Chapter 19 Clayden Organics 大学有机化学

More Substituted Alkenes Epoxidize Faster
More substituted double bonds are also more nucleophilic because alkyl groups are electrondonating and they stabilize the carbocations
Electrophilic Addition to Alkenes
Based on Clayden’s Organic Chemistry, Chapter 19
Nucleophilic addition reaction (Chapters 5 and 9)
Elimination reaction (Chapter 15)
bromine atom ends up on the more substituted carbon
Markovnikov’s rule: The hydrogen ends up attached to the carbon of the double bond that had more hydrogens to start with.
Peracids are rather less acidic than carboxylic acids because their conjugate base is no longer stabilized by delocalization into the carbonyl group reagent. But they are electrophilic at oxygen, because attack there by a nucleophile displaces carboxylate, a good leaving group.
The best way of ensuring anti addition of hydrogen across any triple bond is to treat the alkyne with sodium in liquid ammonia.
Alkenes React with Bromine
curly arrow mechanism: a proton is transferred from the epoxide oxygen to the carboxylic acid by-product
nucleophilic p bond contributes electrons on to oxygen of the weak, electrophilic polarized O–O bond
Attack of Br– on a bromonium ion is a normal SN2 substitution, hence the nucleophile maintains maximal overlap with the s* of one of the two C–Br bonds by approaching in line with the leaving group but from the opposite side, resulting in inversion at the carbon that is attacked.
Interaction of s orbital of C-C or C-H bond with the p orbital of the alkene will raise the HOMO of the alkene
Electrophilic Addition to Unsymmetrical Alkenes is Regioselective
Overall, the atoms H and Br are added to the ends of the diene system
cation is attacked at the less hindered end
The same appears to be the case when dienes are brominated with Br2.
Epoxidation is Stereospecific
Since both new C–O bonds are formed on the same face of the alkene’s p bond, the geometry of the alkene is reflected in the stereochemistry of the epoxide. The reaction is therefore stereospecific
At lower temperatures, the bromine adds across one of the double bonds to give a 1,2-dibromide. – kinetic product
when the reaction is heated, the 1,4-dibromide is formed thermodynamic product
Electrophilic Addition to Dienes
protonation gives a stable delocalized allylic cation
Why not protonate the other double bond? Cation obtained by protonating the other double bond is also allylic, but it cannot benefit from the additional stabilization from the methyl group
electrophilic addition to the double bond, because bromine is an electrophile.
Oxidation of Alkenes to Form Epoxidectrophile, and it reacts with the bromide ion lost from the bromine in the addition step
• How to make alkyl halides, epoxides, alcohols, and ethers
through electrophilic addition
E- and Z-alkenes can be made by stereoselective addition to alkynes
Alkynes react with some reducing agents stereoselectively to give either the Z double bond or the E double bond
the two hydrogen atoms add to the alkyne in a syn fashion and the alkene produced is a Z-alkene
Drawing similarity: We can view epoxides as the oxygen analogues of bromonium ions, but unlike bromonium ions they are quite stable.
Most commonly used epoxidizing agents are peroxy-carboxylic acids. Peroxy-acids (or peracids) have an extra oxygen atom between the carbonyl group and their acidic hydrogen—they are half-esters of hydrogen peroxide (H2O2).
Alkenes decolourize bromine water: alkenes react with bromine. The product of the reaction is a dibromoalkane
Neither the alkene nor bromine is charged, but Br2 has a low-energy empty orbital (the Br–Br s*), and is therefore an electrophile. The Br–Br bond is exceptionally weak, and bromine reacts with nucleophiles like this.
The most commonly used peroxy-acid is known as meta-ChloroPeroxyBenzoic Acid or m-CPBA because it is a safely crystalline solid
alkene attacks the peroxy-acid from the centre of the HOMO, its p orbital
E selective reduction of alkynes uses Na in liquid NH3
Wittig reaction is not entirely Z-selective, and it generates some E-isomer. Lindlar-catalyzed reduction, on the other hand, generates pure Z-alkene
Nucleophilic substitution reaction (Chapters 10, 11 and 15)
The aims of this chapter are to …..