital age, social media has become an integral part of our daily lives. It allows us to connect with friends and family, share our thoughts and experiences, and keep up with the latest news and trends. However, as convenient as social media may be, it also poses a serious threat to our personal privacy.One of the biggest ways in which social media invades our privacy is through the collection and misuse of personal data. When we sign up for social media platforms, we are often required to provide a wealth of personal information, including our name, age, location, and interests. This information is thenused by social media companies to target us with advertisements and content that are tailored to our preferences. While this may seem harmless at first, it can quickly become sinister when our data is shared with third parties without our consent.In recent years, there have been numerous high-profile cases of social media companies selling user data to advertisers and other third parties. This not only violates our trust in these platforms but also puts our personal information at risk of being exposed to hackers and other malicious actors. Our private messages, photos, and other sensitive information could be accessed and used against us without our knowledge or consent.Another way in which social media infringes on our privacy is through the tracking and monitoring of our online activities. Many social media platforms use tracking technologies, such as cookies and beacons, to follow our every move online and collect data on our browsing habits, search history, and interactions with other users. This information is then used to create detailed profiles of us, which can be used to target us with personalized content and advertisements.Furthermore, social media algorithms often prioritize engagement and virality over privacy and security. This means that controversial or sensational content is more likely to bepromoted and shared, even if it violates our privacy or spreads misinformation. This can have serious consequences, such as the spread of fake news and the amplification of divisive and harmful narratives.In conclusion, while social media has revolutionized the way we communicate and interact with each other, it also poses a significant threat to our personal privacy. As users, we must be vigilant about the information we share online and the platforms we trust with our data. Social media companies, on the other hand, must take more responsibility for protecting our privacy and ensuring that our personal information is not exploited for profit or malicious purposes. Only by working together can we ensure that social media remains a safe and secure space for all users.。

OSHA现场作业手册说明书

DIRECTIVE NUMBER: CPL 02-00-150 EFFECTIVE DATE: April 22, 2011 SUBJECT: Field Operations Manual (FOM)ABSTRACTPurpose: This instruction cancels and replaces OSHA Instruction CPL 02-00-148,Field Operations Manual (FOM), issued November 9, 2009, whichreplaced the September 26, 1994 Instruction that implemented the FieldInspection Reference Manual (FIRM). The FOM is a revision of OSHA’senforcement policies and procedures manual that provides the field officesa reference document for identifying the responsibilities associated withthe majority of their inspection duties. This Instruction also cancels OSHAInstruction FAP 01-00-003 Federal Agency Safety and Health Programs,May 17, 1996 and Chapter 13 of OSHA Instruction CPL 02-00-045,Revised Field Operations Manual, June 15, 1989.Scope: OSHA-wide.References: Title 29 Code of Federal Regulations §1903.6, Advance Notice ofInspections; 29 Code of Federal Regulations §1903.14, Policy RegardingEmployee Rescue Activities; 29 Code of Federal Regulations §1903.19,Abatement Verification; 29 Code of Federal Regulations §1904.39,Reporting Fatalities and Multiple Hospitalizations to OSHA; and Housingfor Agricultural Workers: Final Rule, Federal Register, March 4, 1980 (45FR 14180).Cancellations: OSHA Instruction CPL 02-00-148, Field Operations Manual, November9, 2009.OSHA Instruction FAP 01-00-003, Federal Agency Safety and HealthPrograms, May 17, 1996.Chapter 13 of OSHA Instruction CPL 02-00-045, Revised FieldOperations Manual, June 15, 1989.State Impact: Notice of Intent and Adoption required. See paragraph VI.Action Offices: National, Regional, and Area OfficesOriginating Office: Directorate of Enforcement Programs Contact: Directorate of Enforcement ProgramsOffice of General Industry Enforcement200 Constitution Avenue, NW, N3 119Washington, DC 20210202-693-1850By and Under the Authority ofDavid Michaels, PhD, MPHAssistant SecretaryExecutive SummaryThis instruction cancels and replaces OSHA Instruction CPL 02-00-148, Field Operations Manual (FOM), issued November 9, 2009. The one remaining part of the prior Field Operations Manual, the chapter on Disclosure, will be added at a later date. This Instruction also cancels OSHA Instruction FAP 01-00-003 Federal Agency Safety and Health Programs, May 17, 1996 and Chapter 13 of OSHA Instruction CPL 02-00-045, Revised Field Operations Manual, June 15, 1989. This Instruction constitutes OSHA’s general enforcement policies and procedures manual for use by the field offices in conducting inspections, issuing citations and proposing penalties.Significant Changes∙A new Table of Contents for the entire FOM is added.∙ A new References section for the entire FOM is added∙ A new Cancellations section for the entire FOM is added.∙Adds a Maritime Industry Sector to Section III of Chapter 10, Industry Sectors.∙Revises sections referring to the Enhanced Enforcement Program (EEP) replacing the information with the Severe Violator Enforcement Program (SVEP).∙Adds Chapter 13, Federal Agency Field Activities.∙Cancels OSHA Instruction FAP 01-00-003, Federal Agency Safety and Health Programs, May 17, 1996.DisclaimerThis manual is intended to provide instruction regarding some of the internal operations of the Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA), and is solely for the benefit of the Government. No duties, rights, or benefits, substantive or procedural, are created or implied by this manual. The contents of this manual are not enforceable by any person or entity against the Department of Labor or the United States. Statements which reflect current Occupational Safety and Health Review Commission or court precedents do not necessarily indicate acquiescence with those precedents.Table of ContentsCHAPTER 1INTRODUCTIONI.PURPOSE. ........................................................................................................... 1-1 II.SCOPE. ................................................................................................................ 1-1 III.REFERENCES .................................................................................................... 1-1 IV.CANCELLATIONS............................................................................................. 1-8 V. ACTION INFORMATION ................................................................................. 1-8A.R ESPONSIBLE O FFICE.......................................................................................................................................... 1-8B.A CTION O FFICES. .................................................................................................................... 1-8C. I NFORMATION O FFICES............................................................................................................ 1-8 VI. STATE IMPACT. ................................................................................................ 1-8 VII.SIGNIFICANT CHANGES. ............................................................................... 1-9 VIII.BACKGROUND. ................................................................................................. 1-9 IX. DEFINITIONS AND TERMINOLOGY. ........................................................ 1-10A.T HE A CT................................................................................................................................................................. 1-10B. C OMPLIANCE S AFETY AND H EALTH O FFICER (CSHO). ...........................................................1-10B.H E/S HE AND H IS/H ERS ..................................................................................................................................... 1-10C.P ROFESSIONAL J UDGMENT............................................................................................................................... 1-10E. W ORKPLACE AND W ORKSITE ......................................................................................................................... 1-10CHAPTER 2PROGRAM PLANNINGI.INTRODUCTION ............................................................................................... 2-1 II.AREA OFFICE RESPONSIBILITIES. .............................................................. 2-1A.P ROVIDING A SSISTANCE TO S MALL E MPLOYERS. ...................................................................................... 2-1B.A REA O FFICE O UTREACH P ROGRAM. ............................................................................................................. 2-1C. R ESPONDING TO R EQUESTS FOR A SSISTANCE. ............................................................................................ 2-2 III. OSHA COOPERATIVE PROGRAMS OVERVIEW. ...................................... 2-2A.V OLUNTARY P ROTECTION P ROGRAM (VPP). ........................................................................... 2-2B.O NSITE C ONSULTATION P ROGRAM. ................................................................................................................ 2-2C.S TRATEGIC P ARTNERSHIPS................................................................................................................................. 2-3D.A LLIANCE P ROGRAM ........................................................................................................................................... 2-3 IV. ENFORCEMENT PROGRAM SCHEDULING. ................................................ 2-4A.G ENERAL ................................................................................................................................................................. 2-4B.I NSPECTION P RIORITY C RITERIA. ..................................................................................................................... 2-4C.E FFECT OF C ONTEST ............................................................................................................................................ 2-5D.E NFORCEMENT E XEMPTIONS AND L IMITATIONS. ....................................................................................... 2-6E.P REEMPTION BY A NOTHER F EDERAL A GENCY ........................................................................................... 2-6F.U NITED S TATES P OSTAL S ERVICE. .................................................................................................................. 2-7G.H OME-B ASED W ORKSITES. ................................................................................................................................ 2-8H.I NSPECTION/I NVESTIGATION T YPES. ............................................................................................................... 2-8 V.UNPROGRAMMED ACTIVITY – HAZARD EVALUATION AND INSPECTION SCHEDULING ............................................................................ 2-9 VI.PROGRAMMED INSPECTIONS. ................................................................... 2-10A.S ITE-S PECIFIC T ARGETING (SST) P ROGRAM. ............................................................................................. 2-10B.S CHEDULING FOR C ONSTRUCTION I NSPECTIONS. ..................................................................................... 2-10C.S CHEDULING FOR M ARITIME I NSPECTIONS. ............................................................................. 2-11D.S PECIAL E MPHASIS P ROGRAMS (SEP S). ................................................................................... 2-12E.N ATIONAL E MPHASIS P ROGRAMS (NEP S) ............................................................................... 2-13F.L OCAL E MPHASIS P ROGRAMS (LEP S) AND R EGIONAL E MPHASIS P ROGRAMS (REP S) ............ 2-13G.O THER S PECIAL P ROGRAMS. ............................................................................................................................ 2-13H.I NSPECTION S CHEDULING AND I NTERFACE WITH C OOPERATIVE P ROGRAM P ARTICIPANTS ....... 2-13CHAPTER 3INSPECTION PROCEDURESI.INSPECTION PREPARATION. .......................................................................... 3-1 II.INSPECTION PLANNING. .................................................................................. 3-1A.R EVIEW OF I NSPECTION H ISTORY .................................................................................................................... 3-1B.R EVIEW OF C OOPERATIVE P ROGRAM P ARTICIPATION .............................................................................. 3-1C.OSHA D ATA I NITIATIVE (ODI) D ATA R EVIEW .......................................................................................... 3-2D.S AFETY AND H EALTH I SSUES R ELATING TO CSHO S.................................................................. 3-2E.A DVANCE N OTICE. ................................................................................................................................................ 3-3F.P RE-I NSPECTION C OMPULSORY P ROCESS ...................................................................................................... 3-5G.P ERSONAL S ECURITY C LEARANCE. ................................................................................................................. 3-5H.E XPERT A SSISTANCE. ........................................................................................................................................... 3-5 III. INSPECTION SCOPE. ......................................................................................... 3-6A.C OMPREHENSIVE ................................................................................................................................................... 3-6B.P ARTIAL. ................................................................................................................................................................... 3-6 IV. CONDUCT OF INSPECTION .............................................................................. 3-6A.T IME OF I NSPECTION............................................................................................................................................. 3-6B.P RESENTING C REDENTIALS. ............................................................................................................................... 3-6C.R EFUSAL TO P ERMIT I NSPECTION AND I NTERFERENCE ............................................................................. 3-7D.E MPLOYEE P ARTICIPATION. ............................................................................................................................... 3-9E.R ELEASE FOR E NTRY ............................................................................................................................................ 3-9F.B ANKRUPT OR O UT OF B USINESS. .................................................................................................................... 3-9G.E MPLOYEE R ESPONSIBILITIES. ................................................................................................. 3-10H.S TRIKE OR L ABOR D ISPUTE ............................................................................................................................. 3-10I. V ARIANCES. .......................................................................................................................................................... 3-11 V. OPENING CONFERENCE. ................................................................................ 3-11A.G ENERAL ................................................................................................................................................................ 3-11B.R EVIEW OF A PPROPRIATION A CT E XEMPTIONS AND L IMITATION. ..................................................... 3-13C.R EVIEW S CREENING FOR P ROCESS S AFETY M ANAGEMENT (PSM) C OVERAGE............................. 3-13D.R EVIEW OF V OLUNTARY C OMPLIANCE P ROGRAMS. ................................................................................ 3-14E.D ISRUPTIVE C ONDUCT. ...................................................................................................................................... 3-15F.C LASSIFIED A REAS ............................................................................................................................................. 3-16VI. REVIEW OF RECORDS. ................................................................................... 3-16A.I NJURY AND I LLNESS R ECORDS...................................................................................................................... 3-16B.R ECORDING C RITERIA. ...................................................................................................................................... 3-18C. R ECORDKEEPING D EFICIENCIES. .................................................................................................................. 3-18 VII. WALKAROUND INSPECTION. ....................................................................... 3-19A.W ALKAROUND R EPRESENTATIVES ............................................................................................................... 3-19B.E VALUATION OF S AFETY AND H EALTH M ANAGEMENT S YSTEM. ....................................................... 3-20C.R ECORD A LL F ACTS P ERTINENT TO A V IOLATION. ................................................................................. 3-20D.T ESTIFYING IN H EARINGS ................................................................................................................................ 3-21E.T RADE S ECRETS. ................................................................................................................................................. 3-21F.C OLLECTING S AMPLES. ..................................................................................................................................... 3-22G.P HOTOGRAPHS AND V IDEOTAPES.................................................................................................................. 3-22H.V IOLATIONS OF O THER L AWS. ....................................................................................................................... 3-23I.I NTERVIEWS OF N ON-M ANAGERIAL E MPLOYEES .................................................................................... 3-23J.M ULTI-E MPLOYER W ORKSITES ..................................................................................................................... 3-27 K.A DMINISTRATIVE S UBPOENA.......................................................................................................................... 3-27 L.E MPLOYER A BATEMENT A SSISTANCE. ........................................................................................................ 3-27 VIII. CLOSING CONFERENCE. .............................................................................. 3-28A.P ARTICIPANTS. ..................................................................................................................................................... 3-28B.D ISCUSSION I TEMS. ............................................................................................................................................ 3-28C.A DVICE TO A TTENDEES .................................................................................................................................... 3-29D.P ENALTIES............................................................................................................................................................. 3-30E.F EASIBLE A DMINISTRATIVE, W ORK P RACTICE AND E NGINEERING C ONTROLS. ............................ 3-30F.R EDUCING E MPLOYEE E XPOSURE. ................................................................................................................ 3-32G.A BATEMENT V ERIFICATION. ........................................................................................................................... 3-32H.E MPLOYEE D ISCRIMINATION .......................................................................................................................... 3-33 IX. SPECIAL INSPECTION PROCEDURES. ...................................................... 3-33A.F OLLOW-UP AND M ONITORING I NSPECTIONS............................................................................................ 3-33B.C ONSTRUCTION I NSPECTIONS ......................................................................................................................... 3-34C. F EDERAL A GENCY I NSPECTIONS. ................................................................................................................. 3-35CHAPTER 4VIOLATIONSI. BASIS OF VIOLATIONS ..................................................................................... 4-1A.S TANDARDS AND R EGULATIONS. .................................................................................................................... 4-1B.E MPLOYEE E XPOSURE. ........................................................................................................................................ 4-3C.R EGULATORY R EQUIREMENTS. ........................................................................................................................ 4-6D.H AZARD C OMMUNICATION. .............................................................................................................................. 4-6E. E MPLOYER/E MPLOYEE R ESPONSIBILITIES ................................................................................................... 4-6 II. SERIOUS VIOLATIONS. .................................................................................... 4-8A.S ECTION 17(K). ......................................................................................................................... 4-8B.E STABLISHING S ERIOUS V IOLATIONS ............................................................................................................ 4-8C. F OUR S TEPS TO BE D OCUMENTED. ................................................................................................................... 4-8 III. GENERAL DUTY REQUIREMENTS ............................................................. 4-14A.E VALUATION OF G ENERAL D UTY R EQUIREMENTS ................................................................................. 4-14B.E LEMENTS OF A G ENERAL D UTY R EQUIREMENT V IOLATION.............................................................. 4-14C. U SE OF THE G ENERAL D UTY C LAUSE ........................................................................................................ 4-23D.L IMITATIONS OF U SE OF THE G ENERAL D UTY C LAUSE. ..............................................................E.C LASSIFICATION OF V IOLATIONS C ITED U NDER THE G ENERAL D UTY C LAUSE. ..................F. P ROCEDURES FOR I MPLEMENTATION OF S ECTION 5(A)(1) E NFORCEMENT ............................ 4-25 4-27 4-27IV.OTHER-THAN-SERIOUS VIOLATIONS ............................................... 4-28 V.WILLFUL VIOLATIONS. ......................................................................... 4-28A.I NTENTIONAL D ISREGARD V IOLATIONS. ..........................................................................................4-28B.P LAIN I NDIFFERENCE V IOLATIONS. ...................................................................................................4-29 VI. CRIMINAL/WILLFUL VIOLATIONS. ................................................... 4-30A.A REA D IRECTOR C OORDINATION ....................................................................................................... 4-31B.C RITERIA FOR I NVESTIGATING P OSSIBLE C RIMINAL/W ILLFUL V IOLATIONS ........................ 4-31C. W ILLFUL V IOLATIONS R ELATED TO A F ATALITY .......................................................................... 4-32 VII. REPEATED VIOLATIONS. ...................................................................... 4-32A.F EDERAL AND S TATE P LAN V IOLATIONS. ........................................................................................4-32B.I DENTICAL S TANDARDS. .......................................................................................................................4-32C.D IFFERENT S TANDARDS. .......................................................................................................................4-33D.O BTAINING I NSPECTION H ISTORY. .....................................................................................................4-33E.T IME L IMITATIONS..................................................................................................................................4-34F.R EPEATED V. F AILURE TO A BATE....................................................................................................... 4-34G. A REA D IRECTOR R ESPONSIBILITIES. .............................................................................. 4-35 VIII. DE MINIMIS CONDITIONS. ................................................................... 4-36A.C RITERIA ................................................................................................................................................... 4-36B.P ROFESSIONAL J UDGMENT. ..................................................................................................................4-37C. A REA D IRECTOR R ESPONSIBILITIES. .............................................................................. 4-37 IX. CITING IN THE ALTERNATIVE ............................................................ 4-37 X. COMBINING AND GROUPING VIOLATIONS. ................................... 4-37A.C OMBINING. ..............................................................................................................................................4-37B.G ROUPING. ................................................................................................................................................4-38C. W HEN N OT TO G ROUP OR C OMBINE. ................................................................................................4-38 XI. HEALTH STANDARD VIOLATIONS ....................................................... 4-39A.C ITATION OF V ENTILATION S TANDARDS ......................................................................................... 4-39B.V IOLATIONS OF THE N OISE S TANDARD. ...........................................................................................4-40 XII. VIOLATIONS OF THE RESPIRATORY PROTECTION STANDARD(§1910.134). ....................................................................................................... XIII. VIOLATIONS OF AIR CONTAMINANT STANDARDS (§1910.1000) ... 4-43 4-43A.R EQUIREMENTS UNDER THE STANDARD: .................................................................................................. 4-43B.C LASSIFICATION OF V IOLATIONS OF A IR C ONTAMINANT S TANDARDS. ......................................... 4-43 XIV. CITING IMPROPER PERSONAL HYGIENE PRACTICES. ................... 4-45A.I NGESTION H AZARDS. .................................................................................................................................... 4-45B.A BSORPTION H AZARDS. ................................................................................................................................ 4-46C.W IPE S AMPLING. ............................................................................................................................................. 4-46D.C ITATION P OLICY ............................................................................................................................................ 4-46 XV. BIOLOGICAL MONITORING. ...................................................................... 4-47CHAPTER 5CASE FILE PREPARATION AND DOCUMENTATIONI.INTRODUCTION ............................................................................................... 5-1 II.INSPECTION CONDUCTED, CITATIONS BEING ISSUED. .................... 5-1A.OSHA-1 ................................................................................................................................... 5-1B.OSHA-1A. ............................................................................................................................... 5-1C. OSHA-1B. ................................................................................................................................ 5-2 III.INSPECTION CONDUCTED BUT NO CITATIONS ISSUED .................... 5-5 IV.NO INSPECTION ............................................................................................... 5-5 V. HEALTH INSPECTIONS. ................................................................................. 5-6A.D OCUMENT P OTENTIAL E XPOSURE. ............................................................................................................... 5-6B.E MPLOYER’S O CCUPATIONAL S AFETY AND H EALTH S YSTEM. ............................................................. 5-6 VI. AFFIRMATIVE DEFENSES............................................................................. 5-8A.B URDEN OF P ROOF. .............................................................................................................................................. 5-8B.E XPLANATIONS. ..................................................................................................................................................... 5-8 VII. INTERVIEW STATEMENTS. ........................................................................ 5-10A.G ENERALLY. ......................................................................................................................................................... 5-10B.CSHO S SHALL OBTAIN WRITTEN STATEMENTS WHEN: .......................................................................... 5-10C.L ANGUAGE AND W ORDING OF S TATEMENT. ............................................................................................. 5-11D.R EFUSAL TO S IGN S TATEMENT ...................................................................................................................... 5-11E.V IDEO AND A UDIOTAPED S TATEMENTS. ..................................................................................................... 5-11F.A DMINISTRATIVE D EPOSITIONS. .............................................................................................5-11 VIII. PAPERWORK AND WRITTEN PROGRAM REQUIREMENTS. .......... 5-12 IX.GUIDELINES FOR CASE FILE DOCUMENTATION FOR USE WITH VIDEOTAPES AND AUDIOTAPES .............................................................. 5-12 X.CASE FILE ACTIVITY DIARY SHEET. ..................................................... 5-12 XI. CITATIONS. ..................................................................................................... 5-12A.S TATUTE OF L IMITATIONS. .............................................................................................................................. 5-13B.I SSUING C ITATIONS. ........................................................................................................................................... 5-13C.A MENDING/W ITHDRAWING C ITATIONS AND N OTIFICATION OF P ENALTIES. .................................. 5-13D.P ROCEDURES FOR A MENDING OR W ITHDRAWING C ITATIONS ............................................................ 5-14 XII. INSPECTION RECORDS. ............................................................................... 5-15A.G ENERALLY. ......................................................................................................................................................... 5-15B.R ELEASE OF I NSPECTION I NFORMATION ..................................................................................................... 5-15C. C LASSIFIED AND T RADE S ECRET I NFORMATION ...................................................................................... 5-16。

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