Dynamic Thermal Environment and Thermal Comfort IA2014

Thermal Science and Engineering Thermal science and engineering encompass a vast array of principles and applications that are crucial in understanding and harnessing energy in various forms. From the design of efficient heating and cooling systems to the development of advanced materials for energy storage, the field plays a pivotal role in modern technology and industry. At its core, thermal science deals with the transfer, conversion, and utilization of heat energy, while engineering applies these principles to practical solutions and innovations. One of the key perspectives to consider in thermal science and engineering is the importance of sustainability. With the increasing concerns about climate change and environmental degradation, there's a growing emphasis on developing sustainable energy solutions. This includes improving the efficiency of existing thermal systems, such as powerplants and HVAC (heating, ventilation, and air conditioning) systems, as well as advancing renewable energy technologies like solar thermal and geothermal systems. By optimizing energy usage and minimizing waste heat, engineers can contribute to reducing greenhouse gas emissions and mitigating the impacts of climate change. Another critical aspect to consider is the role of thermal science and engineering in addressing global energy challenges. As the demand for energy continues to rise, especially in developing countries, there's a pressing need for reliable and affordable energy sources. Thermal power generation, including fossil fuels and nuclear energy, remains a significant contributor to the global energy mix. However, concerns about resource depletion, air pollution, and nuclear safety highlight the importance of developing cleaner and safer alternatives. Advances in thermal energy storage, high-temperature materials, and advanced power cycles hold promise for enhancing the efficiency and sustainability of future energy systems. Moreover, thermal science and engineering play a vital role in enhancingindustrial processes and manufacturing operations. From metal casting and glass production to chemical processing and food preservation, heat plays a fundamental role in shaping the properties and quality of materials. By optimizing thermal processes and equipment design, engineers can improve productivity, reduce energy consumption, and enhance product quality. This is particularly relevant in sectors such as automotive, aerospace, and electronics manufacturing, where precisetemperature control and thermal management are critical for ensuring product performance and reliability. On a more personal level, thermal science and engineering offer exciting career opportunities for individuals passionate about science, technology, and innovation. Whether working in academia, research institutions, or industry, professionals in this field have the chance to make meaningful contributions to society while pursuing their interests. The interdisciplinary nature of thermal science also allows for collaboration with experts in other fields, such as materials science, fluid dynamics, and renewable energy, leading to innovative solutions to complex challenges. Furthermore, the study of thermal science and engineering provides valuable insights into the fundamental laws of thermodynamics and heat transfer, which have wide-ranging applications beyond engineering. Understanding how heat flows and energy transforms enables us to comprehend natural phenomena, from the Earth's climate system to the behavior of stars and galaxies. This knowledge not only enriches our understanding of the universe but also informs practical decisions related to energy policy, environmental management, and sustainable development. In conclusion, thermal science and engineering are indispensable disciplines that play a crucial role in shaping the future of energy, industry, and society. By focusing on sustainability, addressing global energy challenges, enhancing industrial processes, and fostering career opportunities, this field offers both practical solutions and profound insights into the nature of heat and energy. As we strive to build a more sustainable and prosperous world, the principles and practices of thermal science and engineering will continue to guide us towards a brighter future.。

CERAMICSINTERNATIONALAvailable online at Ceramics International 40(2014)2047–2056Chemically modi fied boron nitride-epoxy terminated dimethylsiloxanecomposite for improving the thermal conductivityKiho Kim,Myeongjin Kim,Yongseon Hwang,Jooheon Kim nSchool of Chemical Engineering &Materials Science,Chung-Ang University,Seoul 156-756,KoreaReceived 30May 2013;received in revised form 22July 2013;accepted 24July 2013Available online 21August 2013AbstractThe thermal conductivities of composites with an epoxy-terminated dimethylsiloxane (ETDS)matrix and boron nitride (BN)powder fillers were investigated.Two surface curing agents,3-glycidoxypropyltrimethoxysilane (KBM-403)and 3-chloropropyltrimethoxysilane (KBM-703),were doped onto the surfaces of hydroxyl-functionalized boron nitride using a simple sol –gel process to act as fillers in the thermally conducting composites.These synthesized materials were embedded in epoxy resin via a solvent casting method.The surface modi fication had an appreciable effect on the thermal conductivity resulting in increased thermal conductivity up to 70wt%.The thermal conductivities of the composites containing 70wt%BN particles treated with the KBM-403and KBM-703curing agents were 4.11and 3.88W/mK,respectively,compared to 2.92W/mK for the composite without surface treatment.&2013Elsevier Ltd and Techna Group S.r.l.All rights reserved.Keywords:posites;C.Thermal conductivity;D.Nitrides;Surface treatment1.IntroductionDemands for the miniaturization and continuous perfor-mance improvements of electronic packages have led to the development of new microelectronic packaging techniques.The typical characteristics of future microelectronic packaging include high density,high frequency,and high speed [1–3].It is well known that the reliability of an electronic device is exponentially dependent on the operating temperature of the junction,whereby a small difference of the operation tempera-ture can result in a two-fold reduction of the lifespan of a device [4].Improvements of size and performance are likely to result in the generation of a greater amount of heat in a smaller volume of space.To ensure proper device operation,the unwanted heat must be removed as quickly and effectively as possible to maintain the operation temperature,suggesting that the packaging materials of the product needs to have good thermal conductivity [5,6].Epoxy resin has been widely applied in electronics,paints,electrical insulators,printed circuit boards,and packaging materials as a matrix [7,8].Unfortunately,epoxy used alone as an electronic packaging material cannot effectively dissipate the heat generated from high packing and power-density devices,given the relatively low thermal conductivity range of epoxy of 0.1–0.3W/mK.Several studies have been conducted to improve the thermal conductivity of epoxy.For example,polymers filled with thermally conductive fillers are emerging as a cost-effective means of coping with thermal management issues.Many researchers have investigated the thermal conductivity enhancement of composite materials including oxides (Al 2O 3,SiO 2,ZnO)[9–11],carbide (SiC)[12],and nitrides (AlN,BN,Si 3N 4)[13,14].The properties of these epoxy/inorganic filler composites depend on the nature of the inorganic filler including their chemical and physical composition,size,shape and dispersion in the epoxy matrix.Thermally conductive fillers,like those mentioned above,have attracted attention due to their high thermal and low electrical conductivities,while metallic particles have high thermal and electrical conductiv-ities.Among the fillers,boron nitride has been considered as/locate/ceramint0272-8842/$-see front matter &2013Elsevier Ltd and Techna Group S.r.l.All rights reserved./10.1016/j.ceramint.2013.07.117nCorresponding author.Tel.:þ8228205763.E-mail address:jooheonkim@cau.ac.kr (J.Kim).an attractive candidate due to its significantly high thermal conductivity($300W/mK),lack of toxicity,superior chemi-cal stability,electrical insulation properties,and relatively low cost.In order to obtain a higher thermal conductivity while maintaining the existing properties,filler loadings of60wt% or higher have traditionally been incorporated to form a heat conduction path in the matrix that is as continuous as possible. However,a highfiller content becomes rather inflexible with voids and cracks forming betweenfillers.Moreover,the BN/ epoxy slurry has a relatively low viscosity before drying, which facilitates the sedimentation of the BNfiller.As a result, BNfillers settle to the bottom of the compositefilm,the heat-conductive path is cut off,and the thermal conductivity decreases.In response to this issue,many studies have suggested fabrication of a surface-modified BN particle to preventfiller sedimentation[15,16].Recently,BN has been coated with a surface-curing agent to further enhance the thermal conductivity of polymer compo-sites,resulting in a reduction of sedimentation due to the lone-pair electron interaction of particle surfaces into the matrix.Gu et al.achieved a thermal conductivity of1.052W/mK using a hot disk instrument for epoxyfilled with silane-modified BN at a solid loading of60wt%[17].Yung et al.reported the effect of multi-modal particle size mixing on the formation of a thermally conductive network[18].Unfortunately,these previous experiments used nano-scale BN particles($1μm). Due to the small size of thefiller-containedfilm,heat passing through the boundary of the particles is more frequently the main cause of the phonon scattering.The diffuse boundary scattering due to the short wavelength in comparison to interface roughness of dominant phonon heat carriers not only reduces the phonon mean free path,but can also destroy the coherence of the phonons[19].Thermal resistance at particle junctions known as thermal boundary resistance or Kapitza resistance is one of the primary causes of heat transfer property reduction.In the presence of a heatflux across the boundary,this thermal resistance causes a temperature dis-continuity at the boundary.Due to the differences of the electronic and vibrational properties of various materials,an energy carrier will scatter when attempting to traverse the interface[20–22].It is known that hexagonal BN particles have a plate-like shape withflat surfaces corresponding to the basal planes of the hexagonal crystal structure.The basal plane of BN is molecularly smooth and has no surface functional groups available for chemical bonding or interactions.In contrast,the edge planes of the platelets have functional groups such as hydroxyl and amino groups.These functional groups allow the BNfiller to disperse in an organic solvent and chemically bond with other rge BN particles are significantly decreased in the edge plane areas,resulting in difficulty obtaining uniform dispersion and chemical bonding.To this end,Sato et al.employed0.7μm BN particles as a thermal conductivefiller on polyimide resin[23,24].For the effective use of micro-scale BN as afiller,another surface treatment is necessary to make the reaction site of the particle surface.In this study,a polymer matrix,dimethyl siloxane-basedepoxy,was employed to fabricate a thermally conductivecomposite and a12μm BN particle was adopted as acompositefiller to reduce phonon scattering and improve thethermal conductivity.To increase the affinity and dispersibilityof thefiller in the epoxy matrix,which is expected to provide agood thermal conductivity,two types of surface curing agentswere employed.The resulting surface curing agent-coated BNpossessed electrical insulating properties in addition toenhanced thermal conductivity due to reduced thermal resis-tance at the junction.The mechanical properties of thefabricated composites were measured and the data demon-strates that a small amount of surface curing agent enhancesthe thermal and mechanical properties.2.Experimental2.1.Synthesis of ETDSThe epoxy-terminated dimethysiloxane(ETDS)oligomerwas obtained from Shin-Etsu silicon(KF-105,equivalentweight(E.E.W)=490g/eq,density=0.99g/cm3).In ourprevious study,the weight ratio of the epoxy to the curingagent was determined to provide efficientflexibility of thematrix.In this study,the equivalent weight ratio of ETDS toDDM(4.4′-diamino diphenylmethane)was1:2.1.9g of DDMwas placed in a four-neck roundflask equipped with a refluxcondenser and was preheated to363K.9.5g of the ETDSresin was added and heated in an oil bath at363K for1hunder a N2atmosphere.The bubbles in the mixture wereremoved by placing the mixture in a vacuum oven for30minat room temperature.The mixture was then placed in an oilbath at323K for10min in a N2atmosphere.Thefinaldegassing was performed in a vacuum oven for1h at roomtemperature to remove air bubbles[25].2.2.Surface modification of BNThe detailed synthesis procedure is shown in Fig.1.First,micro-BN particles were suspended in a5M sodium hydro-xide solution at1101C for18h to attach more hydroxide ionsonto the surfaces.Because micro-BN particles have fewfunctional groups,surface treatment is necessary to facilitatechemical bonding with the surface curing agent.After basesolution dipping,the particles were rinsed with D.I.water and filtered several times to adjust the pH from basic to neutral. The micro-BN hydroxide particles were left in the furnace at801C for5h,cooled to room temperature,and then stored indesiccators.The BN particles were modified with two surface curingagents,KBM-403and KBM-703,obtained from Shin-EtsuSilicon by a sol-gel reaction.An appropriate amount of3-glycidoxypropyltrimethoxysilane(KBM-403;3–5%based onthe weight of the micro-BN particles)and3-chlorop-ropyltrimethoxysilane(KBM-703)were added to D.I.waterand stirred at501C for30min to achieve hydrolysis.Themicro-BN hydroxide particles were then dipped into theK.Kim et al./Ceramics International40(2014)2047–2056 2048resulting solution and stirred at 701C for 1h,followed by rinsing with D.I.water and filtering three times.The particles were then vacuum dried at 801C for 5h to remove the solvent.The amount of the coating solution necessary is preferably 0.05–10%by weight,based on the weight of the particles.When the amount of the coating solution is less than 0.05%by weight,there is a tendency for insuf ficient and non-uniform particle coating to occur.When the amount of the coating solution exceeds 10%by weight,the obtained particles may possess excessive thermal resistance,thereby causing a decrease of the thermal conductivity of the composite films [26].2.3.Preparation of the BN/epoxy compositesThe composites were prepared by solution blending and a casting method consisting of (a)adding surface curing agent-coated micro-BN to the ETDS epoxy resin (50,60,70wt%)for approximately 3h in N,N-dimethylformamide (DMF)until the synthesized materials were completely mixed,(b)fabricat-ing the composite films to a uniform thickness via a doctor blade on the Te flon mold,(c)pre-curing the films at 1501C for 3h until no air bubbles appeared on the surface followed by post-curing at 1801C for 5h,and (d)cooling to room temperature.2.4.CharacterizationFourier transform infrared (FT-IR;Parkin-Elmer Spectrum One)spectroscopy and X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy (XPS;VG-Microtech,ESCA2000)were employed to analyze the surface curing agent-coated BN.For FT-IR spectroscopy,the ATR mode was used to avoid the in fluences of moisture adsorbed on the potassium bromide (KBr)particles and the scans were performed using radiation in the frequency range of 400–4000cm À1.In the XPS analysis,a monochromatic Mg K αX-ray source was used at 1253.6eV and the Gaussian peak widths obtained by curve fitting were constant in each spectrum.Thermogravimetric analysis (TGA;TGA-2050,TAinstrument)of the samples was carried out to examine the thermal degradation of BN,BN-403,and BN-703.4mg of the samples were heated to 8001C at a heating rate of 101C/min under a nitrogen atmosphere.Field emission scanning electron microscopy (FE-SEM;Sigma,Carl Zeiss)was carried out to con firm the cross-sections of the component films before and after the silane treatment.The samples were sputtered with a thin layer of platinum to avoid the accumulation of charge before the FE-SEM observations.The thermal diffusivity (δ,mm 2s À1)at room temperature was measured on disk samples using a laser flash method (Netzsch Instruments Co.,Nano flash LFA 447System).The speci fic heat (C ,J g À1K À1)at room temperature was measured on disk samples via differential scanning calorimetry (DSC;Perkin-Elmer Co.,DSC-7System)and the bulk density (ρcomp ,g cm À3)of the specimens was measured using the water displacement method.The thermal conductivity (Ф,W mK À1)was calcu-lated using the following equation:Ф¼δC ρcompTo study the mechanical properties of the composite materials,mechanical analysis (DMA;Triton Instrument,Triton DMTA)was carried out.The storage modulus of the solid films was measured at a frequency of 1Hz.The temperature range was À180to 1801C with cooling and heating rates of 101C/min.3.Results and discussion3.1.Structure analysisThe chemical structures of the surface-modi fied BN were determined using Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (FT-IR),thermogravimetric analysis (TGA),and X-ray photo-electron spectroscopy (XPS).Fig.2(a –c)shows the FT-IR spectra of pristine BN,BN-403,and BN-703,respectively.For pristine BN,the bands at 1400and 800cm À1indicate stretching vibration in the hexagonal BN.The absorption band of pristine BN at 2300–2380cm À1represents absorbed CO 2.Fig.1.Reaction scheme for the preparation of surface curing agent treated BN particle (BN-403,BN-703).K.Kim et al./Ceramics International 40(2014)2047–20562049Comparing the pristine BN and the surface curing agent-treated BN (BN-403and BN-703),the new band at 1100cm À1corresponds to stretching of the Si –O bonds,which existed in the pure surface curing agent.Detailed surface information of pristine BN,BN –OH,BN-403,and BN-703was collected by X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy (XPS)and the corresponding results are pre-sented in Fig.3.In the spectrum of pristine BN,there are only two elements of B and N.However,the O 1s signal emerges in the spectrum of BN –OH.This result implies that the hydroxyl groups were effectively introduced on the BN surfaces and edges via the sodium hydroxide treatment.These hydroxyl groups,acting as anchor sites,enabled attachment between the BN particles and surface curing agent.Moreover,the new peaks of C 1s and Si 2p can be assigned in the spectra of both BN-403and BN-703,indicating that both surface curing agents,403and 703,were successfully attached to the surface and edges of pristine BN particles.The detailed chemical bonding of fabricated,surface-treated BN particles was con firmed from the de-convoluted B 1s,Si 2p,and C 1s spectra,the results of which are shown in Fig.4.Fig.4(a and b)show the de-convoluted B 1s spectra of BN-403and BN-703,respectively.The B 1s spectra of both BN-403and BN-703showed a strong binding energy peak for the B –N bond and a weak binding energy peak for the B –OH bond at 190.4eV and 192eV,respectively [27,28].The B –OH peak resulted from the introduction of a hydroxyl group by the base treatment.In order to provide clearer evidence of chemical bonding between the BN particles and the silane curing agent,the Si 2p peak of these synthesized materials can be fitted by a curve with several component peaks.Fig.4(c and d)shows the de-convoluted Si 2p spectra of BN-403and BN-703,respectively.In the spectra of both BN-403and BN-703,the strong peak at the binding energy of 102.1eV represents the bond between silicon and oxygen originating from the BN particles (B –O –Si),indicating that the surface curing agent and BN particles are connected through the hydroxyl groups.The peak at 103.3eV is attributed to siloxane (Si –O –Si)resulting from the partial hydrolysis of the silane curing agent molecules during the silanization reaction.Moreover,the peak at 100.8eV is attributed to Si –C bonding in the silane curing agent molecules.These results are in agreement with the reaction mechanism of silane,including the hydrolysis of –OCH 3,condensation to oligomers,hydrogen bonds between oligomer and hydroxyl groups on the substrate,and the formation of the covalent linkage between silane and the substrate.The peak at 102.5eV is attributed to Si –OH bonding,indicating that some hydroxyl groups did not hydro-lyze and a small amount of hydroxyl group remained [29,30].This implies that the amount of hydroxyl groups on the BN surface was not suf ficient to make a uniform siloxane network and some hydroxyl groups in the surface curing agent were not hydrolyzed.This is due to the basal plane of the boron nitride particle surface having no functional groups.In addition,the silane coupling agent does not coat the surface uniformly such that the hydroxyl groups of the surface curing agent remained.The C 1s spectra of both BN-403and BN-703were de-convoluted to compare the structural differences of the two silane curing agents and the results are shown in Fig.4(e and f),respectively.In the spectra of both BN-403and BN-703,the strong peak at a binding energy of 284.7eV indicates the C –C bond and the weak peak at the binding energy of 283.44eV represents the C –Si bond,which exists in the surface curing agent structure.The primary difference between KBM-403and KBM-703is that KBM-403has ether and epoxide groups,whereas KBM-703has a chloride atom at the end of the carbon chain.In the C 1s spectrum of BN-403,C –O bonding is observed at a binding energy of 286.2eV,which originates from the ether and epoxide groups.However,in the case of BN-703,the peak at 285.9eV is attributed to C –Cl bonding,which can be explained by the existence of a chloride atom at the end of the carbon chain [31].Based on these results,it can be concluded that the silane treatment can effectively introduce the surface curing agent onto the surface ofBN.Fig.2.FT-IR spectra of (a)raw BN,(b)BN-403and (c)BN-703.Fig.3.X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy survey scans of (1)raw BN,(b)BN-OH,(c)BN-403,and (d)BN-703.K.Kim et al./Ceramics International 40(2014)2047–20562050Fig.4.XPS spectra of BN-403and BN-703.(a)XPS B 1s spectrum of BN-403:(b)XPS B 1s spectrum of BN-703:(c)XPS Si 2p spectrum of BN-403:(d)XPS Si 2p spectrum of BN-703;(e)XPS C 1s spectrum of BN-403:(f)XPS C 1s spectrum of BN-703.K.Kim et al./Ceramics International 40(2014)2047–20562051The compositions of the as-prepared BN,BN-403,and BN-703composites were further investigated via TGA (Fig.5).The experiments were performed up to 8001C in air at a heating rate of 101C min À1.Under these conditions,weight loss was not observed up to 8001C for pristine BN,whereas weight losses of about 4%and 3.6%were observed for BN-403and BN-703,respectively,due to thermal decomposition of the surface curing agents attached to the BN.The mass ratios of KBM-403/BN and KBM-703/BN for BN-403and BN-703were calculated to be 0.042/1and 0.037/1,respec-tively.Moreover,these ratios between BN and the surface curing agent are optimal to mix the surface curing agent-treated BN as a filler and the silane-based epoxy as a matrix [32].As reported by Itoh et al.,the surface curing agent is poorly dispersed in the particles when too little is added and the desired effect of improved crack formation resistance in the cured resin composition cannot be achieved [33].An excess of surface curing agent in the resin composition leads to a decreased thermal conductivity.This is because the redundant coupling agent causes phonon scattering and gives rise to a decreased thermal conductivity of the composites,resulting in low thermal conductivity materials.3.2.Thermal propertiesThe thermal conductivity of the composites is controlled by the intrinsic conductivities of the filler and matrix as well asthe shape,size,and loading level of the filler.Table 1shows the variations of the thermal conductivity of the BN/ETDS composites with nano-BN ($1μm),micro-BN (8μm,12μm),and a filler content ranging from 50to 70wt%.The thermal conductivity of pristine ETDS is approximately 0.2W/mK.It can be seen that as the weight fraction of these fillers increased,the thermal conductivity also increased consider-ably.With 12μm particles at loadings of 50wt%,60wt%,and 70wt%,the thermal conductivity increased by factors of 11.1,13.35,and 14.58,respectively,compared to the pure resin ($0.2W/mK).As shown for the three types of particles,the thermal conductivity is also a function of the particle size,where the results parallel the effect of the particle type.The highest thermal conductivity values were obtained from the 12μm particle-filled composites at all filler loading levels.This result can be explained by the thermal interface resistance caused by phonon boundary scattering.In theory,the scatter-ing of phonons in composite materials is primarily due to the existence of an interfacial thermal barrier from acoustic mismatch or damage of the surface layer between the filler and the rge particles tend to form fewer thermally resistant polymer-layer junctions than small particles at the same filler rge particles are therefore used as a thermal conducting filler because of their negligible phonon scattering effect and excellent thermal conductivity [34,35].In this paper,the use of a micro-filler to improve the thermal conductivity of composites was studied.The in fluence of the BN concentration and surface treatment on the thermal conductivity of BN/ETDS composites is presented in Fig.6.It can be seen that as the weight fraction of these synthesized materials increased,the calculated thermal conductivity of all of the investigated composites increased considerably.The use of surface curing agents clearly improved the thermal con-ductivities of the composites.At 12μm BN particle loadings of 50,60,and 70wt%,the thermal conductivities of the KBM-403-and KBM-703-treated BN/ETDS composites increased by factors of 1.17,1.23,and 1.41and 1.15,1.19,and 1.33compared to the untreated BN/ETDS composite,respectively.This effect could be explained by the enhanced dispersibility of particles in the composite caused by the surface curing agent.The two surface curing agents used contain an epoxide group and chloride functional groups that interact with the active groups of the epoxy matrix.Thus,the organic active groups or long molecular chains on the surface of the modi fied BN either react or entangle with the reactive groups of the epoxy matrix.The addition of surface curing agents totheFig.5.TGA thermograms of pristine BN,BN-403and BN-703.Table 1Thermal conductivity of various particle size and filler contents (W/mK).Size of BN particlesThermal conductivity at various filler concentration [W/mK]50wt%60wt%70wt%$1m m 1.49 1.67 2.158m m 2.16 2.35 2.7712m m2.322.732.92K.Kim et al./Ceramics International 40(2014)2047–20562052epoxy matrix therefore improves the interface bonding between the BN particles and matrix,leading to an enhanced thermal conductivity.In addition,this result could beexplained by the reduction of the phonon diffuse boundary scattering that constitutes a signi ficant part of the thermal resistance accompanying an imposed temperature gradient.The phonon scattering at interfaces,both for free surfaces and those bonded to other materials,observed for most real interfaces has yet to be quantitatively explained.The boundary resistance between two carefully bonded solids appears to be satisfactorily described by the acoustic impedance mismatch between the two media.The silane coupling agents acted as phonon transfer bridges between the polymer and the ceramic filler,which reduced the phonon boundary scattering and improved the thermal conductivity at low concentrations.As demonstrated in this study,the KBM-403treatment was more effective than KBM-703in enhancing the thermal conductivity.This can be explained by the ETDS/DDM polymerization mechanism.When the composite curing was performed at high temperature,epoxide groups in the ETDS react with DDM,and the ring opening and polymerization reactions proceed continuously.Similarly,epoxide groups in KBM-403react with DDM and are polymerized with ETDS.As a result,the boron nitride filler linked with the matrix through covalent bonding.However,KBM-703has a chloride group that instead forms non-covalent bonding,a dipole-dipole interaction,with the ETDS matrix.Therefore,KBM-403-Fig.6.Effect of surface treatment of BN particles on the thermal conductivity of BN/ETDS composites at various fillerconcentration.Fig.7.SEM cross section image of (a)–(b)BN/ETDS,(c)–(d)BN-403/ETDS and (e)–(f)BN-703/ETDS composites with 50wt%filler concentration.K.Kim et al./Ceramics International 40(2014)2047–20562053treated BN has a stronger interaction with the ETDS matrix along with good dispersibility and a higher thermal conduc-tivity than the KBM-703-treated BN composite.The differences in the cross-sectional images of each composite can be correlated to the existence of a silane coupling agent.Fig.7shows FE-SEM images of the cross-sections of50wt%BN/ETDS and two kinds of surface coupling agent-treated BN/ETDS compositefilms.As observed in Fig.7(a,c and e),all of the compositefilms appear to be homogeneously distributed.However,when the BN/epoxy compositefilm is observed at higher magnification (Fig.7(b)),it can be seen that the BNfiller settled to the bottom and a non-uniform distribution can be observed in the top of thefilm.This phenomenon is due to sedimentation of thefiller,which is an endemic problem of the casting method. BNfillers were well mixed for a sufficient time with the epoxy resin,maintaining goodfluidity at the high temperature,but sedimentation of thefiller progressed in the post curing step. On the other hand,the images in Fig.7(d and e)show a uniform cross-section of the silane coupling agent-treated BN, which was dispersed more uniformly and embedded in theepoxy,creating superior interface adhesion with the BN in the epoxy matrix.Uniform distribution of BN particles develops in the conduction carrier path.Moreover,BN has an idiopathic high surface energy,indicating that the phase interaction force between the epoxy and BN particles is very weak and suggesting that a low energy is needed to pull BN particles out from the matrix[36].The images in Fig.7(d and f)show an enhanced homogeneous distribution of BN particles throughout and a decrease of cracks and voids between the BN particles.This is further evidence that the surface curing agent enhanced the BN particle affinity with the matrix. Fig.7shows that the use of surface coupling agents effectively improves the homogeneous dispersion of BN particles in the epoxy,eliminates the agglomeration offiller, and decreases the void content and defects in the composites, resulting in an increased thermal conductivity.3.3.Mechanical propertiesThe mechanical properties of the composites with enhanced thermal conductivities were also measured by dynamic mechanical analysis(DMA).This was carried out to determine the improvement of the mechanical properties after the surface modification of the boron nitride particles in the polymer matrix.Since the operation temperature of the electronic package is generally about1501C,the stability of the composites was examined up to this temperature.The storage modulus of compositefilms with afiller content of70wt%is displayed in Fig.8as a function of temperature.As expected, the slopes of the curves tended to decrease near the glass temperature(T g).It can be clearly seen that the storage modulus of the composites increased withfiller surface modification,which is due to the mechanical reinforcement resulting from the strong interactions between BN and the ETDS matrix.As mentioned above,silane coupling agents improved the adhesive property between thefiller and matrix, as the stress is not well transferred when the same force is applied to the composite.The KBM-403in the composites prevented efficient treeing of the propagation of stress and,as a result,the storage modulus could be improved where the modulus of the KBM-403treated with the BN composite was higher than that of the KBM-703-treated BN composite. The tanδpeak position,which is a measure of the glass transition temperature(T g),shifted to higher temperatures with surface modification.The peak height was reduced when compared to that of the surface-untreated BN composite because the well dispersedfiller and sufficient incorporation of epoxy restricted the mobility of the epoxy chains,resulting in the higher mechanical properties observed for the surface-treated BN composites.4.ConclusionBN/epoxy compositefilms with different BN particle sizes and contents were successfully fabricated with a surface curing agent using a solvent casting method.The thermal conductiv-ities of polymer compositesfilled with various types of particles were evaluated and the thermal interface resistance theory was applied.Various particle tofiller ratios were tested and the12μmfiller demonstrated a higher performance,in the range of136–149%,than the nano-sizefiller($1μm). Furthermore,by applying micro-sized particles,the formation of conductive networks was maximized while minimizing the thermal interface resistance along the heatflow path.This thermal interface resistance is caused by phonon scattering in the interface of materials,which is the primary cause of decreased thermalconductivity.Fig.8.Storage modulus of ETDS and ETDS composites with70wt%filler concentration.K.Kim et al./Ceramics International40(2014)2047–2056 2054。

基于动态热生理调控的奶牛标准有效温度模型构建及验证The development and validation of a comprehensive thermal comfort model based on dynamic physiological regulation in dairy cows is the focus of my research. This model aims to establish effective temperature standards for optimizing the well-being and productivity of dairy cows.我研究的重点是基于动态生理调节的综合热舒适模型在奶牛中的构建和验证。

该模型旨在建立有效的温度标准，以优化奶牛的福祉和生产力。

To begin with, it is essential to understand the importance of thermal comfort for dairy cows. Heat stress has adverse effects on their health, reproduction, and milk production. Therefore, establishing accurate temperature thresholdsthat consider the physiological responses of dairy cows is crucial.了解热舒适对于奶牛的重要性是必不可少的。

高温应激对奶牛的健康、生殖和乳制品产量都有不良影响。

因此，建立准确考虑奶牛生理反应因素的温度阈值至关重要。

The construction of the thermal comfort model involves collecting data on various parameters such as ambient temperature, relative humidity, wind speed, solar radiation, and cow-specific variables like body weight, coat thickness, and metabolic rate. These factors play a significant rolein assessing heat balance and determining the thermal adaptation capacity of dairy cows.热舒适模型的构建涉及收集各种参数数据，例如环境温度、相对湿度、风速、太阳辐射以及与奶牛有关的变量，如体重、毛皮厚度和代谢率。

ISO/IEC JTC 1Information technology1 ISO/IEC JPC 2Joint Project Committee - Energy efficiency and renewable energy sources - Common terminology2 ISO/TC 1Screw threads3 ISO/TC 2Fasteners4 ISO/TC 4Rolling bearings5 ISO/TC 5Ferrous metal pipes and metallic fittings6 ISO/TC 6Paper, board and pulps7 ISO/TC 8Ships and marine technology8 ISO/TC 10Technical product documentation9 ISO/TC 11Boilers and pressure vessels10 ISO/TC 12Quantities and units11 ISO/TC 14Shafts for machinery and accessories12 ISO/TC 17Steel13 ISO/TC 18Zinc and zinc alloys - STANDBY14 ISO/TC 19Preferred numbers - STANDBY15 ISO/TC 20Aircraft and space vehicles16 ISO/TC 21Equipment for fire protection and fire fighting17 ISO/TC 22Road vehicles18 ISO/TC 23Tractors and machinery for agriculture andforestry19 ISO/TC 24Particle characterization including sieving20 ISO/TC 25Cast irons and pig irons21 ISO/TC 26Copper and copper alloys22 ISO/TC 27Solid mineral fuels23 ISO/TC 28Petroleum products and related products of synthetic or biological origin24 ISO/TC 29Small tools25 ISO/TC 30Measurement of fluid flow in closed conduits26 ISO/TC 31Tyres, rims and valves27 ISO/TC 33Refractories28 ISO/TC 34Food products29 ISO/TC 35Paints and varnishes30 ISO/TC 36Cinematography31 ISO/TC 37Terminology and other language and content resources32 ISO/TC 38Textiles33 ISO/TC 39Machine tools34 ISO/TC 41Pulleys and belts (including veebelts)35 ISO/TC 42Photography36 ISO/TC 43Acoustics37 ISO/TC 44Welding and allied processes38 ISO/TC 45Rubber and rubber products39 ISO/TC 46Information and documentation40 ISO/TC 47Chemistry 41 ISO/TC 48Laboratory equipment 42 ISO/TC 51Pallets for unit load method of materials handling 43 ISO/TC 52Light gauge metal containers 44 ISO/TC 54Essential oils 45 ISO/TC 58Gas cylinders 46 ISO/TC 59Buildings and civil engineering works 47 ISO/TC 60Gears 48 ISO/TC 61Plastics 49 ISO/TC 63Glass containers 50 ISO/TC 67Materials, equipment and offshore structures for petroleum, petrochemical and natural gas industries 51 ISO/TC 68Financial services 52 ISO/TC 69Applications of statistical methods 53 ISO/TC 70Internal combustion engines 54 ISO/TC 71Concrete, reinforced concrete and pre-stressed concrete 55 ISO/TC 72Textile machinery and accessories 56 ISO/TC 74Cement and lime 57 ISO/TC 76Transfusion, infusion and injection, and blood processing equipment for medical and pharmaceutical use 58 ISO/TC 77Products in fibre reinforced cement 59 ISO/TC 79Light metals and their alloys 60 ISO/TC 81Common names for pesticides and other agrochemicals 61 ISO/TC 82Mining 62 ISO/TC 83Sports and other recreational facilities and equipment 63 ISO/TC 84Devices for administration of medicinal products and catheters 64 ISO/TC 85Nuclear energy, nuclear technologies, and radiological protection 65 ISO/TC 86Refrigeration and air-conditioning 66 ISO/TC 87Cork 67 ISO/TC 89Wood-based panels 68 ISO/TC 91Surface active agents 69 ISO/TC 92Fire safety 70 ISO/TC 93Starch (including derivatives and by-products)71 ISO/TC 94Personal safety -- Protective clothing and equipment 72 ISO/TC 96Cranes 73 ISO/TC 98Bases for design of structures 74 ISO/TC 100Chains and chain sprockets for power transmission and conveyors 75 ISO/TC 101Continuous mechanical handling equipment -STANDBY 76 ISO/TC 102Iron ore and direct reduced iron 77 ISO/TC 104Freight containers78 ISO/TC 105Steel wire ropes 79 ISO/TC 106Dentistry 80 ISO/TC 107Metallic and other inorganic coatings 81 ISO/TC 108Mechanical vibration, shock and condition monitoring 82 ISO/TC 109Oil and gas burners 83 ISO/TC 110Industrial trucks 84 ISO/TC 111Round steel link chains, chain slings,components and accessories 85 ISO/TC 112Vacuum technology 86 ISO/TC 113Hydrometry 87 ISO/TC 114Horology 88 ISO/TC 115Pumps 89 ISO/TC 117Fans 90 ISO/TC 118Compressors and pneumatic tools, machines and equipment 91 ISO/TC 119Powder metallurgy 92 ISO/TC 120Leather 93 ISO/TC 121Anaesthetic and respiratory equipment 94 ISO/TC 122Packaging 95 ISO/TC 123Plain bearings 96 ISO/TC 126Tobacco and tobacco products 97 ISO/TC 127Earth-moving machinery 98 ISO/TC 130Graphic technology 99 ISO/TC 131Fluid power systems 100 ISO/TC 132Ferroalloys 101 ISO/TC 133Clothing sizing systems - size designation, size measurement methods and digital fittings 102 ISO/TC 134Fertilizers and soil conditioners 103 ISO/TC 135Non-destructive testing 104 ISO/TC 136Furniture 105 ISO/TC 137Footwear sizing designations and marking systems 106 ISO/TC 138Plastics pipes, fittings and valves for the transport of fluids 107 ISO/TC 142Cleaning equipment for air and other gases 108 ISO/TC 145Graphical symbols 109 ISO/TC 146Air quality 110 ISO/TC 147Water quality 111 ISO/TC 148Sewing machines 112 ISO/TC 149Cycles 113 ISO/TC 150Implants for surgery 114 ISO/TC 153Valves 115 ISO/TC 154Processes, data elements and documents in commerce, industry and administration 116 ISO/TC 155Nickel and nickel alloys 117 ISO/TC 156Corrosion of metals and alloys118 ISO/TC 157Non-systemic contraceptives and STI barrier prophylactics119 ISO/TC 158Analysis of gases 120 ISO/TC 159Ergonomics121 ISO/TC 160Glass in building122 ISO/TC 161Control and protective devices for gas and/or oil burners and appliances123 ISO/TC 162Doors and windows124 ISO/TC 163Thermal performance and energy use in the built environment125 ISO/TC 164Mechanical testing of metals 126 ISO/TC 165Timber structures127 ISO/TC 166Ceramic ware, glassware and glass ceramic ware in contact with food128 ISO/TC 167Steel and aluminium structures129 ISO/TC 168Prosthetics and orthotics130 ISO/TC 170Surgical instruments131 ISO/TC 171Document management applications132 ISO/TC 172Optics and photonics133 ISO/TC 173Assistive products for persons with disability 134 ISO/TC 174Jewellery135 ISO/TC 176Quality management and quality assurance 136 ISO/TC 178Lifts, escalators and moving walks137 ISO/TC 179Masonry - STANDBY138 ISO/TC 180Solar energy139 ISO/TC 181Safety of toys140 ISO/TC 182Geotechnics141 ISO/TC 183Copper, lead, zinc and nickel ores andconcentrates142 ISO/TC 184Automation systems and integration143 ISO/TC 185Safety devices for protection against excessive pressure144 ISO/TC 186Cutlery and table and decorative metal hollow-ware145 ISO/TC 188Small craft146 ISO/TC 189Ceramic tile147 ISO/TC 190Soil quality148 ISO/TC 191Animal (mammal) traps - STANDBY149 ISO/TC 192Gas turbines150 ISO/TC 193Natural gas151 ISO/TC 194Biological and clinical evaluation of medicaldevices152 ISO/TC 195Building construction machinery and equipment 153 ISO/TC 197Hydrogen technologies154 ISO/TC 198Sterilization of health care products155 ISO/TC 199Safety of machinery156 ISO/TC 201Surface chemical analysis157 ISO/TC 202Microbeam analysis158 ISO/TC 203Technical energy systems159 ISO/TC 204Intelligent transport systems 160 ISO/TC 205Building environment design 161 ISO/TC 206Fine ceramics 162 ISO/TC 207Environmental management 163 ISO/TC 208Thermal turbines for industrial application (steam turbines, gas expansion turbines) - STANDBY 164 ISO/TC 209Cleanrooms and associated controlled environments 165 ISO/TC 210Quality management and corresponding general aspects for medical devices 166 ISO/TC 211Geographic information/Geomatics 167 ISO/TC 212Clinical laboratory testing and in vitro diagnostic test systems 168 ISO/TC 213Dimensional and geometrical product specifications and verification 169 ISO/TC 214Elevating work platforms 170 ISO/TC 215Health informatics 171 ISO/TC 216Footwear 172 ISO/TC 217Cosmetics 173 ISO/TC 218Timber 174 ISO/TC 219Floor coverings 175 ISO/TC 220Cryogenic vessels 176 ISO/TC 221Geosynthetics 177 ISO/TC 222Personal financial planning - STANDBY 178 ISO/TC 224Service activities relating to drinking water supply systems and wastewater systems - Quality criteria of the service and performance indicators 179 ISO/TC 225Market, opinion and social research 180 ISO/TC 226Materials for the production of primary aluminium 181 ISO/TC 227Springs 182 ISO/TC 228Tourism and related services 183 ISO/TC 229Nanotechnologies 184 ISO/TC 232Learning services outside formal education 185 ISO/TC 234Fisheries and aquaculture 186 ISO/TC 238Solid biofuels 187 ISO/TC 241Road traffic safety management systems 188 ISO/TC 242Energy Management 189 ISO/TC 244Industrial furnaces and associated processing equipment 190 ISO/PC 245Cross-border trade of second-hand goods 191 ISO/PC 248Sustainability criteria for bioenergy 192 ISO/TC 249Traditional chinese medicine 193 ISO/TC 251Asset management 194 ISO/PC 252Natural gas fuelling stations for vehicles 195 ISO/TC 254Safety of amusement rides and amusement devices 196 ISO/TC 255Biogas 197 ISO/TC 256Pigments, dyestuffs and extenders198 ISO/TC 257Evaluation of energy savings199 ISO/TC 258Project, programme and portfolio management 200 ISO/TC 260Human resource management201 ISO/TC 261Additive manufacturing202 ISO/TC 262Risk management203 ISO/TC 263Coalbed methane (CBM)204 ISO/TC 264Fireworks205 ISO/TC 265Carbon dioxide capture, transportation, andgeological storage206 ISO/TC 266Biomimetics 207 ISO/TC 267Facilities management 208 ISO/TC 268Sustainable development in communities 209 ISO/TC 269Railway applications 210 ISO/TC 270Plastics and rubber machines 211 ISO/TC 272Forensic sciences 212 ISO/PC 273Customer contact centres 213 ISO/TC 274Light and lighting 214 ISO/TC 275Sludge recovery, recycling, treatment and disposal 215 ISO/TC 276Biotechnology 216 ISO/PC 277Sustainable procurement 217 ISO/PC 278Anti-bribery management systems 218 ISO/TC 279Innovation management 219 ISO/PC 280Management Consultancy 220 ISO/TC 281Fine Bubble Technology 221 ISO/TC 282Water re-use 222 ISO/PC 283Occupational health and safety management systems 223 ISO/TC 285Clean cookstoves and clean cooking solutions 224 ISO/PC 286Collaborative business relationship management-- Framework225 ISO/PC 287Chain of custody of wood and wood-based products 226 ISO/PC 288Educational organizations management systems- Requirements with guidance for use227 ISO/TC 289Brand evaluation 228 ISO/TC 290Online reputation 229 ISO/TC 291Domestic gas cooking appliances 230 ISO/TC 292Security and resilience 231 ISO/TC 293Feed machinery 232 ISO/PC 294Guidance on unit pricing 233 ISO/PC 295Audit data collection 234 ISO/TC 296Bamboo and rattan 235 CIEInternational Commission on Illumination 236 IIWInternational Institute of Welding 237 ISO/CASCOCommittee on conformity assessment 238 ISO/COPOLCO Committee on consumer policy 239 ISO/REMCO Committee on reference materials240 ISO/TMB Technical Management Board241 ISO/TMBG Technical Management Board - groups242 IULTCS International Union of Leather Technologists and Chemists Societies243 VAMAS Versailles Project on Advanced Materials and Standards244 WMO World Meteorogical Organization。

城市生活废弃物焚烧发电行业专业英语强化大纲（第一版）广州广日集团有限公司环境产业事业部2007年10月30日目录一、城市生活废弃物行业设备专用词汇/组二、城市生活废弃物行业相关词汇/组三、城市生活废弃物行业相关文章四、城市生活废弃物行业相关图片一、城市生活废弃物行业设备专用词汇/组The VølundSystems™ Waste Fired Power Plant System consists ofVølundSystems™ boiler & combustion technology for various Waste fuels: - VølundSystems™ boiler technology- VølundSystems™ waste combustion grate technology- VølundSystems™ pusher feeding technology- VølundSystems™ ash pusher technologyBoilerWater tube boiler incl. boiler drumSuperheatersEconomizersBoiler internal pipingWater injection valves and de-superheaterWaste charging stationWaste charging hopperWaste charging chuteCooling system for chuteWaste feeding damperFeeding pusherHydraulic cylinders for damper and feeding pusherWaste level detecting unit for chuteGrate combustion systemAir cooled combustion gratesHydraulic cylindersSNCR reagent InjectionSNCR reagent injection systemSteel construction. IncineratorSteel cassing, furnaceFrame for furnaceHoppers below grates and pusher Clinker chuteInspection doors in furnace Sealing between boiler and furnace Slag and sifting systemSlag pusherSifting wet conveyorsSlag vibration conveyorSlag distributorSealing plate for slag distributor Slag and metal chuteSlag pit screenMagnet separatorMetalic conveyorFansPrimary Air FanSecondary Air FanCooling Air Fan for pusher SilencersAirpreheater (combustion air) Airpreheater - air / sat water Arprejeater - air / steamAuxiliary Burner SystemOil burnerIgnition burnerOil pipesPumps and valvesTankDucts SystemPrimary air ductSecondary air ductCooling air ductDampersCompensatorsVenturiesFlue Gas DuctsDuct: Boiler - Precipitator -FGCDuct: FGC- ID fanDuct: ID fan - chimneyGalleries / StairsGalleries for boiler and incineratorSupportsBoiler structur and support (incl Eco-tower)Make up water systemMake up water pumpDearatorFeed water pumps.Pipe systemThe overall water/steam circuitHP steam pipes from boiler outlet to consumer (turbine, exchanger, ect….) Steam pipes for sootblowersCondensate pipes from turbine system to feed water tankFrom outlet feed water tank to boiler inlet box.Water injection pipesDrain and vent for the water/steam circuitDrain and vent for the boilerOther drain and vent pipesBlow down system and tankPipes for upstarts valves and safty valvesOil pipes and oil tanksCooling water systemPipework hangers and supportsValves etcAll valves for the water/steam circuitAll valves for the boiler systemAll valves for the oil systemAll valves for the cooling systemAll valves for the soot blowers systemSafty valves and silincers for boilerStart-up valves and silincers for boilerWater injection valves for boilerBleed test cooler and sampling system after FW-tank Bleed test cooler and sampling system after FW-pumps Bleed test cooler and sampling system after super heater Bleed test cooler and sampling system in boiler drum Boiler Cleaning SystemSoot blowers for eco partSoot blowers for boilerSoot blowers for super heatersRapping deviceFly Ash SystemWater cooled conveyor under 2 .passRotary sluice under 2. passRotary sluice under eco. passFly ash system from boilerFly ash transport system to ash siloHydraulicHydraulic systemCylinders at grates, waste feeding pusher and feeding damper Pipes incl. hosesRefractoryBoiler refarctoryFurnace refractoryInconelThermal insulation /claddingBoilerFlue gas ductsCombustion air ductsPipe line systemFinish PaintingPainting - completeFuel Handling System / CranesRefuse cranCrane chair etcPolygrabSkyclamber (for boiler inspection)Service cranesWater Treatment SystemWater Treatment System - completePneumatic SystemPneumatik System - completeChemical Dosing SystemChemical Dosing System - completeElectrical equipmentMotorsFrequency convertersMotor control center (MCC)Emergency diesel and UPSElectrical cablingGrounding and earthling protectionControl & InstrumentationDCS systemSafety systemCCTVField instrumentation for BWV scopeElectrical actuators for BWV scopePneumatic actuators for BWV scopeI/O list for feeding equipment, grate and slag pusher Control philosophy for automatic combustion control system PLC for boiler and grateSpare parts and toolsStrategic spare partsWear partsSpecial toolsSpare parts for BWV equipmentPID diagrams for the following systemsMass and heat balance for boiler systemDraf layout drawingOperation & maintenance manual for boiler and grate Documentation for boiler and grate control philosophy Training document for boiler and grateBasic drawings in 2D includering:Arrangement of boiler and economiserArrangement of boiler drumArrangement of backstaysStress calculation according to EN 12952 Specification of material according to EN 12952 Material list and weight listBoiler Pipe list.Boiler LoadsManufacturing drawingsTypical PID diagram/Basic designBasic designConceptual design dataBasic drawingsTypical PID Diagram/Conceptual designBasic drawingsConceptual design dataTypical PID diagramConceptual design dataTechnical guidelinesTypical PID diagramConceptual design dataOverall layout drawingBrief description of gallery placementSteel structure, basic drawingEquipment loadsPriliminar load planTypical PID diagram, SpecificationTypical PID diagram/Conceptual design data SpecificationsConceptual design data for grab capacity. Conceptual design and data for water qualityBasic requirementsStated at the PID diagram, SpecificationInstrumentation list.Stated at the PID diagram, SpecificationLogic diagramsPID diagramsSystem description1. Calculating instruction1.1. Thermal calculating instruction (every section of boiler, e.g. superheater, Economizer, airpreheater,evoporator,water-cooled wall)1.2. Resistance and pressure calculating instruction for fans (primary and secondary fan) and flue gas (from combustion room to eco.)1.3. Boiler erection instruction1.4. Boiler operation instruction1.5. Surface Temperature of Superheater calculating instruction1.6. De-superheater diathermancy (thermal or heat transfering) calculating instruction1.7. Capacity calculating of releasing steam of Safety valve1.8. Boiler water steam circuit and resistance calculating instruction1.9. Intensity(load limitation) of pressed parts and apparatus calculating instruction 1.10. Intensity(load limitation) of boiler steel structure calculating instruction1.11. Intensity(load limitation) of boiler drum support and suspend calculating instruction2. OVERALL drawings2.1 OVERALL boiler drawings2.2 OVERALL parts of superheater2.3 OVERALL parts of Eco. Drawings2.4 OVERALL parts of air preheater2.5 OVERALL parts of Boiler steel structure2.6 Load and burden of groundwork or foundation二、城市生活废弃物行业相关词汇/组Environmental impact analysisCivil buildingTendering/ biddingConstruction/ ErectionCommissionGenerationTurbinePower stationTrail runCommercial runMunicipal wasteBiomass/straw/wood chipsSludgeLandfillCompost/dunghillThe waste hierarchyDioxin reductionWaste reductionCo-generation from wasteWaste Fired Power Plant technologysolution for China’s mounting problems with waste Value concept tailored for low heating value waste fuel Minimum LHVDesign ValueMCR PointMaximum ValueNominal capacitySteam dataSteam generationFeed water temperatureElectricity outputTurbine GeneratorSymbolsAcronymsAbbreviationRelated Terms & GlossaryACC - Automatic Combustion Control system, a system that optimizes the combustion process.Acceleration - A vector quantity that specifies rate of change of velocity.APC - Air Pollution Control system. A system that reduces emissions =FGCBOO- Build Own OperateBOOT – Build Own Operate TransferCFD – Computational Fluid Dynamic is a numerical tool for calculating flow patterns, combustion, particle transport, thermal loads etc. inside a furnace and boiler.CHP – Combined Heat and Power a method of increasing overall efficiency of a WFPP by generating heat as well as power at the same time from the fuel.CMS – Control and Monitoring System.CO – Carbon monoxide.CO2- Carbon dioxide.Co-generation – see CHPCombustible waste- Waste which can be combusted.Combustion – the process of burning.Compost / composting – is a common name for humus, which is the result of thedecomposition of organic matter, Composting occurs naturally in most environments, such as in landfills.deNOX – NO x reductionDioxin – umbrella term for more than 200 organic compounds, 17 of which are highly toxic and are enriched in fatty tissueEPC – Engineer, Procure, Construct.ETS – Emissions Trading SystemEU – European UnionFGC – see Flue Gas CleaningFlue Gas – mixture of gases from combustion i.e. from the outlet of a boiler.Flue Gas Cleaning – a system of devices that removes substances like NO x, SO X and dioxins from a flue gas.Flue Gas Recirculation- method of decreasing the amount flue gas.Fly ash- Combustion residues which is transported with flue gases out of the boiler. GDP- Gross Domestic ProductGHG- Green House GasH2- HydrogenH2O- WaterHa- hectare(104 square meters)(unit)Hazardous waste- Waste that is toxic, carcinogenic, explosive of inflammableHCL- Hydrogen ChlorideHousehold waste- Waste coming from householdsIncineration- see WTEIndustrial waste- Waste arising through an industrial processIPP- Independent Power ProducerIPPC- Integrated Pollution Prevention and ControlIPPC- Integrated Pollution Prevention and Control, and EU directiveISWA- International Solid Waste OrganizationkWh- kilowatt-hourLandfill- A controlled site for depositing wasteLCV- Lower Calorific ValueLeaching- a process were soluble materials in a substance, such as minerals, chemicals, metals or salts are dissolved in soil or by watermg – milligramMJ- Megajoules (106 joules)MJ/Nm3- Megajoule per normal cubic meterMSW- Municipal; Solid Waste, see Household wasteMW- megawatt(106 Watt)(unit)MWe- megawatt electrical (106 Watt electrical)(unit)MWh- megawatt-hour(106 Watt-hour)(unit)MWth- megawatt thermal(106 Watt thermal)(unit)N2- NitrogenNGO S- Non-Governmental OrganizationsNH3- AmmoniaNi- NickelNIMBY- Not in My Back Yard, referred to as the syndrome that everybody can see the benefit of I,e. a sewage water cleaning facility, but few people want it placed near their home even though it is not a nuisance.NO X- nitrogen oxides are GHG and contribute to acid rain and reacts to form ground level ozone and smog. NO X are removed with SNCR and SCR.O2- OxygenPb- leadPCC- post combustion chamber.PDMS- Plant Design Management SystemPFI- Private Finance InitiativesPJ- petajoule(1015Joule)(unit)RDF- Refused Derived FuelRE- Renewable energyRefuse- another term for WasteRES- Renewable Energy SourcesSCR- Selective Catalytic Reduction, method for reduction and removal of NO X Sintering- the process where powder and small particles of metals and ceramics melts and solidify when heat is applied. Sintering is used to achieve a high density and low porosity material.Slag, bottom ash- material which is not combustible, for example, glass, scrap iron, and stone-like material. After separation of metals etc. and sieving the result is a product that can be reused as construction material.SNCR- Selective Non- catalytic Reduction, method for reduction and removal of NO X SO X- Sulphur oxides contribute to acid rain. Sox is removed with APC system. Staged Combustion- method of controlling combustion by design of furnace temperature, flow, velocity and the mixture of flue gasses, air and oxygen.Steam parameter- typically refers to the temperature and pressure of the steam generated in a boiler.Stoichiometric- a stoichiometric reaction is defined as a unique reaction in which all the reactants are consumed.SRF- Solid Recovered Fuel.t/d- tonnes per dayt/h- tonnes per hourTJ- terajoule(1012 Joule)(unit)TOC- Total organic carbon contentTWh- terawatt-hour(1012 Watt-hour)(unit)VoluMix TM- method of mixing flue gases by air injection in the combustion chamber for optimized gas blendingWaste- general term for normal waste. See also MSW.Waste- management- Methods and processes involving the collection, transport, recovery, and disposal of waste.WasteBoost TM- method of increasing the electrical efficiency on WFPP by increasing the steam parameters to the turbine.Waste-to-Energy- is a method of extraction of energy from waste, and defined as a combustion process in which the organic fraction of solid waste is combusted and thereleased heat is utilized to generate hot water, steam, and electric power, leaving the inorganic fraction (ash) as a residue.Water Injection- method of controlling the temperature in a furnace and boiler. WFPP- Waste Fired Power Plant.WTE- see Waste-to-EnergyZn- Zinc最基础、实用的专业词汇/组大纲 内部资料（保密）Edited by FGWaste Composition(%)MIXTUREORGANIC SUBSTANCERECYCLE OBJECTSINORGANICPOISO NItemDIAMETER ＜ less than 10mm DIAMETER ＞ more than10mmLeaf and Branch Wood and Bamboo Paper TextilePlastic Rubb er Met al Glas sBrick CellParamet er 6.39 37.6 14.82 1.98 8.95 8.43 15.14 1.63 0.23 1.33 3.43 0.07Summati on6.39 52.4234.69 3.43 0.07Ash and combustible Calorific value(kj/kg)Ultimate analysis of combustible(dry weight %)ItemDensity(kg/m3)H2O(%)ASH(DRY WEIGHT) COMBUSTIBLE(DRY WEIGHT)GROSS CALORIFIC VALUE(D RY WEIGHT)NET CALORIFIC VALUE(WET WEIGHT)C H N CLParameter 322.7 48.76 37.97 62.03 12674 4645 29.96 3.6290.860.63三、城市生活废弃物行业相关文章How does the Vølund air-cooled grate work?The grates is a modular design consisting of fixed and movable grate girders which, in a longitudinal and lifting movement, simultaneously transport the waste forward and level and rearrange it so that combustion and burn-out of all waste components is carried out with the correct injection of combustion air. Any holes which arise in the waste layer, where burn-out is faster, are filled again through the levelling movement.Low pressure loss and a consistent distribution of combustion airThe even distribution of the layer of waste makes it possible for the Vølundair-cooled step grate to operate with a relatively low pressure loss when combustion air flows through the grate, while still obtaining an even, sufficient and constant distribution of combustion air over the zones of the grate surface. The longitudinal and lifting movements agitate the waste and ensure that fresh and unburnt materials are continuously exposed to combustion air and heat. The low pressure drop results in less energy consumption for the primary air fan. Moreover low pressure drop results in fewer particles leaving the burning fuel bed cold and thereby minimizing the dioxin emission from the boiler.China’s financial development, has been 10% p.a., and has resulted in an 80 % increase in waste generation over the last 15 years. The poor waste handling threatens health and environment, concludes an OECD report. The report estimates the last 15 years development within a specific areas including: waste, water, and natural protection and posts 51 important recommendations on how China can improve the environment and secure a sustainable development.The report recognizes that China has tried to improve the environmental conditions, but states that the efforts have not been able to follow the financial development. The amounts of waste from private and the industry as well as hazardous waste far exceed the capacity for safe treatment. Thus large amounts of waste is stored at uncontrolled unsafe depots. The target of increasing the daily capacity to 150.000 ton/day has not been met and at the same time the volume is increased by 80 %.In China approximately 3 % of daily MSW is treated thermally and 5 % composted. OECD concludes, that the responsibility for safe waste handling is divided between to may administrative units, and that control and enforcement is inadequate.OECD concludes that economic development has priority over environmental problems. Thus more surveillance, inspection and control is needed as well as the principle of “the polluters shall pay”. China shall import the best available technologies from abroad to help solving these problems.Computational Fluid Dynamics, CFDDuring the past 20 years the numerical simulation of heat transfer and turbulent flow phenomena in combustion systems has developed rapidly concurrently with the development of new and more powerful computers.These mathematical models were originally used only within professional R & D environments such as universities. Among experts these programs are designated CFD codes/programs.Following this development, commercial CFD programs have been developed for use in project planning, optimizing and diagnostic tests of plants. The CFD programs are advanced calculation tools for computations of 3-dimensional turbulent flow with heat and mass transfer.•Temperature distribution•Heat transfer - radiation, convection and conduction•Gas velocity, flow distribution (velocity vector components)•Pressure distribution and turbulence•Combustion, concentrations•Particle trajectoriesWe use the CFD programs for a series of combustion processes:•Calculation of wall temperature and load in furnace and boiler room: shows the effect of water-cooled / refractory lined surfaces in thefurnace and which parts are under the greatest stress. Study of theimpact of comprehensive construction changes and the thermalconditions at the plant will be possible.•Design and optimization of flue gas recycling (FGR), which at the same time makes it possible to reduce excess air and control flue gastemperature in the furnace. This will result in a lower flue gas loss andconsequently higher total efficiency and lower NOx emissions.•Evaluate placement, number and design of nozzles for introduction of secondary combustion air and recycled flue gas for control of thefurnace temperature.•Design of post combustion chamber, e.g. for grates withunder-stoichiometric combustion or chemical incineration plants.•Analysis and documentation of dioxin requirements. Exactdetermination of residence times in limited temperature zones.•Design of nozzles for injection of ammonia/urea and additives into the DeNOx system.•Calculation of temperature and pressure loss in flue gas and air duct. •Diagnostic tests of plants with process and combustion technical problems, e.g. plants with inadequate flow conditions, poor mixing,insufficient combustion - carbon monoxide problems, thermally strained surfaces and corrosion problems.•The EU emission requirement calls for very low emissions of CO and TOC. To obtain this correct design of furnace and air injection is vital.Environment - thermal waste treatment and the environmentThe growing waste problemThe world’s population produces more than 1 billion tonnes of waste per year. The growing population and increasing consumption rates due to the increased standard of living mean that the world is facing a serious challenge.People everywhere must realise that less waste must be produced, and that what is produced must be treated in an environmentally safe manner.No easy solutionsThere is no easy or single solution for solving the world’s waste problems, but there are three major targets to aim for:•Limiting the amount of waste generated•Increasing reuse and recycling – separation and collection systems•Limiting the content of hazardous substances and emissions from waste treatment by means other than recycling, such as thermal andother treatments.Waste managementAfter collecting, recycling and reusing the various elements in collected waste, Babcock & Wilcox Vølund can provide thermal treatment as one of the ways of treating the remaining waste in an environmentally friendly way.Babcock & Wilcox Vølund is playing an active part in the development of waste-to-energy technologies and the construction of waste treatment plants. The technologies provided by Babcock & Wilcox Vølund comprise furnace and boiler plants for waste-to-energy. We constantly strive for the least possible environmental impact.Our technologies are based on research and development in thermal waste treatment over a period of more than 70 years. Our technologies are renowned for environmental safe operation with low emissions, high energy efficiency, and extremely safe and reliable plant operation.What are the benefits of thermal waste treatment?Compared to other methods of treating waste which cannot be reused or safely treated by other means, thermal treatment provides a safe and optimal way of extracting the energy and eliminating harmful substances. Thermal treatmentof waste can generate electricity and thermal energy which can be substituted for other scarce fossil energy resources.Environmental protection and emission reductionOur plants are known for their low emissionsWith increasing demands on environmental protection, emission reduction has become a crucial issue.The Babcock & Wilcox Vølund furnace designs offer you very low emissions. For example, NOx and CO emissions from our plants are exceptionally low. Emission reductionEmission from waste incineration plants is subject to government control. The EU and other authorities around the world have imposed a number of statutory requirements on the burners installed. These requirements partially ensure minimal residence time at high temperature in order to destroy dioxins in the flue gas.The flue gas is always cleaned by complex filters before being emitted to the atmosphere.The typical emissions standards for a waste-fired power plant in EU are much lower than for fossil-fired power plants.Types of emissionThree substances which will not be affected by flue gas cleaning are produced during combustion.CO: The level of carbon monoxide indicates the quality of combustion. If the gas phase combustion is complete, there will be no CO. The EU and other authorities have laid down regulations on periodic average values. The emission levels from our plants are typically 5-10 times below the limit values.CO2 + H20 : Carbon dioxide (weak greenhouse gas) and H20 (water) are the end products of the combustion process.The total amount of greenhouse gas (in CO2 equivalents) generated by combustion is less than 10% of the amount released by dumping the same quantity of waste in landfills.NO and NO2, (NOx) : Nitrogen oxide which will oxidise to form the strong greenhouse gas NO2. A BWV plant emits less NOx than typical w-t-e plants because of the furnace design and by controlling the elements in the combustion process (pyrolisis, gasification and combustion).Emission of nitrogen oxide can be further reduced by means of: •The SNCR-process: injection of NH3 or urea into the flue gas, or•The SCR-process: injection of NH3 and use of a catalyst.Any other substances are retained through the flue gas cleaning.The number of different substances depends on the composition of the waste.HCl and SO2 develop when the waste contains sulphur and chloride. When the flue gas comes into contact with strong bases in wet or dry form, solid compounds are formed which can be removed by means of flue gas cleaning. Dioxin and furan are extremely toxic and hard degradable substances which are not accepted in nature.Active carbon completely absorbs dioxin and furan, which can subsequently be burned or placed in a special dump. The catalyst in an SCR DeNOx process will destroy the dioxins and the furans.PAH (poly-aromatic hydrogens) are toxic gases which do not decompose with poor combustion. Like CO, the amount of PAH reflects the quality of combustion. It is thus subject to limitation in the form of:TOC (total organic carbon), which is the sum of combustible organic compounds. The figure is normally a weak echo of the CO value. Active carbon used for removal of dioxin and furan has a very high capacity ofabsorbing other substances such as PAH, CFC and gaseous metal compounds, e.g. mercury.Particle and metal emissionDuring cooling down of the flue gas, gaseous metal compounds are condensed on the fly ash particles. Comparable types of waste will thus normally show a relatively stable relationship between the quantity of particles and the quantity of metal.Particle filters in the flue gas purification system maintain the level of particle emission at the level required by current legislation.The level of particle emissions permitted by law is so low that the level applying to metal emissions is automatically observed as well.Engineering GroupA leading international technology positionThe main strategic aim of our Engineering Group at Babcock & Wilcox Vølund is to develop a leading international technology position for our main products: •Municipal Solid Waste (MSW) waste-to-energy systems•Biomass energy systems•Service & maintenance and refurbishment projectsWe operate in an extremely competitive market where the key parameters are price and technology. Our goal is to supply a modern, reliable technology which fulfills the requirements and minimises risks for investors, developers, and operators.Training, developing and maintaining competent technical staffWe are proud of our staff. To ensure a dynamic engineering team, we are focusing on maintaining and attracting highly qualified technical staff who can master advanced engineering tools.Our objective is to reflect and support this strategy. Our Engineering Group is divided into four departments - there are approximately 80 members in the group. Our more than 70 years of accumulated know-how and the many different work areas make Babcock & Wilcox Vølund a challenging and interesting workplace.Maintaining our leading positionOur strategy is the continual development of our key technologies in order to be among the technology leaders in the market.Combustion grate, furnace and boiler systems cover a substantial part of our product range. The Engineering Group is constantly working with product development projects in order to improve our present technology and maintain our leading position in waste-to-energy and biomass systems.Our research and development is concentrated in the following areas:•Advanced computer modeling of combustion systems and boilers - Computational Fluid Dynamics - CFD tools applied to waste incineration processes and biomass systems•Improvement of the water-cooled combustion grate for waste incineration•Improvement of the water-cooled vibration combustion grate for biomass•Water-cooled wear zone for waste furnaces•Advanced Combustion Control system (ACC systems)•Use of Plant Design Managers (PDMS)•Partner in a long-term basic research programme with the CHEC group at the Danish Technical University, DTU。

耐极端环境碳基复合材料主动热疏导设计与长寿命防护机理The design of actively thermally conductive carbon-based composites for extreme environments and their mechanismsfor long-term protection.Carbon-based composites have received significant attention due to their unique properties, such as high thermal conductivity, lightweight nature, and excellent mechanical strength. These materials are particularly suitable for applications in extreme environments where conventional materials may not suffice. The design of carbon-based composites with active thermal conductivity is crucial for dissipating heat efficiently and ensuring the long-term durability of these materials.One approach to achieving active thermal conductivity in carbon-based composites is through the incorporation of highly thermally conductive fillers, such as graphene or carbon nanotubes. These fillers can form efficient heat transfer pathways within the composite structure, enhancingthe overall thermal conductivity. Additionally, the alignment of these fillers along preferred directions can further enhance thermal transport properties.To ensure the long-term protection and durability of carbon-based composites in extreme environments, various mechanisms need to be considered. One crucial mechanism is the prevention of oxidation or degradation of carbonaceous materials at elevated temperatures. This can be achieved through the application of protective coatings that act as barriers against oxygen diffusion. Furthermore, the addition of antioxidants or sacrificial layers can provide additional protection against oxidative degradation.Another important factor to consider is resistance against mechanical loading and impact in extreme environments. Carbon-based composites often possess exceptional mechanical properties; however, they may still experience damage from heavy loads, intense vibrations, or harsh impacts. To mitigate this issue, reinforcement strategies such as fiber weaving or intercalation can be employed to enhance mechanical strength and toughness.In addition to protecting against oxidative degradation and mechanical damage, it is essential to address challenges related to thermal expansion mismatch between different components within a composite structure. Extreme temperature variations can induce significant stress on the material interfaces leading to delamination or cracking. To overcome this challenge, designing composite architectures with tailored interfacial properties or introducing compliant interlayers can effectively mitigate thermal expansion mismatch.In conclusion, the design of actively thermally conductive carbon-based composites for extreme environments requires considerations of multiple factors. These include incorporating highly thermally conductive fillers, preventing oxidation and degradation, enhancing mechanical strength, and addressing thermal expansion mismatch. By understanding and implementing these mechanisms, we can develop carbon-based composites that can withstand harsh conditions while maintaining excellent thermal conductivity and long-term durability.译文：耐极端环境碳基复合材料主动热疏导设计与长寿命防护机理碳基复合材料因其高热导率、超轻性和优异的力学强度等独特性质受到广泛关注。

energyenvironmentalmaterials影响因子Energy & Environmental Materials is a scientific journal that focuses on the research and development of materials for energy generation, storage, and environmental applications. The journal covers a wide range of topics including materials for solar cells, batteries, fuel cells, supercapacitors, hydrogen production and storage, carbon capture and storage, and photocatalysis. Given the wide range of topics covered, the impact factor of a journal is an important metric to evaluateits influence and prestige in the field.In addition to impact factor and CiteScore, other metrics can also provide insights into the influence of a journal. These include the h-index, which measures both the productivity and impact of the publications in a journal, and the number of downloads or views of articles published in the journal.Overall, while the specific impact factor of Energy & Environmental Materials is not readily available, the journal's significant CiteScore of 11.6 for the year 2024 suggests that it has a notable influence in the field. This can be further supported by considering other metrics such as the h-index and the number of downloads or views. It is worth noting that impact factors can vary from year to year, and it is important to consider multiple metrics and indicators of influence when evaluating a journal.。

第 12 卷第 12 期2023 年 12 月Vol.12 No.12Dec. 2023储能科学与技术Energy Storage Science and Technology耦合光热发电储热-有机朗肯循环的先进绝热压缩空气储能系统热力学分析尹航1，王强1，朱佳华2，廖志荣2，张子楠1，徐二树2，徐超2（1中国广核新能源控股有限公司，北京100160；2华北电力大学能源动力与机械工程学院，北京102206）摘要：先进绝热压缩空气储能是一种储能规模大、对环境无污染的储能方式。

为了提高储能系统效率，本工作提出了一种耦合光热发电储热-有机朗肯循环的先进绝热压缩空气储能系统(AA-CAES+CSP+ORC)。

该系统中光热发电储热用来解决先进绝热压缩空气储能系统压缩热有限的问题，而有机朗肯循环发电系统中的中低温余热发电来进一步提升储能效率。

本工作首先在Aspen Plus软件上搭建了该耦合系统的热力学仿真模型，随后本工作研究并对比两种聚光太阳能储热介质对系统性能的影响，研究结果表明，导热油和太阳盐相比，使用太阳盐为聚光太阳能储热介质的系统性能更好，储能效率达到了115.9%，往返效率达到了68.2%，㶲效率达到了76.8%，储电折合转化系数达到了92.8%，储能密度达到了5.53 kWh/m3。

此外，本研究还发现低环境温度、高空气汽轮机入口温度及高空气汽轮机入口压力有利于系统储能性能的提高。

关键词：先进绝热压缩空气储能；聚光太阳能辅热；有机朗肯循环；热力学模型；㶲分析doi： 10.19799/ki.2095-4239.2023.0548中图分类号：TK 02 文献标志码：A 文章编号：2095-4239（2023）12-3749-12 Thermodynamic analysis of an advanced adiabatic compressed-air energy storage system coupled with molten salt heat and storage-organic Rankine cycleYIN Hang1, WANG Qiang1, ZHU Jiahua2, LIAO Zhirong2, ZHANG Zinan1, XU Ershu2, XU Chao2(1CGN New Energy Holding Co., Ltd., Beijing 100160, China; 2School of Energy Power and Mechanical Engineering,North China Electric Power University, Beijing 102206, China)Abstract:Advanced adiabatic compressed-air energy storage is a method for storing energy at a large scale and with no environmental pollution. To improve its efficiency, an advanced adiabatic compressed-air energy storage system (AA-CAES+CSP+ORC) coupled with the thermal storage-organic Rankine cycle for photothermal power generation is proposed in this report. In this system, the storage of heat from photothermal power generation is used to solve the problem of limited compression heat in the AA-CAES+CSP+ORC, while the medium- and low-temperature waste heat generation in the organic Rankine cycle power收稿日期：2023-08-18；修改稿日期：2023-09-18。

LEADER IN THERMAL MANAGEMENT: DESIGN, INNOVATION AND MATERIALSTHERMFLOW TMLow ThermalResistance Phase-Change Interface Pads77DESCRIPTIONTHERMFLOW™ materials are thermally enhanced polymers designed to minimize the thermal resistancebetween power dissipating electronic components and their associated heat sinks. This low thermal resistance path maximizes heat sink performance and improves the reliability of microproces-sors, memory modules, DC/DC convert-ers and power modules.The key feature of THERMFLOW ma-terials is their phase-change character-istic. At room temperature, THERMFLOW materials are solid and easy to handle.This allows them to be consistently and cleanly applied as dry pads to a heat sink or component surface. THERM-FLOW material softens as it reaches component operating temperatures.With light clamping pressure it will readily conform to both mating sur-faces, similar to thermal grease. This ability to completely fill interfacial air gaps and voids typical of component packages and heat sinks allowsTHERMFLOW pads to outperform non-flowing elastomeric or graphite-based thermal pads and achieve performance comparable to thermal grease (see Figure 1).THERMFLOW materials are electri-cally non-conductive. However, since metal-to-metal contact is possible after the material undergoes phase-change in a typical heat sink assembly,THERMFLOW pads should not be used as electrical insulators.Chomerics’ THERMFLOW phase-change materials are formulated for use with high performance components requiring minimal thermal resistance for maxi-mum heat transfer efficiency. They combine the easy handling advantages of elastomeric pads with the low thermal impedance of thermal grease, making THERMFLOW materials an ideal choice for today’s most demanding thermal management applications:Microprocessors Memory Modules Cache Chips DC/DC ConvertersIGBTsPower Modules Power SemiconductorsSolid State RelaysBridge RectifiersKEY FEATURES AND BENEFITS• Low thermal impedance , 0.03°C-in 2/watt • Automated installation equipment available• Proven solution – years of production use in Personal Computer OEM applications• Demonstrated reliability – no separation or dry-out after 3000 temperature cycles • Can be pre-applied to heat sinks• PSA (pressure-sensitive adhesive) ver-sions allow “peel and stick” installation • Non-PSA versions available for improved thermal performance • Protective release liner prevents contamination of material prior to final component assembly• Tabs available to ease removal of release liner• Available in custom die-cut shapes ,kiss-cut on rolls• 45°C or 58°C phase-change temperature • Thixotropic , paste-like consistency at application temperatures ensures that material will not run or drip, even in vertically-oriented applications • Electrically non-conductiveAPPLICATION AND PERFORMANCE THERMFLOW pads can be suppliedwith pressure-sensitive adhesive (PSA) for easy pre-application to heat sinks. Contact your heat sink supplier or Chomerics for further information. Since PSAs tend to increase thermal impedance, non-PSA versions are also available for improved thermal performance. Most heat sinksuppliers have the capability to “heat flux”non-PSA THERMFLOW pads in place onto their heat sinks.Each THERMFLOW material has been designed to perform best within a specified clamping pressure range. See next page for the recommended material for some com-mon applications.THERMFLOW materials are not structural adhesives and should not be used to me-chanically attach heat sinks to processors.Clips or other mechanical fasteners must be used to maintain heat sink to component clamping pressure.Due to the “grease-like” behavior of the material, actual thermal impedance in a spe-cific application cannot be determined using only the material’s bulk thermal conductivity unless the actual operating pressure,temperature, thickness, etc. are known.Therefore, to account for the unique situations associated with specific applications,Chomerics recommends customer testing to validate performance. Contact Chomerics Applications Engineering at 603-579-5764 for assistance or further information.Figure 1 – Typical Performance vs.TimeT c a s e – T s i n k °C1510500510Time, min.Dry joint – No Interface MaterialTHERMFLOW – 1st Heat CycleTHERMFLOW – 2nd Heat CycleThermal GreaseNote: The THERMFLOW pad will exhibit high thermal impedance until it flows during the first heat cycle. This is a one time effect and will not be seen during subsequent heat cycles. These curves illustrate typical performance seen in a microprocessor heat sink application in a desktop PC.SealsChomerics Div. of Parker Hannifin 77 Dragon Court Woburn, MA 01888-4014Tel: 781-935-4850FAX: 781-933-4318Parker Hannifin PLC Chomerics Europe Parkway, Globe Park Marlow, Bucks., SL7 1YB, United Kingdom Tel: +(44) 1628 404000FAX:+(44) 1628 404090E-mail:***************************E-mail:*********************NOTICE: The information contained herein is to the best of our knowledge true and accurate. However, since the varied conditions of potential use are beyond our control, all recommendations or suggestions are presented without guarantee or responsibility on our part and users should make their own tests to determine the suitability of our products in any specific situation. This product is sold without warranty either expressed or implied, of fitness for a particular purpose or otherwise, except that this product shall be of standard quality, and except to the extent otherwise stated on Chomerics’ invoice, quotation, or or der acknowledgement. We disclaim any and all liability incurred in connection with the use of information contained herein, or otherwise. All risks of such are assumed by the user. Furthermore, nothing contained herein shall be construed as a recommendation to use any process or to manufacture or to use any product in conflict with existing or future patents covering any product or material or its use. The items described in this document are hereby offered for sale by Parker Hannifin Corporation, its subsidiaries or its authorized distributors. This offer and its acceptance are governed by the provisions stated on the document entitled “Offer of Sale,” available from Chomerics on request.© Chomerics, Parker Hannifin Corp., 1999Printed in U.S.A.90019002Parker Hannifin Hong Kong Ltd.Chomerics Sales Department 8/F King Yip Plaza9 Cheung Yee Street, Cheung Sha Wan Kowloon, Hong Kong Tel: +(852) 2428 8008Fax: +(852) 2480 4256THERMFLOW TM Low Thermal Resistance Phase-Change Interface Pads continuedORDERING INFORMA TIONTHERMFLOW materials are supplied in several standard formats (see part number guide blow). Custom die-cut shapes can also be provided on kiss-cut rolls byChomerics’ extensive network of Distributor/Fabricators. T o ease release liner removal an optional tab can be added. Standard tolerances for slitting widths and individually cut pieces are ±0.020 inch (±0.51 mm). T443 rolls include a loose 3-mil polyester interfeaf to prevent padmaterial from sticking to the back side of the liner .WW –– XX –– YYYY –– T725, T443, T310 or T710THERMFLOW Material – Part Numbers64 = Roll Stock66 = Roll Stock with PSA 68 = Roll Stock withremoval tab and PSA 69 = Custom Shapes10 = 100 ft. (30.5m) Roll Stock 30 = 300 ft. (91.4m) Roll Stock11 = Custom Die-Cut Shape, No PSA12 = Custom Die-Cut Shape, PSA One SideRoll Stock, Width.0075 = 0.75 in. (1.91 cm)0100 = 1.00 in. (2.54 cm)0150 = 1.50 in. (3.81 cm)0200 = 2.00 in. (5.08 cm)0500 = 5.00 in. (12.7 cm)1000 = 10.00 in. (25.4 cm)2000 = 20.00 in. (50.8 cm)For custom roll stock and die-cut parts, this 4 or 5 digit number will be assigned by ChomericsTHERMFLOW T443TYPICAL APPLICA TIONSNote: P-II, P-III (Intel ®), K-6, K-7 (AMD ®), M-II (Cyrix National)High End Microprocessors (P-III,Workstation Network Server , CPUs, etc.),Power ModulesTHERMFLOW T725Microprocessors (P-II, K-6, M-II,etc.), Memory Modules, Power Semi’sTHERMFLOW T710Microprocessors (P-II, P-III,K-7, etc.), Exposed Die BGAsDC/DC Converters, IGBT s and Other Power ModulesTHERMFLOW T310。

英文文献翻译The technology of generating infrared image basedon electric heating film technology基于电热膜技术的红外图像生成技术文献来源：脉冲功率激光技术国家重点实验室作者：路元，冯云松，乔涯译者：林凯鹏指导教师：胡长松The technology of generating infrared image based onelectric heating film technologyLu Yuan Feng Yun-song Qiao Ya(State Key Laboratory of Pulsed Power Laser Technology, Hefei Anhui 230037, China)ABSTRACTThe technology of generating infrared image based on electric heating film technology by its resistance per unit area was studied. A Lifgt-off-road vehicle was used as an object to be simulated. An infrared thermograph was used to photography the light-off-road vehicle from a specific corner. As a result several infrared images of the light-off-road vehicle were obtained and the thermal distribution of the vehicle was also obtained at the same time. A matlab program was used to process the image. The image was divided into several areas according to its grey level. Each area has its own temperature range. The average temperature of each area was calculated. A thermal balance equation was established according to the average temperature of each area and the environment temperature. By solving these equations, the radiant existances of these areas were gotten. The heating power per unit area of these areas was calculated. The electric heating film was preparation accordingly. The power was applied on the film and the infrared thermograph was used to observe it. The infrared image of the film has a high similarity with the true light-off-road vehicle ’s.Keywords: electric heating film, infrared image, simulation1. PRINCIPLES OF OPERATIONAll kinds objects have infrared radiation. The infrared radiant characteristic of an object is depending on its surface temperature and its surface emissivity. The radiation can be calculated by Planck equation. The usual form of the equation is written in terms of the radiant exitance as a function of wavelength. Considering the emissivity of a certain object, the radiant exitance can be written [1]:11251-=T c e c M λλλλε (1) Where λM is the spectral radiant exitance, 1c is the first radiation constant and 2c is the second radiationconstant. They are given by:-1-2821m Wm 10741832.32μπ⨯==hc cK m 10438786.1/22⋅⨯==-k hc c Where c is the speed of light in vacuum, h is Planck ’s constant, k is Boltzmann ’s constant, and T is the temperaturein kelvins. Since the emissivity is fixed for certain material, the temperature is the major factor that influences infrared radiation. It is usually more useful to know the value of the total power emitted from a body, rather than its spectral extent. The well-known Stephan-Boltzmann law gives the total radiant exitance as:4T M g εσ= (2)Where ε is the emissivity of an object. σ is the Stephan-Boltzmann constant. It has been evaluated and is given by]K Wm [1067.542-8-⨯=σFor an object, the reason of it showing different infrared image is that it has different temperature on different parts of it. Thus we can simulate a true object ’s infrared image by reappearing the temperature of the object.The technology of generating infrared image based on electric heating film technology was brought forward according to the infrared radiation theory. The main course is: the infrared image of an object was obtained firstly, and then the image was divided into several areas according to its temperature and its grey level. The radiation power of these parts was calculated. The resistance per unit area of these parts were calculated when the voltage of the film was certain. The heating film was prepared according to the resistance per unit area. When the film was heated by electricity power, the relevant infrared image will appear.2. INFRARED IMAGE OBTAIN OF AN OBJECT AND RELATIVELY CALCULATION2.1 infrared image and its temperature distributingA Light-off-road vehicle was used as an object to be simulated. The vehicle was fired up in idle state. Ten minutes late, an infrared thermograph was used to photography the light-off-road vehicle from a specific corner. Fig.1 was the infrared image of the vehicle.Fig.1 infrared image of a Light-off-road vehicleThe analysis and process to the image was carried out. The infrared image was divided into seven temperature areas by its grey level. These areas showed in fig.2. The average temperature of the area is the same for those areas which have the same number.Fig.2 the grey level of the vehicleThe average temperature of these areas showed in table 1 and the temperature of background is 24℃.Table 1 The average temperature of different areasFor these areas, we hypothesized that the area “i ” has a temperaturei T , the temperature background is B T . The acreage of area “i ” isi A . The acreage of these areas is calculated.2.2 Heating power calculationWhen the electric heating film was powered on, most of the electron power it gotten was converted to heat power. The temperature of these areas rose. The temperature of these area achieve maximum when the area was in thermal equilibrium state with the environment. When the film was in thermal equilibrium, we have: i i Q =Φ (3)Where i Q is the heating power of area “i ” and i Φ is the lost power of the area “i ” because of the heat exchange between the area and the environment.The heat exchanges [3] between the area “i ” and the environment were composed of two parts: radiation heat transfer and convective heat transfer. The lost power of area “i ” is the sum of radiation heat transfer and convective heat transfer:44()()B B B i i i i i A T T hA T T σεεΦ=-+- (4)Where ε is surface emissivity of the film andB ε is the emissivity of background, h is heat transfer coefficient ofthe surface.When it was in heat balance, we have44()()B B B i i i i i P A T T hA T T σεε=-+- (5)Wherei P is the heating power of area “i ” of the film.2.3 Methods of temperature controlling and relative calculationThere are three methods for the film to control the temperature. The first method is that all areas were connected in series and one power was used to supply power. The second method is that all areas were connected in parallel and one power was used to supply power. The third method is that every area was supplied by different power. The voltage of the power can be 220V, 110V, 24V and 12V. Both ac power and dc power can be used. The first method was used. Thus we have: 2i i P I R = (6)1n i i PUI ==∑ (7)Where I is the current in the film, i R is the resistance of area “i ” and U is voltage added on the whole film.3. SIMULATION OF THE INFRARED OBJECTThe acreage of these areas was calculated by AUTOCAD software. For convenience, we scale down the size of the film. Assuming the length of film is 0.5m, the acreages of these areas are calculated and which was showed in table 2.Table 2 The acreage of these areas on filmThe heat power of these areas was calculated and showed in table 3.Table 3 The heat power of these areas on filmThe power per unit area was calculated and showed in table 4.Table 4 The power per unit area of these areas on filmAssuming the power was 20V in dc. The resistance of these areas was showed in table 5.Table 5 The resistance of these areas on filmAccording to the data, the film was prepared . A couple conductors were extracted from the film. When the power was applied on the film, the infrared image will appear of a Light-off-road vehicle will appear.4. INFRARED IMAGE GENERATION AND EVALUATION4.1 infrared image generation of the filmA rectangle on electric heating film was made according the data calculated [5]. When the power was on, an infrared thermograph was used to observe the film. The images we gotten by an infrared thermograph were showed in fig. 3. These images were the infrared images of the film when the film was powered on. These images were captured when the time was at 0 and 4th, 10th, 16th, 22nd, 28th, second.On these images, we can see that the infrared image of the film was appeared as a Light-off-road vehicle when the power was on. It was vague at first, and then it became clearer when the time went on.Fig. 3 infrared images generated by the heating film4.2 evaluation of infrared image of the filmThe infrared images were evaluated according to reference 6; the similarity defined in reference 6 was used. The infrared image of true vehicle and the infrared image of the film were extracted. The pixels were 296×140. The infrared image of the vehicle was showed in fig.5 and the infrared images of the film were showed in fig.6. The infrared image of the film was captured at 0 second and 4th, 10th, 16th, 22nd, 28th, second.Fig.4 infrared image of the vehicleFig5. Infrared images of the heating filmThe similarity [6] between the infrared image of the true vehicle and the infrared image of the film was calculated according to reference [6]. The result was showed in table 6.Table 6 The image similarity between the vehicle and the heating filmFrom the table 6, we can see that the similarity between infrared image of the film and it of the vehicle was different for the time we capturing images. The similarity became bigger when the infrared image of the became clearer. When the time was 28th second, the similarity achieved 0.7724. For the reason that technology level of making film, data ’s accepted or rejected, there will be error on property of the film between the film we made and the film we designed. These will reduce the similarity on infrared images between the film and the true vehicle.5. CONCLUSIONThe technology can be used to simulate infrared image of a true object. By improving the technology, the simulation effect will be promoted. The method can be applied to many fields such as infrared decoy target, infrared thermography simulation and infrared equipment inspection.Reference ：1. M. Planck, Theory of Heat, Macmillan, New York(1957)2. M. A. Bramson, Infrared, A Handbook for Application, Plenum Press, New York(1966).3. Yuan LU ，Dan WU ，Wei JIN ， De-peng HOU, A Study on Infrared Radiation of Terrain by Modeling, Infrared Technology, Vol.30 No.2, 75-79, (2008).4.Hong-ye CHEN, Zhao-yang ZENG, Wen-bin XIE, Jun-yu LU, ZHU Chao,Thermal Characteristic Analysis for Electric Heating Film as Infrared Decoy, LASER & INFRARED, Vo.l 37, No. 4, 336-337, (2007)5. ZENG Zhao-yang,CHENHong-ye,CHEN Kui-feng, The Characteristic of Electric Heating Film and Its Application in Military, LASER & INFRARED, Vo.l 38, No. 9 894-896, (2008).6. Weidong Xu, xuliang lu, A model based on texture analysis for the performance evaluation of camouflage screen equipment. ACTA ARMAMENTARII, Vol. 23 No.3 329-331(2002).摘 要基于电热膜技术以其单位面积电阻产生的红外图像进行了工艺研究.一种轻型越野车为对象进行模拟。

FLUID COOLING | Mobile DF SeriesAIR COOLED DF Featuresn S ame as DH with DC Fann3/4” Tube Sizen L ow AMP Draw 12 or 24 VoltDC Motorsn Heavy Duty Constructionn O ptional Serviceable ReliefBypass Valven Optional Fan Control Switchn Long Life Hydraulic Motorsn Rugged Applicationsn S teel Manifoldsn H eat Removal TO 35,000 BTU/Hr.n O il Flows to 110 GPMn M ounting Brackets Includedn S AE, NPT or 37° Flare Oil Connectionsn D amage Resistant Steel FinsMaterialsTubes CopperFins SteelTurbulators AluminumManifolds S teelFan Assembly H igh Impact PlasticMotor Displacement.22in3/Rev. (Hydraulic)Maximum Pressure2000 PSI (Hydraulic)Relief Bypass Valve OptionMOD E L D E SCRiPTiONDFR-11 3/4”, external, all steel valve.Available in either 30 PSI or 60PSI settings. May be removed forservicing.DFR-12 1-1/2”, external, all steel valve.DFR-22 A vailable in either 30 PSI or 60PSI settings. May be removed for RatingsOperating Pressure 300 psiTest Pressure 300 psiOperating Temperature 350° FModelSeriesDFDFR - ReliefModel Size Selected MotorSpecificationNM - No MotorConnectionType*1 - NPT2 - SAERelief BypassBlank - No Bypass30 - 30 psimDF **********************262.554.8330Dimensions - 12 & 24 Volt DC MotorsModels DF-11 and DF-123/8 NPT PORT FOR OPTIONAL TEMP SENSOREDJ RELIEF BYPASS C KHG .53 DIA 4 HOLESIN*B FAFLOWAIR FLOW (2 PLACES)POWER LEAD 12" LONG VALVE (OPTIONAL)Units shown with optional bypass valveMODEL3/8 NPT PORT FOR OPTIONAL TEMP. SENSOREDJ HG IN*B FA FLOWAIR FLOW(2 PLACES)K RELIEF BYPASSVALVE (OPTIONAL).53 DIA 4 HOLES#8 SAE TYP IN2.06CLModel DF-22Models DF-11 and DF-12Model DF-223/8 NPT PORT FOR OPTIONAL TEMP SENSORDCKHG K3/8 NPT PORT FOR OPTIONAL TEMP SENSORAIR FLOWABCFG HE DIN*(2 PLACES)J RELIEF BYPASS VALVE (OPTIONAL)POWER LEADS 12" LONGFLOW.53 DIA4 HOLESKDF-11DF-12DF-2216.1217.0031.4718.0018.2533.7322.9122.6219.2521.2520.91 3.001.5038571105.517.0120.7522.7517.7518.751.502.507.5014.253.697.691.001.50#16#24MODELUnits shown with optional bypass valveDF-11DF-12DF-2216.1217.0031.4718.0018.2533.7322.9122.6219.2521.2520.917.479.4620.7522.7517.7518.75 1.50 2.507.5014.253.697.69MODEL.53 DIA 4 HOLESCLABFGHE DIN*(2 PLACES)FLOWRELIEF BYPASS VALVE (OPTIONAL)3/8 NPT PORT FOR OPTIONAL TEMP. SENSORK 2.0614.25AIR FLOWJ DF-11DF-12DF-2216.1217.0031.4718.0018.2533.7322.9122.6219.2521.2520.91 3.001.5038571107.479.4620.7522.7517.7518.751.502.50 7.5014.253.697.69 1.001.50#16#247.567.60MODELNote: All dimensions are in inches. We reserve the right to make reasonable design changes without notice. *Inlet and outlet oil connections can be reversed when the bypass valve is not used.Note: All dimensions are in inches. We reserve the right to make reasonable design changes without notice. *Inlet and outlet oil connections can be reversed when the bypass valve is not used.Dimensions - Hydraulic MotorsC o u r t e s y o f C M A /F l o d y n e /H y d r a d y n e ▪ M o t i o n C o n t r o l ▪ H y d r a u l i c ▪ P n e u m a t i c ▪ E l e c t r i c a l ▪ M e c h a n i c a l ▪ (800) 426-5480 ▪ w w w .c m a f h .c o mDF**********************262.554.8330 34Performance CurvesSelection ProcedurePerformance Curves are based on 50 SSU oil entering the cooler 50°F higher than the ambient air temperature used for cooling. This is referred to as a 50°F E.T.D.D etermine the Heat Load. Heat load may be expressed as eitherhorsepower or BTU/Hr. To convert horsepower to BTU/Hr.:BTU/HR = Horsepower x 2545D etermine Entering Temperature Difference. The entering oiltemperature is generally the maximum desired oil temperature.Entering oil temperature – Ambient air temperature = E.T.D.D etermine the Corrected Heat Dissipation to use the curves.Corrected Heat Dissipation = BTU/HR heat load x50°F x CvE.T.D.OIL FLOW - GPMH E A T D I S S I P A T I O N B T U /H R . A T 50˚F E .T .D .3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 15 20 25 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 15050,00040,00030,00025,00020,00015,00010,0009,0008,0007,0006,0005,000Step 4 E nter curves at oil flow through cooler and curve heat dissipation.Any curve above the intersecting point will work.Step 5 D etermine Oil Pressure Drop from Curves:l = 5 PSI; n = 10 PSI; Multiply pressure drop from curve bycorrection factor found in oil s P correction curve.Oil TemperatureTypical operating temperature ranges are: Hydraulic Motor Oil 120°F - 180°F Hydrostatic Drive Oil 160°F - 180°F Engine Lube Oil 180°F - 200°F Automatic Transmission Fluid 200°F - 300°FC V Viscosity CorrectionOiL SAE 5 SAE 10SAE 20 SAE 30SAE 40Average 110 SSU at 100°F 150 SSU at 100°F 275 SSU at 100°F 500 SSU at 100°F 750 SSU at 100°F Oil Temp °F 40 SSU at 210°F 43 SSU at 210°F 50 SSU at 210°F65 SSU at 210°F 75 SSU at 210°F100 1.14 1.22 1.35 1.58 1.77150 1.01 1.05 1.11 1.21 1.31200 .99 1.00 1.01 1.08 1.10250 .95 .98 .99 1.00 1.00Oil P Correction CurveO i l P M u l t i p l i e rOil Viscosity SSUC o u r t e s y o f C M A /F l o d y n e /H y d r a d y n e ▪ M o t i o n C o n t r o l ▪ H y d r a u l i c ▪ P n e u m a t i c ▪ E l e c t r i c a l ▪ M e c h a n i c a l ▪ (800) 426-5480 ▪ w w w .c m a f h .c o mD F **********************262.554.833035A I R C O O L Thermostatic Temperature Control Option (DC)This controller was designed to mount on the cooler without requiring extensive wiring or plumbing. It provides accurate temperature control by cycling the cooling fan(s) to maintain desired oil temperature.n12 or 24 volt operationnAdjustable temperature settings range from 100°F thru 210°F in 20°F incrementsnFor use with one or two fan models nTemperature sensor providednWiring provided for remote manual override nMounting hardware includedSide View96171E lectronic Fan Control Kit 68790R eplacement Control Only 67699R eplacement Sensor Only Electrical Schematic.90±.2TEMPERATURESELECT SWITCH1.12.12NOTE: This switch should be fused to prevent damage if ground is lost. A 30 amp fuse is required in the power supply.Top View Connection AssemblyC o u r t e s y o f C M A /F l o d y n e /H y d r a d y n e ▪ M o t i o n C o n t r o l ▪ H y d r a u l i c ▪ P n e u m a t i c ▪ E l e c t r i c a l ▪ M e c h a n i c a l ▪ (800) 426-5480 ▪ w w w .c m a f h .c o m。

专利名称：Thermal shock resistance testing method and thermal shock resistance testingapparatus发明人：Takahiko Nakatani,AkifumiKawakami,Masaaki Ito,Yuki Fukumi,SatoshiSakashita申请号：US14836072申请日：20150826公开号：US09885616B2公开日：20180206专利内容由知识产权出版社提供专利附图：摘要：A ceramic body is heated to a predetermined temperature by using a furnace, and a cooling gas is ejected toward a first end face of the ceramic body so that the first end face of the ceramic body is cooled. At this time, the temperature of the first end face of the ceramic body is measured by a radiation thermometer provided on the same side from which the cooling gas is ejected, and the internal temperature is measured by a thermocouple provided in the ceramic body. Thereafter, a thermal shock resistance test in which actual use conditions are simulated is performed by obtaining the temperature gradient of the ceramic body from measurement results of the temperature of the first end face of the ceramic body and the internal temperature and checking the absence or presence of cracks that occurs to the ceramic body.申请人：NGK Insulators, Ltd.地址：Nagoya JP国籍：JP代理机构：Burr & Brown, PLLC更多信息请下载全文后查看。

aquathermal名词Aquathermal is an innovative renewable energy technology that harnesses the thermal energy of oceans, rivers, lakes, and other bodies of water. It is gaining increasing attention as a potential source of reliable and clean energy.Aquathermal energy is generated by capturing the energy difference between water at different depths and temperatures. For example, water from the surface of the ocean is generally warmer than water from deeper levels. This differential canbe utilized to power a variety of equipment and technologies, such as turbines and heat pumps.Aquathermal energy is considered one of the most promising sources of renewable energy due to its abundanceand reliability. Harnessing this energy does not require much land use, as most water bodies are already existing. Additionally, the technology has relatively low environmental impacts as its operations are mainly contained within thewater body and little additional energy is required tocapture the energy difference.At present, aquathermal energy is most commonly used to provide cooling. One use is in large-scale fish tanks and aquaculture applications, where it is used to cool water needed to maintain healthy fish populations. It is also usedto provide air conditioning to buildings and other structures near water bodies.The technology is being improved and perfected to generate power as well. For example, a European project is working to develop a system that captures and stores thethermal energy difference between several layers of water ina deep reservoir. The energy is released when needed, using a heat engine to produce electricity.As the potential of aquathermal becomes more widely recognized, governments and organizations around the worldare taking steps to promote the technology. Its clean and renewable energy, combined with the low environmental impacts, make aquathermal an attractive option for those looking for energy solutions.。

低温环境暖风对改善人体舒适性的实验研究杨宇;李百战;刘红;李丹蕊【摘要】In order to explore a local heating way that can improve human comfort in the cold environment, the experiment was carried out in a natural ventilation environment in January 2011 with 62 subjects. The experiment has 3 setting conditions, i.e. locally applying the warm airflow to the subjects' neck, waist and calf respectively. Subjective questions including thermal sensation, humidity sensation, air movement sensation and thermal acceptability were investigated during the 30 min experiment. The results show that the local warm airflow can improve human's thermal sensation, but it may make subjects dissatisfied because of dry and strong wind, also subjects may feel unwell and have headache and nausea. Warm airflow applied to subject's neck and waist will result in an obviously uncomfortable feeling. Negative effect is small when the warm airflow is applied to calf. This can be used as a local heating way to improve human comfort efficiently.%为探索一种在低温环境中改善人体舒适性的局部供暖方式,于2011年1月在自然通风环境的实验室进行实验,共有62名受试者.设有3个实验工况,分别对受试者的颈部、腹部和小腿进行局部供暖风,实验持续30 min,受试者按照其主观感受填写调查问卷,包括人体热感觉、湿感觉、气流感、热环境可接受度等.研究结果表明:对局部供暖风可以改善人体的热感觉,但暖风带来的干燥感和过大的气流感可能引起人体对热环境不满意,并且还可能出现头晕恶心等不良反应,其中,对颈部和腹部送风会产生明显的不舒适感；而对小腿送风的负面影响小,可以作为一种改善人体舒适性的局部供暖方式.【期刊名称】《中南大学学报（自然科学版）》【年(卷),期】2012(043)010【总页数】6页(P4142-4147)【关键词】热环境;舒适性;局部供暖;暖气流【作者】杨宇;李百战;刘红;李丹蕊【作者单位】重庆大学城市建设与环境工程学院,三峡库区生态环境教育部重点实验室,重庆,400045;重庆大学城市建设与环境工程学院,三峡库区生态环境教育部重点实验室,重庆,400045;重庆大学城市建设与环境工程学院,三峡库区生态环境教育部重点实验室,重庆,400045;重庆大学城市建设与环境工程学院,三峡库区生态环境教育部重点实验室,重庆,400045【正文语种】中文【中图分类】TU83美国供热、制冷及空调协会(ASHRAE)将热舒适定义为“一种对热环境的满意的主观感受”[1]。