欧洲启蒙运动Enlightenment

EnlightenmentThe Age of Enlightenment (or simply the Enlightenment or Age of Reason) was an elite cultural movement of intellectuals in 18th century Europe that sought to mobilize the power of reason in order to reform society and advance knowledge. These thinkers believed that human reason could be used to combat ignorance, superstition, and tyranny and to build a better world. Their principal targets were religion (embodied in France in the Catholic Church) and the domination of society by a hereditary aristocracy.Roots of Enlightenment1)Renaissance - view of man as worthy of admiration and capable of progress.2)Scientific Revolution – Reason and rationality helped Europe understandthe planets and the cosmological order. Therefore, reason can also help usunderstand society (e.g., politics, economics, religion, law etc.) and help us to make it better. The belief that reason can lead to progress in society is an important Enlightenment idea.3)Wars of Religion – The many wars fought over religion exhausted Europeand made these thinkers attack religious dogma’s and emphasize the need for religious toleration. (W e can’t kill everyone that has a different religion, therefore let us learn to live with them). This toleration will eventually beextended to include political, gender and racial differences as well offreedom of thought and differing opinions. (basic human rights)What these thinkers wanted to oppose:1)Intolerance2)Ignorance3)Religious fanaticism4)Barbarism (torture)5)Despotism (absolute monarchy and dictatorships)6)Anything that remained of Medieval Europe or the “dark ages”Important Enlightenment thinkers:1)Denis Diderot (1713 – 1784) Editor of the first encyclopedia. He was tryingto map out or record all human knowledge. He held the enlightenmentideal that mankind, through rationality, can explain everything.2)John Locke (1632 – 1704) An important British philosopher who pioneeredthe idea of the social contract. This says that all governments get theirauthority from the consent and will of the people. The government issupposed to protect the people’s right to life, liberty and property. When it fails to do this or demands too much power, then the people have a right to rebel against it. Locke supported a constitutional government that putslimit on the top authority. He was one of the main critics against absolutemonarchs like Bourbon kings of France.Locke also believed that the goal of a rational society was to allow itspeople to pursuit happiness. All people want to be healthy, enjoy love, have shelter, and develop their own ideas or pursuit their own goals. Locke said it was the goal of government to allow people to do this and improve thelives of its citizens.He also believed that people were not born fixed into a nature (like Middle Ages) but were a table Rasa (blank slate). It you teach them well they willgrow to be good. If they a influenced towards evil they will develop thatway (nature vs. nurture). So he exemplifies the Enlightenment ideal ofeducation for all.3)Voltaire (1694 – 1778) Proponent of civil liberties like freedom of religionand freedom of thought. He constantly attacked all outmoded beliefs thatlingered from the Middle Ages (e.g., superstition and the use of torture). He was a very strong critic of religion.4)Adam Smith (1723 – 1790) An economist who is regarded as the father ofcapitalism. In his famous book The Wealth of Nations he put forward theidea that economies run best when it is left alone and that governmentsshould mostly keep its hands off. People pursuing what is best forthemselves individually will also be good for society and the country.(example: a Butcher doesn’t cut meat out of regard for society but out ofhis own pursuit of a livelihood. But in pursuing his own interest, he alsoadvances the interests of society).New World (Columbian exchange) influence on Europe:Tobacco, chocolate, corn, potatoes, peanuts, vanilla, tomatoes, pineapples, sweet and chili peppers, turkey, (chewing) gum, sugar, syphilis.French RevolutionCauses:1)Poor Leadership – Decades of overspending on palaces, luxuries and wars.(Absolute) monarchs who are incapable/uninterested in ruling France.2)Corrupt tax laws – The starving peasants are overtaxed while the nobilitypay no taxes at all. There is lots of waste in the tax system as private taxcollectors keep (steal) much of the money for themselves.3)Rise of the Bourgeoisie (middle class) – They have most of the money andproductive capital of France. But they have no political voice. They will belargely in support of overthrowing the old regime.4)Enlightenment ideas – limits on authority.5)American revolution - France seeking a similar government.Events that lead to the Revolution:Estates General (1789) – France is bankrupt so the king calls together a session of congress to ask for more tax revenue. On June 17th, the 3rd estate breaks away (peasants want tax relief, Bourgeoisie want more political power) and calls itself the “national assembly of France”. Three days later, agents of the king try locking them out of the as sembly. They all meet in a tennis court and take the “tennis court oath”, which said they will not disband until they adopt a new constitution for France that limits the power of the king and gives them more equal representation. Louis XVI gives in to them and orders the first 2 estates to join them as a new congress.Storm of Bastille (July 14th, 1789) – Louis XVI has amassed lots of troops to help protect his power. Rumors circulate that he will disband the national assembly byforce. Mobs in Paris storm the Bastille (fortress) and release political prisoners. Later that year, a mob takes over Versailles and watch the king so he cannot overthrow the new power of the national assembly. National Assembly passes the “declaration of the rights of man”Declaration of the rights of Man:1)All men born free and equal.2)Freedom of speech, freedom of the press, freedom of assembly3)Freedom of Religion4)Right to petition government5)Freedom from arbitrary arrest and imprisonment6)Declares all power derived from the people and not from God or from theking.7)The king is forced to agree to a separation of powers (judiciary, legislativeand executive branch).The period from 1789 to 1791 is known as the first phase (or moderate phase) of the revolution. The 2nd phase of the revolution was chaotic and violent. Political clubs form that want more radical reforms (e.g., Jacobins). They will take control of the assembly (led by 3 men: Maximilien Robespierre, Jean-Paul Marat, and Georges Danton.War declared (April 1792) – Other countries in Europe (Austria and Prussia first, later Britain and Portugal) will go to war with France. They want to intervene and uphold the monarchy. Radical groups in France use the fear of war to push own agenda. They abolish the monarchy.King Louis XVI executed (January 1793) – The king is put on trial and declared a counter revolutionary. He is executed by guillotine. This shocks Europe and starts a new bloody phase known as the “reign of terror”. A new committee called the “committee of public safety” hold trials and executes thousands that are considered counter-revolutionary. Robespierre will gain power and have Marat and Danton killed. Anyone accused ended up executed, extreme violence is justified to defend the revolution. Many nobles and moderate leaders are killed.Everyone is afraid of the reign of terror and Robespierre. He is arrested and executed.Power Vacuum – Many leading men of France are dead from war or execution. There is a lack able men to lead France. Napoleon Bonaparte, an able general during the war, is called in to quell a riot. He uses this event to take control of France and declare himself dictator or France.The French revolution will help to bring an end to absolute monarchy in France. Eventually, most governments will become constitutional monarchies or republics.。