语言学名词解释和简答题的出题范围 (修复的)

语言学名词解释语言学是研究语言的一门学科，涉及语言的结构、功能、变化和发展等方面的研究。

下面是一些常见的语言学名词及其解释。

1. 语音学（Phonetics）：研究语言中各种语音的产生、传播和感知等方面的学科。

2. 语音语言学（Phonology）：研究语音在特定语言中的音位（音素）和音位组合规则的学科。

3. 语法学（Grammar）：研究语言的句法结构、词法结构和语义结构等方面的学科。

4. 句法学（Syntax）：研究语言中句子的结构和组织方式的学科。

5. 语义学（Semantics）：研究语言中词汇和句子的意义、概念和关系的学科。

6. 词汇学（Lexicology）：研究语言中词汇的组成、形态、构词规则等方面的学科。

7. 词义学（Semantics）：研究词汇中词义的构成、关系和词义的变化等方面的学科。

8. 语用学（Pragmatics）：研究语言在具体语境中的使用方式以及语言的上下文相关性等方面的学科。

9. 文法学（Stylistics）：研究语言使用中的文体、修辞手法、语言风格等方面的学科。

10. 母语（Mother tongue）：一个人从小学会并用于日常交际的语言。

11. 第二语言（Second language）：在学习者的母语之外学习的语言。

12. 语言接触（Language contact）：不同语言之间在社会、文化接触中产生的相互影响和借用的现象。

13. 语言变异（Language variation）：指同一个语言在不同社会、地理和使用者间发生的音、词、句法等方面的变化。

14. 语言变化（Language change）：指语言在漫长的时间内逐渐变化和发展的过程。

15. 语言规范（Language standardization）：制定和规范一个语言的正确用法、标准词汇和语法规则的过程。

16. 语言习得（Language acquisition）：指儿童在自然环境中学习母语的过程。

《语言学纲要》187个名词解释1.语言学语言学是以语言为研究对象的一门独立科学。

语言学的基本任务是研究语言的结构规律和演变规律，使人们懂得关于语言的理性知识，提高学习和运用语言的水平。

语言学分理论语言学和应用语言学两个领域。

2.专语语言学（具体语言学）以某一种具体的语言为研究对象的语言学。

它包括共时语言学和历时语言学两种。

总之，专语语言学只研究某一种语言。

★3.共时语言学是语言学的分支，从一个发展的横断面描写研究语言在某个历史时期的状态和发展。

如现代汉语、古代汉语。

★4.历时语言学语言学的分支，又叫历史语言学，是从纵向发展的角度研究某种语言从一个时代到另一个时代的发展变化。

5.语文学又叫传统语言学，用于指19世纪历史比较语言学产生之前的语言研究，这时的语言研究尚未独立，语言学作为其他学科的附庸存在，语言研究的主要是为了阅读古籍和语言教学，从而为统治者治理国家或为其他学科的研究服务。

☆6.“小学”在中国古代，“小学”先从教授字的形（六书）、音、义开始，就把研究文字、训诂、音韵方面的学问统称为“小学”。

“小学”一直是经学的一部分，包括音韵学、训诂学、文字学三个分支学科。

☆7.普通语言学以人类一般语言为研究对象，研究人类语言的性质、结构特征、发展规律，是综合众多语言的研究成果而建立起来的语言学，是语言学的重要理论部分。

☆8.理论语言学是普通语言学的一个部分，与应用语言学相对。

理论语言学主要以语言系统的描写、语言运用机制、语言能力以及语言发展的历史为主要研究对象。

☆9.应用语言学研究语言应用的学科，实际上是一种交叉学科，是相关学科的学者将语言学的基本原理同有关学科结合起来研究问题而产生的新的学科。

狭义的应用语言学是指语言教学（包括聋哑盲教学）、文字的创制和改革、正音正字、词典编撰等；广义的应用语言学还包括与计算机有关的机器翻译、情报检索、语音识别、自然语言处理等。

★10.历史比较语言学19世纪30年代兴起的一个语言学的重要流派，它以历史比较法为基础，研究具有共同母语的语言之间的亲属关系以及它们的历史发展。

中文系语言学概论要点第一章：语言的社会功能为什么说语言是人类最重要的交际工具？一、语言是人类的交际工具每一个社会都必须有自己的语言，因为语言是组成一个社会的不可缺少的因素。

人与人之间的联系得靠语言来维持。

有了语言，生活在社会中的人才能共同生产、生活、斗争，协调在同自然力的斗争中、在生产物质资料的斗争中共同行动。

没有语言，人与人之间的联系就会中断，社会就会解体。

二、语言是人类最重要的交际工具除了语言之外，人们还使用其他的交际工具：文字、旗语、红绿灯、电报代码、数学符号，化学公式等等。

（1）语言与文字文字在交际中的重要性远不能和语言相比。

一个社会可以没有文字，但是不能没有语言；没有语言，社会就不能生存和发展；文字是在语言的基础上产生的，只有几千年的历史。

在文字产生之前，语言造就存在，估计有几十万年；文字产生以后要随着语言的发展而演变，它始终从属于语言，是一种辅助的交际工具。

（2）语言与旗语、电报代码等交际工具旗语、电报代码等交际工具使用的范围相当狭窄，而语言的服务领域非常广阔。

（3）语言与身势等伴随动作各种伴随动作也是交际的工具。

它们一般都是在语言的基础上产生的。

综上所述，文字是建立在语言基础上的一种最重要的辅助交际工具；旗语之类是建立在语言、文字基础之上的辅助性交际工具；身势等伴随动作时非语言的交际工具。

因此，语言是人类最重要的交际工具。

三、语言是全民族的交际工具，语言没有阶级性。

第二章：语言是符号系统名词解释：符号：符号是一个社会全体成员共同约定用来表示某种意义的记号、标记，是形式和意义的结合体。

符号和它所代表的事物之间的联系是由社会约定俗成的、人为规定的。

论述题：结合实例论述语言符号中的组合关系和聚合关系。

符号和符号按照一定规则组合起来的关系就是语言的组合关系。

符号组合的关系是有条件的。

比如：“红”和“花”两个符号可以组成“红花”（偏正结构）和“花红”（主谓结构）。

它们在两个组合中的关系不同，整个组合的性质也不同。

（一）名词解释1. 语言学: 语言学是以人类语言作为研究对象的学科, 研究人类语言的性质、结构、发展及其在社会生活中的运用以及语言研究成果的应用问题, 等等。

分理论语言学和应用语言学两个领域。

2. “小学”: 在中国古代, 小学先从教授字的形（六书）、音、义开始, 就把研究文字、训诂、音韵方面的学问统称为小学。

小学一直是经学的一部分, 包括音韵学、训诂学、文字学三个分支学科。

3.非语言交际工具或副语言交际工具: 人们在运用语言进行交际的时候, 不但动嘴, 而且脸部的表情、手的动作、乃至整个躯体的姿态等非语言的东西也都参加进来。

我们这些非语言的交际工具称为副语言交际工具。

副语言交际工具的使用范围非常有限, 只能起辅助性的交际作用, 以补充语言交际的某些不足。

4.辅助性交际工具: 指的文字、旗语、电报代码等在语言的基础上产生的交际工具。

这些交际工具若离开语言就不能独立存在。

其特点是: 都有特殊的服务领域, 使用的范围相当狭窄。

5.符号：符号, 就是指代某种事物的标记, 记号, 它是由一个社会的全体成员共同约定用来表示某种意义的标记和记号。

6.符号的任意性：任意性是语言符号的本质特征之一。

其含义是：语言符号的音义联系并非是本质的, 必然的, 而是由社会成员共同约定的, 一种意义为什么要用这个声音形式, 而不用那种声音形式, 这中间没有什么道理可言, 完全是偶然的、任意的。

语言符号和客观事物之间也没有必然联系。

7.语言符号: 特定语言系统中作为音义结合体的语言单位称为语言符号。

与一般符号相比, 语言符号的主要特点是: 音义结合的任意性、能指的线性特征、所指组合的层次性等等。

8.语言的层级体系: 语言的层级体系: 语言的底层是一套音位, 一种语言的音位的数目虽然只有几十个, 却能构成数目众多的组合。

这些组合为语言符号准备了形式的部分。

语言的上层是音义结合的符号和符号的序列, 这一层又分为若干级。

第一级是语素, 意义在这里被装进形式的口袋, 成了音义结合的最小的符号。

第一章名词解释1.语言学2.历史比较语言学3.语言4.言语5.符号6.组合关系7.聚合关系8.语言的层级性9.语言的融合第一章简答题1.简述语言和言语的关系2.举例说明语言符号的任意性和强制不变性3.举例说明语言符号的特点4.为何说荀子的“约定俗成”四个字道出了语言符号的本质？第二章名词解释1.语音2.音素3.音位4.国际音标5.音位变体6.非音质音位7.语流音变8.元音9.辅音第二章简答题1.举例说明划分与归并音位的大体原则2.举例说明什么是条件变体和自由变体，什么是音质音位和非音质音位3. [i]、[ɿ]、[ʅ]这三个音在普通话中到底归并为几个音位好？为何？4.什么是音位的区别特征？它有什么优越性？第三章名词解释1.语义2.义素3.义位4.语义场5.概念意义第三章简答题1.简述语言意义和言语意义的区别与联系2.举例说明词义的特点3.举例说明什么是义位，什么是义素4.举例说明语境对语义有哪些作用。

5.举例说明如何区分包含和预设。

6.会做简单的义素分析题第四章名词解释1.词2.语素3.词根4.词缀5.词尾6.复合词7.派生词8.叠音词9重叠词10.同源词第四章简答题1.举例说明如何区分词和词组2.举例说明语法构词的类型复合词派生词变性转化变形转化3.会分析组成词的语素类型、词所用的构词法和词的结构类型4.什么是词缀?什么是词尾?二者有哪些区别?第五章名词解释1.语法2.词组3.语法范围4.词形范围5.词类范围6.语法手腕7.直接成份分析法8.转换分析法第五章简答题1.什么是语法组合的递归性?2.词类划分的标准是什么？印欧语的词类划分标准和汉藏语的词类划分标准有什么不同？3．语法意义的类叫作“语法范围”，其中主要由词的转变形式表示的语法意义的类是“词法范围”。

试概念和举例说明语言中有几种词法范围示例：“性”范围是一种体词属性范围，指在某些语言中表示人或事物有关性属的一组特征。

如俄语、德语名词都分阳性、中性和阴性；俄语用词尾表示，德语用冠词表示。

四、名词解释：1)Parole话语：①it refers to the realization of langue in actual use.②it is the concrete use of the conventions and the application of the rules。

③it is concrete, refers to the naturally occurring language events。

④it varies from person to person, and from situation to situation。

2)Applied linguistics应用语言学：findings in linguistic studies can often be applied tothe solution of such practical problems as recovery of speech ability. The study of such applications is known as applied linguistics.3)Reference（所指）语义: It means what a linguistic form refers to in the real, physicalworld，it deals with the relationship between the linguistic element and the non—linguistic world of experience。

4)Illocutionary act言外行为：the act of expressing the speaker’s intention，it is theact preformed in saying something。

5)Regional dialect地域方言：it is a linguistic variety used by people living in the samegeographical region。

第一章语言和语言学1. 为什么语言和种族没有必然联系？答：语言能力和生理因素、心理因素有关，但语言不是一种生理现象，也不是一种心理现象，不是遗传的，而是一种社会现象。

语言完全是在一种语言环境中后天获得的，所以语言和种族没有必然联系。

2. 简答语言符号的特点。

答：(1)符号和语言，“能指”和“所指”。

能指是能够指称某种意义的成分，所指是给符号所指的意义内容创制了一个专门术语。

(2)语言符号的“任意性”。

符号的物质实体和表示的意义之间没有必然的理据关系，语言符号的物质实体和表示的意义之间也没有必然的理据关系，完全是任意的，约定俗成的。

(3)语言符号的强制性和可变性。

在同一社会、同一时代，对使用同一种语言的每一个社会成员来说是强制性的，而语言又是发展变化着的。

(4)语言符号的离散特性和线性特性。

话只能一个字一个字，一句话一句话地说，因此语言符号是离散的，而且在时间这根轴上是成线性排列的。

3. 组合关系和聚合关系的关系。

答：组合关系体现在一个语言单位和前一个语言单位或后一个语言单位，或和前后两个语言单位之间的关系，是横向关系。

聚合关系是在组合的某一个位置上能够相互替换，有共同的特点，故能聚合归类。

组合是横向的结构关系，聚合是归类规则，有了组合、聚合关系，便展现出了整个语言平面，聚合关系是组合关系中体现出来的，或者说是从组合关系中分析出来的，而组合关系又表现为聚合类的线性序列。

所以组合关系和聚合关系是有机地统一，不可分割。

4. 解释“符号”答：符号指根据社会的约定俗成使用某种特定的物质实体来表示某种特定的意义而形成的实体和意义的结合体。

5. 解释“语言”答：语言是言语活动中同一社会群体共同掌握的，有规律可循而又成系统的那一部分，语言是均质的，是言语活动中的社会部分。

语言作为一种社会现象具有鲜明的地区性、民族性和历史性。

6. 口语和书面语的关系。

答：语言的客观存在形式首先是口语，第二种客观存在形式，是书面语。

语言学名词解释和简答题的出题范围(修复的)一、Directions: Please define the following terms.1.minimal pair testwords that differ in only one soundThey differ in meaning, they differ only in one sound segment, the different sounds occur in the same environmentExample: beat, bit They form a minimal pairSo /ea/ and /i/ are different sounds in EnglishThey are different phonemes2.the Sapir-Whorf Hypothesislinguistic determinism (语言决定论) -Language determines thought.and linguistic relativity (语言相对论)-There is no limit to the structural diversity of languages.3.BehaviorismBehaviorism in linguistics holds the view that Children learn language through a chain of stimulus-response-reinforcement (刺激—反应—强化), and adults’ use of language is also a process of stimulus-response.4.discovery proceduresA grammar is discovered through the performing of certain operations on a corpus of data5.Universal GrammarUG consists of a set of innate grammatical principles.Each principle is associated with a number of parameters.6.Systemic GrammarIt aims to explain the internal relations in language as a system network, or meaning potential.7.Ideational MetafunctionThe Ideational Function (Experiential and Logical) is to convey new information, to communicate a content that is unknown to the hearer. It is a meaning potential.It mainly consists of “transitivity” and “voice”. This function not only specifies the available options in meaning but also determines the nature of their structural realisations. For example, “John built a new house” can be a nalysed as a configuration of the functions (功能配置):Actor: JohnProcess: Material: Creation: builtGoal: Affected: a new house8.Interpersonal MetafunctionThe INTERPERSONAL FUNCTION embodies all uses of language to express social and personal relations. This includes the various ways the speaker enters a speech situation and performs a speech act.9.basic speech rolesThe most fundamental types of speech role are just two: (i) giving, and (ii) demanding.Cutting across this basic distinction between giving and demanding is another distinction that relates to the nature of the commodity being exchanged. This may be either (a) goods-&-services or (b) information.10.finite verbal operatorsFiniteness is thus expressed by means of a verbal operator which is either temporal or modal.11.Textual MetafunctionThe textual metafunction enables the realization of the relation between language and context, making the language user produce a text which matches the situation.It refers to the fact that language has mechanisms to make any stretch of spoken or written discourse into coherent and unified texts and make a living passage different from a random list of sentences.It is realized by thematic structure, information structure and cohesion.12.theme and rhemeThe Theme is the element which serves as the point of departure of the message.The remainder of the message, the part in which the Theme is developed, is called the Rheme.As a message structure, a clause consists of a Theme accompanied by a Rheme.The Theme is the first constituent of the clause. All the rest of the clause is simply labelled the Rheme13.experientialismExperientialism assumes that the external reality is constrained by our uniquely human experience.The parts of this external reality to which we have access are largely constrained by the ecological niche we have adapted to and the nature of our embodiment. In other words, language does not directly reflect the world. Rather, it reflects our unique humanc onstrual of the world: our ‘world view’ as it appears to us through the lens of our embodiment.This view of reality has been termed experientialism or experiential realism by cognitive linguists George Lakoff and Mark Johnson. Experiential realism acknowledges that there is an external reality that is reflected by concepts and by language. However, this reality is mediated by our uniquely human experience which constrains the nature of this reality ‘for us’.14.image schemataAn image schema is a recurring structure within our cognitive processes which establishes patterns of understanding and reasoning. Image schemas are formed from our bodily interactions, from linguistic experience, and from historical context.15.prototype theoryPrototype theory is a mode of graded categorization in cognitive science, where some members of a category are more central than others. For example, when asked to give an example of the concept furniture, chair is more frequently cited than, say, stool. Prototype theory has also been applied in linguistics, as part of the mapping from phonological structure to semantics.二、Directions: Please answer the following questions.1.Why is Saussure called “one of the founders of structural linguistics and “father ofmodern linguistics”?He helped to set the study of human behavior on a new footing (basis).He helped to promote semiology.He clarified the formal strategies of Modernist thoughts.He attached importance to the study of the intimate relation between language and human mind.2.What ar e the similarities and differences between Saussure’s langue and parole andChomsky’s competence and performance?The similarities (1) language and competence mainly concerns the user’s underlying knowledge; parole and performance concerns the actual phenomena (2) language and competence are abstract; parole and performance are concrete.The differences (1) according to Saussure, language is a mere systematic inventory of items; according to Chomsky, competence should refer to the underlying competence as a system of generative processes (2)According to Saussure, language mainly base on sociology, in separating language from parole, we separate social from individual; according to Chomsky, competence was restricted to a knowledge of grammar.3.What is the conflict between descriptive adequacy and explanatory adequacy? Andwhat is Chomsky’s solution to this conflict?a theory of grammar: descriptively adequate should adequately describe thegrammatical dada of a language.should not just focus on a fragment of a language.a theory of grammar: explanatorily adequateshould explain the general form of language.should choose among alternative descriptively-adequate grammars.should essentially be about how a child acquires a grammar.A theory of grammar should be both descriptively and explanatorily adequate.But there is a conflict:To achieve DA, the grammar must be very detailed.To achieve EA, the grammar must be very simple. (think why?)because the child can learn a language very easily on very little language exposure.Chomsky’s solution:construct a simple UGlet individual grammars be derivable from UG4.What are Chomsky’s contribution s to the linguistic revolution?Chomsky’s contribution to the linguistic revolution is that he showed the world a totally new way of looking at language and at human nature, particularly the human mind. Chomsky challenged behaviorism and empiricism because he believes that language is innate.Rationalism (vs. empiricism in philosophy)Empiricist evidence is often unreliable.Innateness (vs. behaviorism in psychology)Children can acquire a complicated language on the basis of very limited exposureto speech.This indicates that UG is innate faculty.5.How to compare and contrast Generative Linguistics and Systemic-FunctionalLinguistics from perspectives of epistemology, theoretical basis, research tasks and methodology?6.How many process types are there in the transitivity system? Please illustrate eachtype by a proper example.Six. Material Processes, Mental Processes, Relational Processes, Behavioural Processes, Verbal Processes, Existential ProcessesThe typical types of outer experience are actions, goings-on and events: actions happen, people act on other people or things, or make things happen. This type of process is called Material Processes.The inner experience is that in our consciousness or imagination. You may react on it, think about it, or perceive it. This type of process is called Mental Processes.Then there is a third type of process: we learn to generalize, to relate one fragment of experience to another. It does this by classifying or identifying. This kind of process is called Relational Processes.These three processes are called major processes. Related to them are three minor processes: each one lies at the boundary between two processes of the three. Not so clearly set apart, they share some features of each, and finally acquire the character of their own.On the borderline between material and mental are the Behavioural Processes: those that represent outer manifestations of inner workings, the acting out of processes of consciousness and physiological states.On the borderline of mental and relational is the category of Verbal Processes: symbolic relationships constructed in human consciousness and enacted in the form of language.Then on the borderline between the relational process and the material process are Existential Processes, by which phenomena of all kinds are recognized to be or to exist.7.What is a multiple Theme to be contrasted with a simple Theme? What is a markedTheme to be contrasted with an unmarked Theme? Please illustrate them with proper examples.Conjunctions in ThemeConjunctive and modal Adjuncts in ThemeTextual, interpersonal and experiential elements in ThemeInterrogatives as multiple Themes8.What are the similarities and differences between conceptual metaphor andconceptual metonymy?Metaphor and metonymy are viewed as phenomena fundamental to the structure of the conceptual system rather than superficial linguistic ‘devices’.Conceptual metaphor (概念隐喻) maps structure from one conceptual domain onto another, while metonomy highlights an entity by referring to another entity within the same domain.隐喻就是把一个领域的概念投射到另一个领域，或者说从一个认知域（来源域）投射到另一个认知域（目标域）。

四、名词解释：1)Parole话语：①it refers to the realization of langue in actual use.②it is the concrete use of the conventions and the application of the rules.③it is concrete, refers to the naturally occurring language events.④it varies from person to person, and from situation to situation.2)Applied linguistics应用语言学：findings in linguistic studies can often beapplied to the solution of such practical problems as recovery of speech ability.The study of such applications is known as applied linguistics.3)Reference（所指）语义: It means what a linguistic form refers to in the real,physical world, it deals with the relationship between the linguistic element and the non-linguistic world of experience.4)Illocutionary act言外行为：the act of expressing the speaker’s intention,it is th eact preformed in saying something.5)Regional dialect地域方言：it is a linguistic variety used by people living in thesame geographical region. It has been found that regional dialect boundaries often coincide with geographical barriers such as mountains, rivers and swamps.6)LAD(Language Acquisition Device)语言习得机制：It was described as animaginary "black box" existing somewhere in the human brain.7)CA（Contrastive Analysis）对比分析：starting with describing comparablefeatures of the native language and the target language, CA compares the forms and meanings across these two languages to locate the mismatches or differences so that people can predict the possible learning difficulty learners may encounter.8)Neurolinguistics（神经语言学）：it is the study of two related areas：languagedisorders and the relationship between the brain and language. It includes research into how the brain is structured and what function each part of the brain performs, how and in which parts of the brain language is stored, and how damage to the brain affects the ability to use language.9)Predication analysis述谓结构分析：①It is proposed by the British Linguist G.Leech.②The basic unit is called predication, which is the abstraction of the meaning of a sentence.③This applies to all forms of a sentence.④ A predication consists of argument(s) and predicate.10)Cross-cultural communication(intercultural communication)跨文化交流：itis communication between people whose cultural perceptions and symbols systems are distinct enough to alter the communication event.11)Cross-association互相联想：In English we sometimes may come across wordswhich are similar in meaning. Their spelling and pronunciation are also alike. The close association of the two leads to confusion. Such interference is often referred as cross-association.12)CPH（Critical Period Hypothesis）临界期假说：a specific and limited time period for language acquisition.①The strong version of CPH suggests that children must acquire their first language by puberty or they will never be able to learn from subsequent exposure.②The weak version holds that language learning will be more difficult and incomplete after puberty. (Support in Victor’s and Genie’s cases)13) Prescriptive（grammer）规定语法：if the linguistic study aims to lay down rules for "correct and standard " behaviour in using language to ell people what they should say and what they should not say, it is said to be prescriptive.14) Performance语言运用；言语行为：the actual realization of this knowledge in linguistic communication .15)Duality双重性(double articulation)：language is a system, which consists of two sets of structures, or two levels. The lower or basic level is of sounds, which are meaningless. The higher level can be meaningful.五、问答题：Chapter 11.How do you interpret the following definition of linguistics: linguistics is the scientificstudy of language?Linguistics studies not any particular language,but it studies languages in general.It is a scientific study because it is based on the systematic investigation of linguistic data,conducted with reference to some general theory of language structure.In order to discover the nature and rules of the underlying language system, what the linguist has to do first is to collect and observe language facts,which are found to display some similarities ,and generalizations are made about them,then he formulates some hypotheses about the language structure .But the hypotheses thus formed have to be checked repeatedly against the observed facts to fully prove their validity.6. How is Saussure’s distinction between langue and parole similar to Chomsky’sdistinction between competence and performance?Both Saussure and Chomsky make the distinction between the abstract language system and the actual use of language. their purpose is to single out the language system for serious studyThey are similar in two aspects: the definition and the content of study.On one hand, Saussure defines langue as the abstract linguistic system shared by all themembers of a speech community, and parole as the realization of langue in actual use.Chomsky defines competence as the ideal user’s knowledge of the rules of his language, and performance the actual realization of this knowledge in linguistic communication. We can see that langue and competence both refer to the abstract issue, conventions and knowledge, and parole and performance both are their actual realization, the concrete use.On the other hand, in Saussure’s opinion, what linguists should do is to abstract langue from parole as parole is too varied and confusing. And this is the same as Chomsky. He thinkslinguists should study t he ideal speaker’s competence, not his performance, which is too haphazard to be studied.Two linguists idea differ in that Saussure took a sociological view of language, Chomsky looks at language from a psychological point of view, competence is a property of the mind of each individual.8.What are the main features of human language that have been specified by C.Hockettto show that it is essentially different from animal communication system?1)Arbitrariness:this means that there is no logical connection between meanings andsounds. A good example is the fact that different sounds are used to refer to the same object in different language.2)Productivity:Language is productive in that it makes possible the construction andinterpretation of new signals of its users.3)Duality:language is a system, which consists of two sets of structures, or two levels. Atthe lower or the basic level there is a structure of sounds, which are meaningless. But the sounds of language can be grouped and regrouped into a large number of units of meaning, which are found at the higher level of the system.4) Displacement: Language can be use to refer to things which are present or not present, realor imagined matters in the past ,present or future, or in far-away places. In other words, language can be used to refer to contexts removed from the immediate situations of the speaker.5) Cultural transmission:Language is passed on from one generation to next through teachingand learning rather than by instinct.Chapter 23.Explain with examples how broad transcription and narrow one transcription differ? Broad transcription—one letter symbol for one sound.Narrow transcription—diacritics are added to the one-letter symbols to show the finer differences between sounds.In broad transcription, the symbol [l] is used for the sound [l]8.what’s a phone? how is it different from a phoneme? how are allophones related to a phoneme?① A phone is a phonetic unit or segment. The speech sounds we hear and produce during linguistic communication are all phones. Phones do not necessarily distinguish meaning, some do, some don’t, e.g. [ bI:t ] & [ bIt ], [spIt] & [spIt].② A phoneme is a phonological unit; it is a unit of distinctive value; an abstract unit, not a particular sound, but it is represented by a certain phone in certain phonetic context, e.g. the phoneme /p/ can be represented differently in [pIt], [tIp] and [spIt].③Allophone—the phones that can represent a phoneme in different phonetic environmentsPhone is different from phoneme,The phoneme /l/ can be realized as dark/l-/and clear/l/,which are allophones of the phoneme /l/1.What are the major views concerning the study of meaning?1)The naming theory命名论was proposed by the ancient Greek scholar Plato. Thelinguistic forms or symbols, in other words, the words used in a language are taken to be labels of the objects they stand for; words are just names or labels for things. The semantic relationship holding between words and things is the relationship of naming.2)The conceptualist view概念论: This view holds that there is no direct link between alinguistic form and what it refers to; rather, in the interpretation of meaning they are linked through the mediation of concepts in the mind. This is best illustrated by the semantic triangle suggested by Ogden and Richards:3)Contextualism语境论: Representatively proposed by the British linguist J. R. Firthwho had been influenced by the Polish anthropologist Malinowski and the German philosopher Wittgenstein.It holds that meaning should be studied in terms of situation, use, context-elements closely linked with language behavior. …the meaning of a word is its use in the language.4)Behaviourism行为主义论: Based on contextualist view by Bloomfield who drew onbehaviorist psychology in defining “meaning”.Behaviorists attempted to define the meaning of a language from as the “situation in which the speaker utters it and the response it calls forth in the hearer.” This theory, somewhat close to contextualism, is linked with psychological interest.6.In what way is componential analysis similar to the analysis of phonemes into distinctive features?成分分析和把音位分析为区别性特征有何相似之处？In the light of componential analysis, the meaning of a word consists of a number of distinctive meaning features, the analysis breaks down the meaning of the word into these features; it is these different features that distinguish word meaning similarly, a phoneme is considered as a collection of distinctive sound features, a phoneme can be broken down into these distinctive sound features and its these sound features that distinguish different sounds.5. According to Austin, what are the three acts a person is possibly performing while making an utterance. Give an example.According to Austin's new model, a speaker might be performing three acts simultaneously when speaking: locutionary act, illocutionary act, and perlocutionary act.A locutionary act is the act of uttering words, phrases, clauses. It is the act of conveying literal meaning by means of syntax, lexicon and phonology. An illocutionary act is the act of expressing the speaker’s intention; it is the act performed in saying something. A perlocutionary act is the act performed by or resulting from saying something; it is the consequence of, or the change brought about by the utterance; it is the act performed by saying something. Let's look at an example:"You have left the door wide open."The locutionary act performed by the speaker is his utterance of the wo rds “you”, “have”, “door”,“open”, etc. thus expressing what the words literally mean.The illocutionary act performed by the speaker is that by making such an utterance he has expressed his intention of speaking, i.e. asking someone to close the door, or making a complaint, depending on the context.The perlocutionary act refers to the effect of the utterance. If the hearer gets the speaker's message and sees that the speaker means to tell him to close the door, the speaker has successfully brought about the change in the real world he has intended to; then the perlocutionary act is successfully performed.8. What are the four maxims of the CP? Try to give your own examples to show how floutingthese maxims gives rise to conversational implicature?答：Cooperative Principle, abbreviated as CP. It goes as follows:Make your conversational contribution such as required at the stage at which it occurs by the accepted purpose or direction of the talk exchange in which you are engaged.To be more specific, there are four maxims under this general principle:(1) The maxim of quantity数量原则E.g. A: When is Susan's farewell party?B: Sometimes next month.It is flouting the maxim of quantity(2) The maxim of quality质量原则E.g. A: Would you like to join us for the picnic on Sunday?B: I'm afraid I have got a class on Sunday.(3) The maxim of relation相关原则E.g. A: How did the math exam go today, Tom?B: We had a basketball match with the other class.(4) The maxim of manner方式准则E.g. A: Shall we got something for the kids?B: Yes. But I veto I-C-E-C-R-E-A-M.Chapter92.What do you think of Sapir-Whorf hypothesis? Give examples or proof to support your point of view.Sapir-Whorf believe that language filters people's perception and the way they categorize their experiences. This interdependence of language and thought is now known as Sapir-Whorf Hypothesis. There are mainly two different interpretations about Sapir-Whorf Hypothesis: a strong version and a weak one. The strong version believes that language patterns determine people’s thinking and behavior, the weak one holds that the former influences the later.I agree with the weak one. Here is an example, the word snow. For Eskimo snow is extremely important and so crucial to life that each of its various forms and conditions is named. In English-speaking cultures, snow is far less important and simple word snow usually suffices the need. When some needs become more specific, however, longer phrases can be made up to meet these needs: “corn snow”, “fine powder snow”, and “drifting snow”.Chapter102.Among the language acquisition theories mentioned in this chapter, which one do you think is more reasonable and convincing? Explain why.1)Behaviourist view---language is behavior ,language learning is simply a matter of imitation and habit formation.In this theory,imitation and practice are preliminary(开始),discrimination （识别）and generalizaition are key to language development.2)An innatist (语法天生主义者)view----In the human brain, there is an imaginary “black box”called Language acquisition device which is said to contain principles that are universal to all language.Children need access to the samples of a natural language to activate the LAD, which enables them to discover his language's structure by matching the innate knowledge of basic grammatical system to that particular ter Chomsky prefer this innate endowment as UG and hold that if children are pre-equipped with UG, then what they have to learn is the ways in which their own language make use of these principles and the variations in those principles which may exist in the particular language they are learning.3) An interactionist(互动主义者)view----language develops as a result of the complex interplay,between the human characteristics of the child and the environment in which child develops.In a word,Behaviorists view sounds reasonable in explaining the routine aspects,the innatist accounts most reasonable in explaining children's acquiring complex system, and the interactionist description convincing in understanding how children learn and use the language appropriately from their environment.Chapter111、To what extent is second language learning similar to first language learning? Can you list some proof from your own learning experience?(please list your own experience.)The studies on the first language acquisition have influenced enormously those on the second language acquisition at both theoretical and pratical levels. Theoretically the new findings and advances in first language acquisition in learning theories and learning process are illuminating in understanding second language acquisition. The techniques used to collect and analyze data in first language acquisition also provide insights and perspectives in the study of second language acquisition. Just as Littlewood summarizes, the first language study has served as a backcloth for perceiving and undrerstanding new facts about second language learning.2.Try to observe yourself and pay attention to your own learning experience, what conclusion can you reach about the role of Chinese in your English learning? On what occasions are you more likely to use or depend on Chinese in learning and using English? Chinese plays an inseparable role in our English learning and people can't afford to ignore it. Hence, the role of Chinese in our English learning is worth careful examination. In addition, English learning have been influnenced by Chinese learning at both theoretical and practical levels.(1)Theoretically, the new findings and advanced in Chinese acquisition especially in learning theories and learning process are illuminate (helping) in understanding English acquisition.(2)The techniques used to collect and analyze data in Chinese learning also provides insights and perspectives in the study of English learning.Occasion: Recent studies have discovered that there are three interacting factors in determining language transfer in second language learning:1)a learner's psychology, how a learner organizes his or her native language;2)a learner's perception of native-target language distance,3)a learner's actual knowledge of the target language.。

导言1. 语言学:以语言作为研究对象的一门独立科学。

2. 专语语言学:以某一种具体的语言为研究对象的语言学。

它包括共时语言学和历时语言学两种。

总之，专语语言学只研究某一种语言。

3. 共时语言学:语言研究的一种方法，从一个横断面描写研究语言在某个历史时期的状态和发展。

4. 历时语言学:语言研究的一种方法，集中研究语言在较长历史时期中所经历的变化。

5. 普通语言学:以人类一般语言为研究对象，研究人类语言的性质、结构特征、发展规律，是综合众多语言的研究成果而建立起来的语言学，是语言学的重要理论部分。

6. 语文学:是为给古代文化遗产——政治历史文学等方面的经典书面著作作注释，目的是使人们可以读懂古书的一门尚未独立的学科。

7. “小学”:中国传统的语文学，围绕阐释和解读先秦典籍来展开研究，从而诞生了分析字形的文字学、研究字音的音韵学、解释字义的训诂学，因此又被人们称为经学的附庸。

8. 应用语言学:研究语言学的应用的学科，实际上是一种交叉学科，是相关学科的学者将语言学的基本原理同有关学科结合起来研究问题而产生的新的学科。

9. 历史比较语言学:语言学中一个重要的部门，它以历史比较法为基础，研究语言的亲属关系。

它为现代语言学的建立奠定了坚实的基础，是语言学走上独立发展道路的标志。

第一章语言的社会功能1. 语言:是一种特殊的社会现象，是人类作为必不可少的思维工具和最重要的交际工具来使用的一种音义结合的符号系统。

2. 说话:运用语言跟人们交流思想的行为，本身不等于语言。

3. 言语:是对语言的运用，它有两个意思:一是指人的说和写的过程，是人的一种行为，叫言语活动，也叫言语行为；一是指人说出来的话，写出来的东西，也叫言语作品。

4. 交际工具:人类交际活动所使用的工具。

语言是人类最重要的交际工具。

此外，身势等伴随动作是非语言的交际工具；旗语之类是建立在语言、文字基础上的辅助性交际工具；文字是建立在语言基础之上的一种最重要的辅助交际工具；5. 思维:是认识现实世界时的一种动脑筋的过程，也指动脑筋时进行比较、分析、综合以认识现实的能力。