Chapter1I讲义nvitations to Linguistics _英语语言学概论

第一章语言学导论Chapter1 Invitations to LinguisticsLinguistics is nowadays coming into wide use with combination of theories and practice as well as linguistics and other disciplines.Linguistics is of great use with very wide application. —人工智能，人机对话，机器翻译The research of linguistics has already gone beyond language itself.Definition of LinguisticsHow do you define linguistics? What is linguistics?——Linguistics can be defined as the scientific or systematic study of language. It is a science in the sense that it scientifically studies the rules, systems and principles of human language. What are we going to learn about linguistics?1. It is generally agreed that linguistics should include at least five parameters, namely, phonological, morphological, syntactic, semantic and pragmatic. These can be called microlinguistics.语音学(phonetics);音系学(phonology);形态学(morphology);句法学(syntax) —Schools of Modern Linguistics 现代语言学流派; 语义学(semantics) ; 语用学(pragmatics) (chapter2-6) 2. Macrolinguistics——interdisciplinary learningSaussure, father of modern linguistics(现代语言学之父) were intended to establish the autonomy of linguistics, giving it a well-defined subject of study and freeing it from reliance on other disciplines. However, the interactive links between linguistics and other sciences are developing fast.尽管索绪尔的目的是给予语言学自主性，给它定义明确的研究对象，将它从对其他学科的依赖中解放出来。

LinguisticsChapter 1 Invitations to Linguistics1. What is languageLanguage is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication.nguage is a systemA basic observation is that each language contains two systems, a system of sound and a system of meaning.B. Language is arbitraryThe relation between expression and content is not natural but conventional. And this conventional relation varies from language to language.e.g.It is called a “老鼠”in Chinese,while a “rat”or “mouse”in EnglishC. Language is vocalThe primary medium of language is sound rather than word. written forms came much later than the spoken forms; we speak more everyday; we learn to speak first.D. Language is symbolic 象征性的Language is symbolic in the sense that all the sounds people produce and the ideas, concepts, objects, etc. that these sounds can refer to are bounded up by convention. 惯例Linguistic units are conventional signs.E. Language is human-specificLanguage is possessed only by human beings, other communication systems as possessed by animals or many other life forms are not languages, i.e. they do not manifest such features as the so-called design features as possessed by human language.F. Language is for communicationThe main and primary function of language is to communicate. People say things to each other to express their communicational needs, and language functions to communicate general attitudes toward life and others.2. Design features of language(1) Arbitrariness:任意性there is no logical connection between meaning and sound.(2) Duality：双重性language is a system, which consists of two levels of structures, at the lower level there is the structure of sounds; at the higher level there is the structure of words.(3) Creativity：创造性Language is creative in the sense that users can understand and create sentences they have never heard before.(4) Displacement：移位性language can be used to communicate about things that are not present in our immediate communicational context.（5）Cultural transmission:文化传播the details of the linguistic system must be learned anew by each speaker. Language is not transmitted biologically from generation to generation.（6）Interchangeability交换性any human being can be both a producer and a receiver of messages.3. Functions of language（1）Informative信息功能The use of language to record facts, to state what things are like, and to exchange information.（2）Interpersonal 人际功能The most important sociological use of language, which serves to establish and maintain people’s status in a society.（3）Performative施为功能Language can be used to do things, (Austin and Searl)to change the social status or the immediate state of affairs of people.（4）Emotive情感功能Language can be used to express the emotional state of the speaker.（5）Phatic communion寒暄功能Ritual exchanges, exchanges that have little meaning but help to maintain our relationships with other people.（6）Recreational 娱乐功能the use of language to have fun.（7）Metalingual元功能Language can be used to explain or describe itself or other languages.4. four principles for studying linguistics:（1）Exhaustiveness穷尽性（2）Consistency一致性（3）Economy经济性（4）Objectiveness客观性5. Main branches of linguisticssound:phonetics语音学phonology音系学form:morphology形态学syntax句法学meaning：semantics语义学pragmatics语用学Macrolinguistics宏观语言学Applied linguistics应用语言学Psycholinguistics心理语言学Neurolinguistics神经语言学Sociolinguistics社会语言学Anthropological linguistics人类语言学Computational linguistics计算机语言学6. Important distinctions（1）Descriptive 描述性If a linguistic study aims to describe and analyze the language people actually use（2）prescriptive规定性If the linguistic study aims to lay down rules for “correct and standard”behavior in using languageModern linguistics is mostly descriptive（3）Synchronic共时性It refers to the description of a language at some point of time in history（4）Diachronic 共时性It refers to the description of a language as it changes through time .（5）Langue言语It refers to the speaker’s understanding and knowledge of the language that he speaks.（6）Parole语言It refers to the actual speaking of language by an individual speaker.Langue is the set of conventions and rules which language users all have to abide by, parole is the concrete use of the conventions and the application of the rules.Langue is abstract, parole is concreteLangue is relatively stable, while parole varies from person to person, from situation to situation.（7）competence 能力It refers to an ideal speaker’s knowledge of the underlying 潜在的system of rules in a language.（8）performance 实行It refers to the actual use of the language by a speaker in a real communicational context.Chapter 2 Speech Sounds1. Speech communication involves three steps:speech production 产出speech transmission 传播speech perception 感知(1) Segment语段a linguistic unit in any sequence 顺序which may be isolated from the rest of the sequence no direct correspondence can be established between spelling and pronunciation.(2)Divergence分化the process of two or more languages or language varieties becoming less like each other.2. IPA: the International Phonetic Association3.Consonants辅音28The sounds in the production 生成of which there is an obstruction阻碍of the air-stream气流at some point of the vocal tract 声道Manners of articulation: 发音方式(1)Stop 爆破音：[p, b, k, g, t, d](2)Nasal 鼻音:[m, n, ŋ](3)Fricative摩擦音：[f, v] [θ, ð] [s, z] [ʃ, Ʒ] [ h](4)Approximant 浊音：[r, j, w](5)Lateral 无擦通音：[ l ](6)Affricate 塞擦音：4.Place of articulation:发音部位(1)Bilabial双唇音：[p, b, m, w] (2)Labiodental唇齿音：[f, v](3)Dental齿音：[θ, ð] (4)Alveolar齿龈音：[t, d, n, s, z, l, r] (5)Post alveolar齿槽音：[ʃ, Ʒ] (6)Retroflex卷舌音：[ r ](7)Palatal上颚音: [ j ] (8)V elar:软腭音：[k, g, ŋ](9)Uvular小舌音(10)pharyngeal喉音(11)glottal声门音Consonants can be described by the following three criteria: voicing (whether a consonant is voiceless or voiced), place of articulation, manner of articulation.e.g.[ p ] voiceless bilabial stop[ b ] voiced bilabial stop[ f ] voiceless labiodental fricative5.vowels元音the sounds in the production of which no articulators come very close together and the air-stream passes through the vocal tract without obstructionThe vowels are usually described with reference to the following four criteria:height; position raised; tenseness (length); lip-roundinge.g. [ i: ] high front tense unrounded vowel[ u ] high back lax rounded vowel[ ə] mid central lax unrounded vowel6. Coarticulation协同发音overlapping of adjacent articulations(1)anticipatory coarticulation:预期协同发音 e.g. team lamb(2)persevarative coarticulation:持续协同发音e.g. map meatthe sound displaying theinfluence of the preceding sound7. Nasalization鼻音化the vowel acquiring some quality of the of the following nasal sound8. Phoneme:音素the smallest unit of sound in a language which can distinguish two words.9. Allophones音位变体Coarticulation is the phonetic term for the phonological term assimilation.10. The main suprasegmental features 超音特征Syllable音节, tone音调, intonation语调, stress重读.Intonation :It refers to the change of pitch at sentence level.Tone:It refers to the Change of pitch of individual syllables.Chinese is a typical tone language.11. The syllable structure(((C)C)C) V ((((C)C)C)C)A syllable usually consists of three part: onset, the peak or rhyme and the coda. The vowels within the rime is the nucleus.12. Morpheme:词素the smallest meaningful unit in a language.Chapter 4 From word to text1. Syntactic relations句法关系language as “a system of signs”, each of which consists of two indispensable 不可缺少的parts: signifier (sound image) and signified (concept).Syntagmatic relation: 组合关系relation between elements that form part of the same form, sequence, construction, etc.(also called horizontal or chain relation)3. Paradigmatic relation聚合关系specifically between an individual unit and others that can replace it in a given sequence. (also called vertical or choice relation)Grammatical constructions refer to any syntactic constructs that have certain syntactic functions.4. Immediate constituentsa term used in structural sentence analysis for every linguistic unit, which is a part of a larger linguistic unit.Immediate constituents are constituents immediately, directly below the level of a construction.5. IC Analysis: the way of analyzing a construction into its immediate constituents.6. Other shortened form of different phrases or words are as follows:N = noun A = adjectiveP = preposition AP = adjective phraseV = verb PP = preposition phraseDet = determiner 限定词art. S = clauseadv = adverb conj = conjuction7. Three ways of IC Analysis:(a) bracketing (b) labeled tree diagram(c) Tree diagram8. the substitutability: 替代性whether a sequence of words can be substituted for a single word and the structure still remains the same.9. Endocentric and exocentric constructions（1）Endocentric construction 向心结构It is one whose distribution is functionally equivalent, or approaching equivalence相等, to one of its constituents, which servers as the centre, or head, of the whole.e.g. poor boythe little match girlwill have finishedthe book on the shelfreally very lateTypical endocentric constructions are noun phrases, verb phrases and adjective phrases. The endocentric constructions can be further divided into two subtypes: subordinate construction 主从结构and coordinate construction 并列结构.Subordinate construction:It is one in which only one head is dominant and the other constituents dependent. Coordinate construction:It refers to be all equal in syntactic status, they are independent of each other（2）Exocentric construction:离心结构a group of syntactically related words where none of them is functionally equivalent to the group as a whole, that is, there is no definable center or head inside the groupThe exocentric constructions are usually basic sentences, prepositional phrases, predicate (predicate + object)动宾关系and connective(be + complement) constructions.10. The phrase structure component has phrase structure rules as follows：S: NP + VPVP: V + NPNP: Det + NDet: the, a, etc.N: man, ball, etc.V: hit, take, etcLanguage can be seen as consisting of three parts: syntax句法学, semantics语义学and phonology 音系学.11. Recursiveness:递归性It is a phenomenon in which there is no limit to the number of embedding or conjoining one linguistic unit to another unit.ex:Xiao Lin’s teacherXiao Lin’s teacher’s husbandXiao Lin’s teacher’s husband’s parentsXiao Lin’s teacher’s husband’s parents’friend ...12. Conjoining: 连接It refers to a construction where one clause is conjoined with another. 并列句Ex:a. John bought a hat.b. John’s wife bought a bag.c. John bought a hat and his wife bought a bag.13. Embedding: 嵌入It refers to the process in which a clause is included in the sentence in syntactic subordination. 从句Ex: a. I saw the man.b. The man visited you last year.c. I saw the man who had visited you last year.The sentences can be linked either hypotactically or paratactically.Chapter 5 Meaning1.What is semantics?语义学Specifically, semantics is the study of the meaning of linguistic units, words and sentences in particular.2.Meanings of MEANINGone difficulty in the study of MEANING is that the term “meaning”itself has different meanings.--- intention--- inference--- a translation3.Kinds of meaning（1）The traditional approach 通用方法（2）The pragmatic approach 务实方法（3）The functional approach: 功能法4.Seven types of meaning by Leech(1)Conceptual meaning 概念A word or phrase can be used to express or evoke a state of mind which is cognitive, in this case the word or phrase expresses conceptual meaning.Conceptual meaning is central.5.Distinctions between denotation and connotation:(1)denotation: 外延It concerned with the relationship between a word and the thing it denotes(2)connotation: 内涵It refers to the properties of the entity a word denotesEx:human statesman politiciandenotation any person person who takes uppoliticsconnotation biped, commendatory derogatoryfeatherless, rationalAssociative meaning 联想(2) Connotative meaning 内涵What is implied apart from what is explicitly named or described. It is the subsidiary meaning of a word, usually associated with the nature or properties the word denotes.e.g.politician and statesman have different connotative meanings.(3) Social meaning 社会What is communicated of the social circumstances of language use.E.g.Good morning, sir, and Y our honor.(4) Affective meaning 情感refers to the emotional connotation attached to utterancesE.g.vagrant vs. homeless.(5) Reflected meaning 反映What is communicated through association with another sense of the same expression.e.g.The woods are lovely, dark, and deep,But I have promises to keep,And miles to go before I sleep,And miles to go before I sleep.(6)Collocative meaning 搭配What is communicated through association with words which tend to occur in the environment of another word.e.g.black tea vs. black coffee;a strong horse vs. a strong nation.(7)Thematic meaning 主题What is communicated by the way in which the message is organized in terms of order and emphasis.e.g.Authority I respect, but authoritarianism I deplore.Sense refers to the complex system of relationships that hold between linguistic elements themselves, it is concerned only with intra-linguistic relations.6. Word sense relations(1)Synonymy同义词It refers to the sameness sense relations between words.Some semanticians maintain that there are no real synonyms, that is, no two words have exactly the same meaning.7. Five types of synonyms:i. Dialectal synonyms 方言同义词---- synonyms used in different regional dialects British English American Englishlift elevatorluggage baggagelorry truckpetrol gasolineflat apartmentwindscreen windshieldtorch flashlightii. Stylistic synonyms 文体同义词--- synonyms differing in styleEx:Old man, daddy, dad, father, male parentStart, begin, commenceKid, child, offspringKick the bucket, pop off, die, pass away, decreaseiii. Synonyms that differ in their emotive or evaluative meaning 不同的同义词在感情或评价的意义Ex:collaborator: a person who helps another（劳经）合作者accomplice: a person who helps another （法律）共犯iv. Collocational synonyms 搭配同义词Ex:Accuse of sb. , charge sb. , rebukerotten tomatoesaddled eggsrancid bacon or buttersour milk.v. Semantically different synonyms 语义上不同的同义词程度amaze: to surprise(suggesting confusion and bewilderment )astound: to surprise(suggesting difficulty in believing )8. Antonymy 反义词It refers to the oppositeness sense relations between words, and three types of antonymy can be classified:(1) gradable antonymy 分级Cold, cool, lukewarm, warm, hot(2) complementary antonymy 补充Alive- dead(3) converse antonymy 相反e.g. husband / wife, borrow / lend.9.Hyponymy上下义关系Hyponymy indicates sense inclusiveness. The upper term in this sense relation is called superordinate, and the lower terms, hyponyms, members of the same class are calledco-hyponyms.Eg:In contrast to Chinese, there is only one word in English for thedifferent kinds of uncles: 伯父、叔叔、舅舅、姑父、姨父。

2006学年秋季《普通语言学教程》讲义 ―― 第以章Chapter one本章共 5 页Introduction to linguistics1. What is linguistics? ( definition of linguistics) Linguistics: is generally defined as the scientific study of (human) language. 1. The word language preceded by zero article in English implies that linguistics studies not any particular language, e.g. English , Chinese , French and Japanese, but languages in general. 2. The word study does not mean “learn” but “investigate”. 3. The word scientific refers to the way in which language is studied. 2. Why study linguistics ? 1. Linguistics takes an analytical approach to the study of language, and focus on developing skills in data analysis, problem solving, and logical thinking that can be applied to many fields. 2. It is a interdisciplinary subject. 3. Linguistics is a science that is still in its infancy but undergoing rapid development, and it is “a pilot science” 3. What and how linguists study language? 1. nature of language (focus on language itself) 2. nature of acquisition (focus on learners) 3. nature of teaching (focus on teachers) The process of linguistic study can be summarized as follows: .First, certain linguistic facts are observed, and generalizations are made about them; .Next, based on these generalizations, hypotheses are tested by further observations; .And finally a linguistic theory is constructed about what language is and how it works.4.Scope of linguistics 1. General linguistics: The study of language as a whole, it deal with the basic concepts, theories, descriptions, models and methods applicable in any linguistic study. 2. Micro-linguistics includes 6 parameters, namely, phonetics, phonology, morphology, syntax, semantics and pragmatics. It studies language itself. 3. Marco-linguistics conclude other disciplines such as psychology, sociology, ethnography, and artificial intelligence. It studies language in use--- practical usage.12006学年秋季《普通语言学教程》讲义 ―― 第以章本章共 5 页5Micro- linguistics 1. Phonetics: The general study of the characteristics of speech sounds. 2. Phonology: The description of the systems and patterns of speech sounds in a language. 3 Morphology: The study of the way in which morphemes are arranged to form words. 4. Syntax: The study of those rules that govern the combination of words to from permissible sentences. 5. Semantics: The study of meaning in abstraction. 6. Pragmatics: The study of meaning in context of use. Micro- linguistics61. Sociolinguistics: It studies the relations between language and society. 2. Psycholinguistics: The study of language and mind.– the mental structures and processes. 3. Stylistics: The study of how literary effects can be related to linguistic features. ( Written language) 4. Text linguistics: The study of the relationship between language and the contexts in which language is used. 5. Computational linguistics: 6. Cognitive linguistics: 7. Applied linguistics:Most linguistics, however, would agree on a tentative definition like this: 7 Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication. This definition is widely accepted because it includes some of the important characteristics of human language. The design features of language The following 7 design features of human language have been identified by C.F.Hockett(1958): 1.productivity, 2. arbitrariness, 3. duality, 4. displacement, 5.interchangeability, 6.specialization, 7.cultural transmission. The characteristics of language 1. Language as system ---The key word in the definition is "system". Language is systematic. Otherwise we would not be able to learn or use it consistently. Each language system contains two subsystems: a system of sound and a system of meaning. 2. Language as arbitrary ---There is no natural relationship between the sound and what it means in a certain22006学年秋季《普通语言学教程》讲义 ―― 第以章本章共 5 页language. we cannot predicate exactly what specific features we will find in a particular language if we are not familiar with it. 3. Language as vocal ---By "vocal" we mean that the primary medium of all languages is sound, no matter how well developed their writing system might be.The Elements of Language8Origin of language 1. The evolution of man’s social life paved the way for the evolution of language. Society is both the creator and the container of language.. 2. And various theories are proposed to account for or speculate about its origin, such as the bow-wow theory, the pooh-pooh theory, and the yo-he-ho theory, etc.The functions of language 1. Phatic( ) By phatic we mean that language can be used for establishing an atmosphere or maintaining social contact rather than for exchanging information or ideas. Greetings, farewells, and comments on weather serve this function. 2. Informative( ): Language severs an informative function when it is used to tell what the speaker believes, to give information about facts or to reason things out. Informative function is met through declarative sentences. Such informative statements are either true or false. 3. Expressive( ) : Language severs an expressive function when it is used to reveal the feelings and attitudes of the speaker. Ejaculations like: "Good heavens!"寒暄信息表达The functions of language 4. Directive ( ): Language serves a directive function when it is used to get the hearer do something. Most imperative sentences have this function. "Get out!" "Close the window, please.", "Walk slowly" are a few examples.指令5. Interrogative(疑问) :Language severs an informative function when it is used to get information from32006学年秋季《普通语言学教程》讲义 ―― 第以章本章共 5 页others. All questions that expect answers have this function, such as: "When will the meeting begin?" 6. Evocative( ) :The evocative function is the use of language to arouse certain feelings in the hearer. Its aim is to amuse, startle, anger, soothe, worry or please. 7. Performative ( ): Language is used to do things or to perform acts. Some Major Concepts in Linguistics Descriptive and prescriptive grammars Synchronic and diachronic linguistics Langue and parole Competence and performance Syntagmatic and paradigmatic relation Functionalism and formalism情感施为9 Some Major Concepts in Linguistics 1. Most modern linguistics is descriptive. It attempts to describe what people actually say. As traditional grammars tried to lay down rules, they are often called prescriptive. Descriptive grammars attempt to tell what is in the language, while prescriptive grammars tell people what should be in the language. The functions of language 2. When we study language at one particular time, it is called synchronic linguistics. When we study language developments through time, it is called diachronic or historical linguistics. SL focuses on the state of language at any point in history while DL focuses on the differences in two or more than 2 states of language over decades or centuries.3LangueParoleThe functions of language42006学年秋季《普通语言学教程》讲义 ―― 第以章本章共 5 页4. Competence and performance American linguist Noam Chomsky distinguishes competence and performance so as to idealize language data and to define the scope of linguistic study. Competence refers to the knowledge that native speakers have of their language as a system of abstract formal relations. Performance refers to their actual linguistic behavior, that is ,the actual use of this knowledge.The functions of language 5. Syntagmatic and paradigmatic relations Saussure has put forward another pair of concepts: syntagmatic and paradigmatic relations. Syntagmatic relations refers to the horizontal relationship between linguistic elements,which form linear sequences. Paradigmatic relations means the vertical relationship between forms,which might occupy the same particular place in a structure.→6. Functionalism and formalism Generally speaking, schools of linguistics can be divided into 2 major camps: functionalism and formalism. Functionalism or functional linguistics refers to the study of the forms of language in reference to their social function in communication. Formalism or formal linguistics is the study of the abstract forms of language and their internal relations.5。

Chapter 1 Invitations to Linguistics Teaching aims: let the students have the general idea about language and linguistics.Teaching difficulties: design features of language; some important distinctions in linguisticsTeaching procedures1. Language1.1 Why study language?A tool for communicationAn integral part of our life and humanity人类生活和人性中不可或缺的一部分.If we are not fully aware of the nature and mechanism of our language, we will be ignorant of what constitutes our essential humanity.如果不能完全理解语言的本质和结构,我们就会对人类的本质一无所知.1.2 What is language? 什么是语言1.2.1 different senses of language 语言的不同意义1. What a person says (concrete act of speech)a person’s consistent way of speaking or writinga particular level of speaking or writing e.g. colloquial languagean abstract system2. A Webster’s New Dictionary offers a frequently used sense of the word “language”:a. human speech 人类的言语b. the ability to communicate by this means 通过言语来交流的能力c. a system of vocal sounds and combinations of such sounds to which meaning is attributed, used for the expression or communication of thoughts and feelings; 用来表达或交流思想和感觉的一套声音及这些声音互相结合的系统d. the written representation of such a system 系统的文字表达3. the barest of definition, language is a means of verbal communication.最简洁的定义:语言是言语交流的一种方式.Language is instrumental in that communicating by speaking or writing is a purposeful act. It is social and conventional in that language is a social semiotic and communication can only take place effectively if all the users share a broad understanding of human interaction including such associated factors as nonverbal cues, motivation, and socio-cultural roles. Language distinguishes us from animals.因为说和写的交流方式是一种有目的的行为,所以语言是实用性的;因为语言是社会符号,语言的交流只能在所有参与者广泛理解了人类的那些非言语的暗示,动机,社会文化角色等等互相关联的因素之后才能有效进行,因此语言又是社会的,约定俗成的.语言使人类区别于动物.1.2.2 definitions1. Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication.1.3 Design features of language 语言的结构特征Design features------ refer to the defining properties of human language that distinguish it from any animal system of communication. They are arbitrariness, duality, productivity, and displacement.1.3.1 What is arbitrariness? 任意性a. arbitrariness---- arbitrariness(任意性): one design feature of human language, which refers to the fact that the forms of linguistic signs bear no natural relationship to their meaning. (人类语言的本质特征之一,指语言符号的形式与意义之间没有自然的联系.)It was discussed by Saussure first. The link between them is a matter of convention.E.g. “house” uchi (Japanese)Mansion (French)房子(Chinese)(1) arbitrary between the sound of a morpheme and its meaning语言的音和义之间的任意性a. By “arbitrary”, we mean there is n o logical connection between meanings and sounds. 语言的意义和语音之间没有逻辑关系。