专八复习资料推荐

在听力方面推荐考生可以做一些托福方面的听力练习，如中国大百科全书出版社的《托福听力全真试题详解》等，翻译应该背诵一些美文，比如环球时代《英语专业应试必备美文》、译林出版社的《散文佳作108篇》等，阅读方面可以多看看《新概念》（4）。

另外，《英语专业八级模拟预测卷》涵盖了专八听力、翻译、阅读等所有题型，也是目前为止最贴近专八真题的一套练习，考生们不妨做一做。

4、能否推荐一下专八的听力、翻译、阅读的书？答：目前市面上出版的很多模拟练习等与大纲相去甚远，有的只相当于大学英语四级水平，所以考生们要慎选材料。

在听力方面推荐考生可以做一些托福方面的听力练习，如中国大百科全书出版社的《托福听力全真试题详解》等，翻译应该背诵一些美文，比如环球时代《英语专业应试必备美文》、译林出版社的《散文佳作108篇》等，阅读方面可以多看看《新概念》（4）。

另外，《英语专业八级模拟预测卷》涵盖了专八听力、翻译、阅读等所有题型，也是目前为止最贴近专八真题的一套练习，考生们不妨做一做。

5、还有近3个月的时间，怎么安排复习？答：这段时间里要着手做历年的专八真题和一些预测试卷。

针对自己的薄弱环节进行专项练习，并研究以前做错的题目，分析原因，加深印象，反复强化训练，应该可以收到意想不到的效果。

6、有没有必要背单词？记专四专八词汇有什么技巧？答：背单词是非常有必要的。

可以从词根开始背起，背过的词汇要不停的复习，否则很容易忘记。

另外要重视核心词汇，比如我们在听力上可以总结一些常考的必看的新闻词汇等，这样同学们在考试时很容易通过词汇关。

7、阅读中的生词如何积累？首先，我们要从题目出发，带着问题看文章，通过做题我们可以看出来，有些生词是不会影响我们做题目的。

如果你还是希望能把遇到的生词都记住，可以选择做题后回头再精读这篇文章，来把生词变成熟词，以便以后再碰到时不会成为我们阅读的障碍。

8、怎么在听力过程中长时间保持住自己的注意力？听力是一个需要积累的过程，如果没有长期的积累谁也不可能长时间的集中精力。

日语专八复习资料导语：日语专业八级(NSS8),是中国国内以日语专业学生为考试对象,测定日语专业学生日语水平的最高级别的考试。

关于专八的备考，其实资料书蛮少的。

我自己看了一下这三本书：《日语专业八级考试详解》《大学日语专业八级轻松过级一点通》《日语专业考试综合测试指导(8级)》。

当然每本都是选看的，介么多也看不完呢~ 这些书里都有介绍考试题型、分值、时间的。

专八分为客观题和主观题。

主观题的部分包括翻译和作文。

这个就看自己平时的积累了，所以几乎不用复习，就算要复习也是来不及的。

客观题分为听力题和笔试题。

1、听力题。

我觉得几乎不用管它，只要你平时都在练习听力，并且N1听力没什么问题的话，就OK了。

就拿去年12月我们考的时候来说吧，那个听力应该连N2都不到......(当然，每年难度应该不一样啦，偶感觉去年那个是没N2水平......好吧，去年那题最多就N2吧~)2、单词。

单词感觉有些的确不会，不会的就凭感觉吧。

你全都会了，出题老师未免也太心软了吧，呵呵。

3、谚语、惯用句。

考前自己看了些惯用句的，但是考试的时候，好像都没考到看过的......= =|||所以还是贵在积累啊!4、语法题。

和N1很相似，就不细说了。

过了N1的语法，这个应该不在话下。

5、敬语题。

敬语我考前看过一遍，把重要的都记下来，写在了一张纸上，便于复习。

觉得这部分做的还好。

6、古代语法。

古代语法是我考前看的最多的部分了~~变形什么滴真麻烦，还是现代日语好(呵呵~)。

虽然占的分不多，但是看看还是能够拿到分的，何必失分呢?我自己考前把古代语法的变形、活用整理了一下，写在纸上，背了背，这部分算OK 了~7、常识题。

文学常识、地理常识神马的都要考。

考前我翻了翻书，就放弃复习了，实在量太大了，背不下来(泪......)谁写了神马作品......好吧，觉得最让人想哭的题还有那种，几个作家(ABCD选项)，让你来排序，那得把年代都记住啊，含泪望苍天......因此考试的时候这部分全是拼的RP，苍天保佑RP大爆发~(估计自己这里错了不少......)8、阅读题和完形填空题。

专八复习资料专八复习资料随着全球化的进程加快，英语作为一门国际通用语言的地位越来越重要。

对于那些希望在国际舞台上有更多机会的人来说，精通英语已经成为一种必备的能力。

而专八考试则是中国高校英语专业学生的一项重要考试，它可以评估学生的英语水平，为他们的未来职业发展提供保障。

为了帮助考生更好地备考专八，以下是一些复习资料的推荐。

首先，英语语法是专八考试的重要内容之一。

掌握英语语法规则对于正确理解和运用英语至关重要。

《英语语法大全》是一本非常实用的语法参考书，它详细介绍了各种语法现象和规则，并提供了大量的例句和练习题，帮助考生巩固所学知识。

此外，还可以参考《剑桥英语语法》和《牛津英语语法》，它们是权威的英语学习参考书，对于理解和掌握英语语法有很大帮助。

除了语法，专八考试还涉及到阅读理解。

阅读理解是考生在短时间内理解和分析文章内容的能力。

为了提高阅读理解能力，考生可以多读一些英文报纸、杂志和小说，培养自己的阅读速度和理解能力。

同时，还可以使用一些专门的阅读理解练习资料，如《专八真题阅读理解》和《专八阅读理解技巧与模拟题》等。

这些资料包含了大量的专八真题和模拟题，通过反复练习可以提高考生的阅读理解水平。

写作是专八考试的另一个重要部分。

考生需要在有限的时间内完成一篇短文或者一封信件。

为了提高写作能力，考生可以多写一些练习作文，并请教老师或者其他专业人士进行修改和指导。

同时，可以参考一些写作指南和范文集，如《写作指南：专八写作技巧与范文》和《专八写作范文精选》等。

这些资料可以帮助考生了解专八写作的要求和特点，并提供一些范文供参考。

听力和口语也是专八考试的考察内容。

为了提高听力和口语能力，考生可以多听一些英语广播、电视节目和英语教学材料，培养自己的听力理解能力。

同时，可以参加一些口语培训班或者与外教进行口语练习，提高口语表达能力。

此外，还可以使用一些专门的听力和口语练习资料，如《专八听力真题与模拟题》和《专八口语练习与模拟题》等。

专业八级虽然难度挺高的，但是准备有素，通过的可能性还是很大的，关键在于准备的方法上，以前总是看到有人拿一本12000的单词天天的背，诚然单词量固然重要，但是不可一味的背单词，如果只背背单词，到考试时候就会觉得很郁闷，为什么有些单词看上去熟悉，却还不大确定是什么，而且即使知道什么意思，阅读还是模模糊糊，搞的很不清楚。

听力好象听懂好难的单词，却不懂一整篇的大意！如何才可以做到顺利过关呢？总结一句话：分项击破，以强补弱，各项平均，总体突破。

也就是说在平时积累词汇的同时，多做练习，注意控制好时间，每练习一套，就要大概算出每项得分情况，什么地方差补什么，如此反复，毕有提高。

练习题最好用上外的，我记得当时我师兄准备考研，没怎么准备TEM-8,他寒假回去只完完全全，认认真真听完整本上外出版的上海市紧缺人才考试用书的《高级英语听力教程》，专八考了我们班第一，听力单项第一，当然我不是误导大家去听一本听力就行了（因为我师兄各项基本功一直很棒，拿过很多次一等奖学金，现以留校了），我是推荐大家有精力去听听肯定有所提高，本人现在工作了，仍然听这一套资料，语音非常纯正，简直是一种享受！我自己考专八的时候翻译不行，但是听力感觉非常好，大头分拿得多自然就容易过。

下面转贴一篇文章，我04年考之前我也看过，不知大家看过没，虽然今年改革了，但希望对大家有那么一点点作用，我觉得写的还好：专业八级的虽然难度较大，但在全国的英语专业的学生考试的成绩来看，通过率是很高的，全国平均通过率是百分之六十多，为什么通过率这么高？就我个人的观点而言，是因为专八考试的题目采分点多，每道小题都是一分，特别是阅读理解这样容易失分的部分，每道题也都是一分，与四、六级不同。

下面我将就将对专八考试的各部分体型的特点做出评价。

1 听力包括听情景对话、长时间的交谈、英语广播、还有复合式听写。

前两部分的难度和六级差不多，关键是后两部分。

英语广播主要是VOA和BBC的新闻，没有什么应试技巧可言，关键要考平时多听这两个电台的广播来培养语感。

英语专八考试资料星火英语•2011专八考试预测试卷共十套下载汇总（含答案听力原文及MP3字幕）冲击波系列•2011年英语专业8级翻译新版PDF书下载（大家网首发）2011年星火英语专八预测作文共12篇PDF版下载（大家网首发）冲击波系列•2011年英语专业8级写作新版PDF书下载（大家网首发）冲击波系列•2011年英语专业8级人文知识新版PDF书下载（大家网首发）冲击波系列•2011年英语专业8级改错新版PDF书下载（大家网首发）冲击波系列•2011年英语专业8级阅读新版PDF书下载（大家网首发）冲击波系列•2011年英语专业8级听力新版PDF书及MP3下载（大家网首发）星火英语•2011英语专业8级考试满分听力PDF书，MP3及字幕下载2001年至2010年专八历年真题听力MP3及字幕下载2000-2009年英语专业八级真题及MP3下载汇总（巅峰突破，含听力原文及答案解析）英语专业八级题库与解析(冲击波)2010年新书英语专业八级考试高分集训之阅读理解下载【2010年新书】英语专业八级人文知识1000题下载星火英语：英语专业八级考试写作标准范文背诵一书下载(2008年版本)英语专业八级十年真题及详解（1999-2008）PDF书下载英语专业八级人文知识冲击波系列PDF书下载英语专业八级翻译冲击波系列PDF书下载英语专业八级阅读共约280页PDF书下载张艳莉：英语专业四八级词汇一本通共约400页PDF书下载徐栋良：当代实用英语习语共约200页PDF书下载《新编高等学校英语专业八级考试指南(邹申修订版)》.pdf下载新编高等学校英语专业八级考试指南听力（邹申）MP3下载英语专业八级核心词汇（共200多页PDF书下载）英语专业八级人文知识精讲（共180多页PDF书）下载2009英语专业八级真题（电子版）2008英语专业八级真题（电子版）2007英语专业八级真题（电子版）2010年英语专业八级预测试卷第三套（电子版）2010年英语专业八级预测试卷第二套（电子版）2010年英语专业八级预测试卷第一套（电子版）2009年英语专业八级考试听力真题（电子版）2008年英语专业八级考试听力真题（电子版）2007年英语专业八级考试听力真题（电子版）本科英语写作教材PDF下载翻译九本好书下载英语长句翻译基本功（英语翻译讲座资料共29页下载）独家发布：《英语专业八级作文指南（第四版）》常春藤系列独家发布：《英语专业八级翻译指南（第四版）》常春藤系列[下载]十天背完一万八级单词[下载]专业英语八级精通词汇12000全书PDF专八英美文化大纲英语语言学概论笔记经典中文语句英译2010版《写作160篇》写作常用语言及通用句式PDF版下载英语专业应用语言学资料9篇PDF下载英语专业八级核心词汇（共200多页PDF书下载）英语专业八级人文知识精讲（共180多页PDF书）下载英汉翻译笔记整理.doc 下载英语专业八级人文知识精讲（共180多页PDF书）下载英语专业《英国文学》复习要点新编英国文学教程PDF共约490页下载英国文学与美国文学的重点共20多页WORD下载英国文学复习提纲（中文版）WORD下载英语专业八级人文知识精讲35篇电子书下载英语专业八级人文知识20篇下载美国文学中英文名称对照电子书下载[下载]英国文学史笔记（上外）英语专业八级人文知识汇总英语专业八级人文知识精讲(精美PDF版)英语国家概况笔记趣味记忆专八人文知识英美文学及作品英国文学史刘炳善版[下载]人文知识必读：《欧洲文化学习指南》全书PDF四百页美国文学简史专业八级必看内容之美国文学专业八级必看内容之英国文学英美文学老师PPT课件下载专八改错练习及答案解析百篇下载大学专业八级改错练习及答案解析54篇电子书下载专八改错练习及答案解析35篇电子书下载专八改错练习汇总（更新中）如鱼得水记单词专八词汇mp3下载英语专业八级词汇何兆熊主篇PDF书约230页下载专业英语八级词汇背诵卡片[下载]专八词汇记忆经典：《8000英语难词近义分类速记》近500页[下载]八级英语基础同义词近义词、短语辨析（实用性极强）[下载][八级词汇背诵]2008新东方英语词根词缀记忆大全（整理打印版）[下载]牛津实用英语语法.电子书完全版闭着眼睛背1000单词共50篇下载英语语法共128篇下载英语成语及解析共30篇电子书下载英语词汇搭配及解析共33篇电子书下载英语语法之名词用法共48篇电子书下载英语语法之代词用法共47篇电子书下载英语新词汇与常用词汇的翻译共164篇下载英语八级词汇背诵大全[下载]八级英语100篇精读荟萃(低中高级)英语专业八级阅读备考核心词汇文学经典书籍下载大全（文学必备）2001年至2010年专八历年真题听力MP3及字幕下载专八新闻听力词汇总结45讲[汇总]大学英语专业八级历年真题及听力mp3下载2009专八听力及答案[下载]英语专业八级听力常用短语汇总【词典级】专八听力常用词汇汇总及文本下载英汉妙语佳句赏析约280页PDF书下载英译汉病句分析(共130页PDF书下载)汉译英难点解析500例（共32页WORD下载）英汉翻译教程张培基【完整版】WORD下载翻译经验与技巧1共70篇电子书下载翻译经验与技巧2共75篇电子书下载专四专八之文学翻译一起练共35期下载[下载]《翻译理论与实践》第二版(精美课件)读中文名著英译版练八级翻译系列：老子《道德经》（詹姆斯•莱格翻译）[下载]蒋胜翻译教程（迄今最好的翻译教程）全书PDF翻译词汇大全英语翻译实践系列(完整资料大全)[下载]八级翻译长难句结构分析最新经典五十句[下载]《英汉翻译教程》全书（pdg格式）[下载]专八考试英译汉倒装句辨析技巧翻译技巧及鉴赏共75篇下载英汉对照翻译3000句孙子兵法中英文对照共15篇容易误译的英语共24篇下载英语八级汉译英练习汇总及文本下载英语翻译一本全翻译的技巧WORD下载（钱歌川）写作材料WORD下载（钱歌川）上外老师呕心沥血翻译教程（最全面）pdf下载写作精品背诵句型共40多页WORD下载专八写作范文共12篇电子书下载[下载]英语八级写作常见36类同义词归纳总结[下载]专八写作背诵范文选（新东方内部资料）专八作文范文集锦。

八级是通过考试发展的英语等级认证。

英语专业八级考试(TEM-8，Test for English Majors，Grade 8)，全称为全国高等学校英语专业高年级阶段统测。

接下来为你专业英语八级复习资料, 希翼对你有匡助。

美国概况1. In area, the United States is the largest country in the world.A 2ndB 3rdC 4thD 5th2.The 50th state in America isA AlaskaB TexasC HawaiiD Rhode Island3. Mauna Loa, the world’s largest active volcano, is located inA HawaiiB AlaskaC TexasD Perth4. Richard Nixon resigned in 1974 because of .A the Great DepressionB the Black Power MovementC the Watergate ScandalD the Isolation policy5.All the following universities are located in New England EXCEPTA YaleB HarvardC MITD Berkeley6.The United States has less than 6% of the world’s population; yet it produces about of the total world output.A 20%B 25%C 30%D 35%7.What forms a natural boundary between Mexico and the United States?A The Rio Grande RiverB The southern Rocky MountainsC The Colorado RiverD The Gulf of California8. The US formally entered the Second World War inA 1937B 1939 C1941 D 19439. The Presidents during the American Civil War was .A Andrew JacksonB Abraham LincolnC Thomas JeffersonD George Washington10 The emblem of the Democratic Party is .A elephantB donkeyC bearD bull答案及解析:1.C 按领土面积计算：美国是继俄罗斯，加拿大，中国之后的第四名。

英语专八备考用书你是不是正在准备专八考试，不知用哪些书备考比较好?接下来店铺为你推荐英语专八备考用书，一起看看吧!英语专八备考用书最佳知识点讲解听力：星火(我认为还不错不过普遍反映冲击波语速更接近专八真题)阅读：星火(题目比较难)冲击波(过于简单我基本上全对)翻译：星火(还行)作文：星火黄金模板(力荐!!我很喜欢)另外还附上前辈的经验词汇用书 :刘毅10000(与八级的词汇相符,特别是对于翻译部分).如果学有余力的话,可以再看看刘毅22000.听力部分:真题和邹申专八指南.还听了点中级听力.高口笔试部分的听力和专八很像.阅读部分英语专业七级习题集和英语专业八级习题集,书中的阅读不是现在的新题型,都是每个文章后只有2,3个问题的那种.这书满足专八阅读考的就是快速捕捉信息的训练,.翻译部分1.人事部三级笔译教材.2.人事部三级笔译教材辅导.3.人事部三级笔译历年真题这3本书都是实战用书,开卷有益啊.4.英语专业八级改错与翻译100+100常骏跃主编,大连理工大学出版社.小本的,,这本书中的翻译多是中国翻译杂志上的节选,和专八的风格很相似,以散文为主.写作部分1.冲击波系列---英语专业八级写作.徐永,姚小蒙主编,大连理工大学出版社.2.星火英语---2007英语专业八级考试写作标准范文背诵中国社会出版社.这本书都是背诵的范文.人文部分1.英语专业八级人文知识精讲,王苏春主编,南京大学出版社2.冲击波系列和海冰系列.改错部分1.英语专业八级改错与翻译100+100英语专八备考专家推荐用书1.翻译参考书推荐：翻译应该背诵一些美文，比如环球时代《英语专业应试必备美文》、译林出版社的《散文佳作108篇》等。

2.阅读参考书推荐：阅读方面可以多看看《新概念》另外，《英语专业八级模拟预测卷》涵盖了专八听力、翻译、阅读等所有题型，也是目前为止最贴近专八真题的一套练习，考生们不妨做一做。

3.听力参考书推荐：在听力方面推荐考生可以做一些托福方面的听力练习，如中国大百科全书出版社的《托福听力全真试题详解》等。

日语专八复习资料日语专八复习资料日语专八考试是许多学习日语的学生所追求的目标。

为了顺利通过这一考试，准备充足的复习资料是至关重要的。

在这篇文章中，我将分享一些有关日语专八复习资料的建议和经验。

一、词汇和语法词汇和语法是日语学习的基础。

在备考过程中，建议学生将重点放在词汇和语法的复习上。

可以通过背单词、学习常用的句型和语法规则来提高自己的语言水平。

同时，也要多做练习题，巩固所学的知识。

二、听力和阅读专八考试中，听力和阅读是两个重要的部分。

为了提高听力能力，可以多听日语新闻、电台节目和日语原版电影。

同时，也要多做听力练习题，提高自己的听力理解能力。

在阅读方面，可以选择一些专业性的日语文章或书籍进行阅读，增加自己的阅读量和阅读理解能力。

三、写作和口语写作和口语是考察学生实际应用日语能力的重要环节。

在备考过程中，可以多写作文，提高自己的写作能力。

可以选择一些与专业相关的话题进行写作，增加自己的专业词汇量和写作技巧。

同时，也要多进行口语练习，可以找一位日语母语者进行对话练习，提高口语表达能力。

四、参考资料在准备日语专八考试时，选择合适的参考资料是非常重要的。

可以选择一些经典的日语教材，如《新编日语能力考试N1词汇》、《新编日语能力考试N1语法》等。

同时，也可以参考一些专门针对专八考试的复习资料，如《日语专八考试全真模拟试题》、《日语专八考试历年真题详解》等。

这些资料可以帮助学生了解考试的题型和难度，有针对性地进行复习。

五、时间规划在备考过程中，合理规划时间是非常重要的。

可以将备考时间分为不同的阶段，每个阶段设定不同的学习目标和计划。

在每个阶段结束时，可以进行一次自我评估，了解自己的学习进度和不足之处，及时调整学习计划。

六、坚持和反复备考日语专八考试需要坚持和反复。

每天保持一定的学习时间，不断积累知识和提高能力。

同时，要不断进行复习和巩固，将学过的知识进行反复训练，以达到熟练掌握的程度。

总之，备考日语专八考试需要全面而系统的复习。

Lecture 11. Why do linguists tend to be so critical to traditional grammar?Traditional Grammar---broadly refers to the study of language covering the period from ancient times to the end of the 18th century .Linguistics is descriptive, not prescriptive. Linguistics regarded the spoken language as primary, not the written. It lacked autonomy. It was modeled on ancient Greek, Latin grammar. It was based on logical concepts from meaning to form, not from form to meaning. Emphasis was laid on written language. The attitude was prescriptive not descriptive.2. What is the difference between the descriptive and the prescriptive approach to the investigation of language? Which is to be preferred and why?Descriptive grammar refers to the structure of a language as it is actually used by speakers and writers. Prescriptive grammar refers to the structure of a language as certain people think it should be used. Both kinds of grammar are concerned with rules--but in different ways. Specialists in descriptive grammar study the rules or patterns that underlie our use of words, phrases, clauses, and sentences. On the other hand, prescriptive grammarians lay out rules about what they believe to be the “correct” or “incorrect” use of language. Descriptive grammarians generally advise us not to be overly concerned with matters of correctness: language, they say, isn't good or bad; it simply is. As the history of the glamorous word grammar demonstrates, the English language is a living system of communication, a continually evolving affair. Within a generation or two, words and phrases come into fashion and fall out again. Over centuries, word endings and entire sentence structures can change or disappear.3. What are features of modern linguistics?Linguistics is descriptive not prescriptive. Priority of spoken language. Priority of synchronic description. The linguist is interested in all languages.Lecture 21. What branches does general linguistics include? What these branches study?Phonetics: it studies speech sounds, including the production of speech, that is how speech sounds are actually made, transmitted and received, the sound of speech, the description and classification of speech sounds, words and connected speech.Phonology: it studies the rules governing the structure, distribution, and sequencing of speech sounds and the shape of syllables.Morphology: it is concerned with the internal organization of words it studies the minimal units of meaning—morphemes and word-formation processed. Syntax: it is about principles of forming and understanding correct English sentences.Semitics: it examines how meaning is encoded in a language.Pragmatic s: it is the study of meaning in context. it deals with particular utterance in particular situation and is especially concerned with the various ways in which the many social contexts of language performance can influence interpretation.3. (1)Langue vs. parole Langue was considered to be the totality of a language. It was a “storehouse”, the sum of word-images stored in the minds of individuals. We may put it loosely in a formula like:In Saussure's theory, parole refers to the individual side of speech, i.e. speaking is psychophysical, it being the actual, concrete act of speaking on the part of an individual. Parole is thus not a collective instrument; its manifestations are individual and momentary. Langue is code, parole is messag e Langue and parole are closely connected, each dependent on the other: the langue of a community can be arrived at only by a consideration of a large number of paroles, whereas parole can only be intelligible with langue in the minds of all the community members. To a linguist, langue is of primary importance as he wants to make statements which apply, not just to the speech of individuals but to the language as a whole.(2)Synchronic vs. Diachronic linguistics.Synchronic study of language---- refers to the study of language as a whole and the description of a particular state of a language at a given point of time in the development of language without considering its evolution and change in history.Diachronic study of language ---- refers to the study of the process of evolution of language at various histories (historical). A diachronic description of a language traces the historical development of the language and records the changes that have taken place in it between successive points in time.(3)Microlinguistics vs. MacrolinguisticsMicrolinguistics ---- refers to the study of the structure and systems of language, including the various subjects of study of the internal structures of language, such fields as phonology, morphology, syntax.Macrolinguistics ---- refers to the study of language from a broad angle in variou s interdisciplinary subjects, sociolinguistics, psycholinguistics, neurolinguistics, anthropological linguistics, mathematical linguistics, and computational linguisticsLecture 31. Define language. How can you understand it?To give the definition, language is a means of verbal communication .it is instrumental in that communicating by speaking or writing is a purposeful act. It is social and conventional in that language is a social semiotic and communication can only take effectively if all the users share a broad understanding of human interaction including such associated factors as nonverbal cues, motivation, and socio-cultural roles. Language learning and use are determined by the intervention of biological, cognitive, psychosocial and environmental factors .in short ,language distinguishes us from animals because it is far more sophisticated than any animal communication system.2. Illustrate the differences between human language and animal communication system in terms of displacement and cultural transmission.Displacement means that human languages enable their users to symbolize objects, events and concepts which are not present (in time and space) at the moment of communication. With language, we can recall the past or anticipate the future. For example, we can refer to the first has been dead for over 2500 years .Most animals respond communicatively as soon as they are stimulated by some occurrence of communal interest. For instance, a warning cry of a bird instantly announces danger. Such animals are under “immediate stimulus control”. Human language is, unlike animal communication systems, stimulus free. What we talk about need not be triggered by any external stimulus in the world or any internal state.Cultural transmission ---- refers to the fact that the details of the linguistic system must be learned anew by each speaker. They are not biologically transmitted from generation to generation. Though the capacity for language in human being has a genetic basis, the particular language a human being learns is a cultural fact, not a genetic one. Simply, while you may inherit brown eyes and dark hair from your parents, you do not inherit their language. You acquire a language in a culture with other speakers and not from parental genes. e.g. An infant born to Korean parents, who is adopted and brought up from birth by English speakers in the U.S, may have physical characteristics inherited from its natural parents, but it will inevitably speak English. And if the child is isolated from the society, he can’t acquire the language successfully. So language is acquired in a socio-cultural context.3. Why is language human specific?Firstly, human language has “design features” which animal communication system do not have, at least not in the true sense of them. Secondly, linguistshave done a lot trying to teach animals such as chimpanzees to speak a human language but have achieved nothing inspiring. Washoe, a female chimpanzee, was brought up like a human child by Beatnice and Alan Gardner. She was taught “American sign Language”, and learned a little that made the teachers happy but did mot make the linguistics circle happy, for few believed in teaching chimpanzees. Thirdly, a human child reared among animals cannot speak a human language, not even when he is taken back and taught to do so4. List basic functions of language and define each of them by their aimsReferential Function whenever we ask people for information or tell others about our circumstances and things alike, we are using language in an attempt to share what we know and exchange what we have in our minds. This is often called "referential", or "ideational".Interpersonal Function is concerned with interaction between the addresser and addressee in a discourse situation and the addresser's attitude toward what he speaks or writes about.Textual Function relates our abilities to construct texts out of our utterances and writings.The performative function is primarily to change the social status of persons; the performative function can extend to the control of reality as on some magical or religious occasions.Emotive function is a means of getting rid of our nervous energy when we are under stress.For example, swear words, obscenities are probably the commonest signals to be used in this way, especially when we are in an angry or frustrated state.Phatic Communion language can serve the function of creating or maintaining social relationship between speakers.Identifying function Our use of language can tell our listener or reader a great deal about ourselves, in particular, about our regional origins, social background, and level of education, occupation, age, sex, and personality.The recreational function of a language is often overlooked because it seems restrictive in purpose and supposedly limited in usefulness. However, no one will deny the use of language for the sheer joy of using it.5. Arbitrariness, Duality of structure, Displacement,Discreteness, Cultural transmission.Arbitrariness refers to the fact that the forms of linguistic signs bear no natural relationship to their meaning. Take the case of the English word “man”. In Chinese “rén”Duality refers to the property of having two levels of structures, units of the primary level being composed of elements of the secondary level and each level having its own principles of organization.For instance, tens of thousands of words out of a small set of sounds, around 48 in the case of the English language.Creativity----the speaker is able to combine the basic linguistic units to form an infinite set of sentences, most of which are never produced or heard before. Creativity is a universal property of human language. For example, we can write a sentence like the following and go on endlessly:This is the dog that chased the cat that killed the rat that ate the malt that lay in the house that Tom built.Lecture 41. How do phonetics and phonology differ from each other? And how are they related to each other?Phonetics-- general, descriptive, and classificatory. It studies speech sounds as they are.Phonology-- concerned with the sound system of language, studies the functioning of the speech sounds. Phonetics provides the means for describing speech sounds; phonology studies the ways in which speech sounds form system and patterns. Phonetics is of general nature; it is the branch of linguistics ,studying the characteristics of speech sounds and provides methods for their description ,classification , and transcription without reference to the function of speech sounds in a particular language ,while phonology is language specific . It deals with speech sounds within the context of a particular language; it is concerned with the working and functioning of speech sounds in a language. Phonologist studies what he believes are meaningful sounds related with their semantic features, morphological features, and the way they are conceived and printed in the depth of the mind. Phonological knowledge permits a speaker to produce sounds which form meaningful utterances, to recognize a foreign “accent”, to make up new words, to add the appropriate phonetic segments to form plurals and past tenses, to know what is and what is not a sound in one’s language.2 Illustrate phone, phoneme and allophone by examples. How is a phone different from a phoneme?A phone is a phonetic unit or segment. The speech sounds we hear and produce during linguistic communication are all phones. But phones do not necessarily distinguish meaning.When we hear the following words produced: pit, spit, tip, feel, leaf, the phones we have heard are [ph] (as in pit), [p] (as in spit), [p¬] (as in tip), [s], [t], [f], [i:], [i], [l].A phoneme is a phonological unit; it is a unit that is of distinctive value. So a phoneme is the smallest unit of sound in a language which can distinguish two words. It is an abstract unit. It is not any particular sound but rather it is represented or realized by a certain phone in a certain phonetic context. We use slant lines “/ /” pan and ban differ only in their initial sounds /p/ and /b/.Allophone: the different phones that represent or are derived from one phoneme are called the allophones of that phoneme. For example: /p/ is a phoneme, but it may be pronounced as phones [ph], [p], [p¬] .So [ph], [p], [p¬] are the allophones of the same phoneme /p/.3. Explain the sequential rules, assimilation rules and deletion rule by examples.Assimilation rule It assimilates one segment to another by “copying” a feature of a sequential phoneme, thus making the two phones more similar. When a phoneme is realized differently in actual connected speech from what it usually is, as a result of being near some other phonemes belonging to a neighboring word, assimilation takes place “in” may be pronounced differently as [in], or [i?] or [im], when occurring in different phonetic contexts: indiscrete alveolar [in], inconceivable velar [i?] ,input bilabial [im]The deletion rule It tells us when a sound is to be deleted although it is orthographically represented. e.g. “g” is mute in “sign”, “design”. It is pronounced in their corresponding derivat ives “signature”, “designation”. The rule is: delete a [g] when it occurs before a final nasal consonant.4 Minimal pairsWhen two different forms are identical in every way except for one sound segment which occurs in the same place in the string, the two words are said to have formed a minimal pair.Lecture 51 What does morphology study?It studies morphemes and their different forms and the way they combine in word formation (the study of the internal structure of words, and the rules by which words are formed).2 What are the main features of morpheme?(1) Morphemes cannot be broken down any further into recognizable or meaningful parts. In other words, a morpheme can’t be divided without altering or destroying its meaning.(2) A word may consist of one morpheme or more than one morpheme, while a morpheme may not necessarily represent a word.(3) Morpheme is also a two-fact language unit, which possesses both sound and meaning.(4) Morpheme is not identical with a syllable for syllable has nothing to do with meaning.3 Free morpheme, Bound morphemeFree morpheme, if a morpheme can constitute a word (free form) by itself, it is called a free morpheme.Bound morpheme, If a morpheme has meaning only when connected with at least another morpheme, it is bound. Traditionally, these prefix and suffix morphemes have been called bound morphemes.Lecture 61 Do you think that morphology and syntax should be treated as separate areas of study? Give your views and support them with reasons.Morphology & Syntax(1) A principle distinction between morphology and syntax, is that the former is concerned with the internal composition of a word, whereas the latter is concerned with combinations of words(2) From a nineteen-century linguistic perspective,morphology is the science of the forms of language and more abstractly, of the formatives(构形成分) that give form to words.Syntax, by contrast, is concerned not with formation or forms or formatives but with comparatively insubstantial notions of order or arrangement, in keeping with the etymology of the term. Syntax is thus outside the scope of linguistic morphology, because of the abstract nature of the elements whose arrangement it deals with.(3) Morphology is considered to be part of syntax, both may be grouped together as grammar.(4) Since sentence is usually regarded as the largest grammatical unit of a language, syntax has long been the center of grammatical study.(5) Different linguistics theories differ in their treatment of sentence structure. Conclusion: There are arguments in favor of morpheme-based grammar and there are arguments against it. The same is true of the more traditionalword-based grammar.2. Explain and exemplify IC analysis.IC analysis is one of the structuralist grammars. It is a major feature of Bloomfieldian descriptivism.This approach works through the different levels of structure within a sentence in a series of steps.At each level, a construction is divided into its major constituents, which are termed immediate constituents, and the process continues until no further divisions can be made. The constituents in the last step are called ultimate constituents. In general, the division is binary. IC analysis can be represented in different ways.3. Syntagmatic and paradigmatic relationsSyntagmatic: a linear relationship between the signs present in the sentence. (the relation between one item and others in a sequence) .Paradigmatic is a particular one in that it denotes a relationship between a sign in a sentence and a sign not in a sentence. (A word may be said to have paradigmatic relations with words that could be substituted for it in the sentence.)4. Rheme vs. ThemeRheme refers to information that is new. The nucleus, or the core of the utterance ---- what the speaker states about, or in regard to the starting point of the utteranceTheme the known (or given) information --- information that is not new to the reader or listener.5. TG-grammar in1957 in Syntactic Structures, which has transformed linguistics from a relatively obscure discipline of interest mainly to language teachers and future missionaries into a major social science of direct relevance to psychologists, sociologists, philosophers and others.Lecture 71. What are the major views concerning the study of meaning? (1). Referential theory of meaning (the naming theory) .The meaning of an expression is what it refers to, or stands for. Expressions or words are "names" or "labels" for things. E.g. man, furniture, fish, China --- whose main function is precisely that of naming or labeling. They are meaningful in that they each refer to an individual or a collection of living beings or objects existing in the reality. There is a one-to-one correspondence between name and object.(2). Mentalist theory of meaning, There has been a tendency to adopt a mentalist approach in their treatment of meaning by a group of modern linguists headed by Chomsky since 1960's. They view the primary function of language as the communication of ideas and have adopted the assumption, as a working basis for linguistic inquiry, that the data needed about language can be supplied by direct resort to intuition. It states that the meaning of an expression is the idea, or concept associated with it in the mind of anyone who knows it. It attempts to explain the meaning of words in terms of the image in the speaker's / hearer's mind. Two of the best-known theories of it are the “sign " theory of Saussure and the semiotic triangle of Ogden and Richards. According to Saussure's sign theory, a linguistic sign consists of a signifier and a signified. They can be more strictly regarded as a sound image (signifier) and a concept (signified) , which are linked by a psychological associative bond, that is, both the noise we make and the objects of world we talk about are mirrored in some way by conceptual entities. Two of the best-known theories of it are the “sign " theory of de Saussure and the semiotic triangle of Ogden and Richards.When we hear a sound, e. g. dog, the image or concept of the dog will be mirrored in our mind, and the image will be the meaning of the expression(3)Behaviorist theory of meaning. This theory was very popular during the 1920's to 1960's. It has great influence in the fields of psychology, philosophy and linguistics. Its representat ive is L. Bloomfield of America. This theory states that the meaning of an expression is either the stimulus that evokes it or the response that it evokes, or a combination of both, on particular occasions of utterance. He illustrated his views with a famous account of Jack and Jill, trying to define meaning in terms of the behaviorist point of view ---stimulus-and-response point of view. E.g. Jill is hungry. She sees an apple and gets Jack to fetch it for her by speaking to him. He interpreted this in terms of stimulus and response with the diagram.Jill JackS------------r~~~~~s----------RHere S means practical events (physical) which precede the act of speech, i.e. Jill's hunger. It is termed as a stimulus. And r refers to a linguistic response of Jill to this stimulus. Jill expresses this response by speaking to Jack. The sound waves reaching Jack result in creating a linguistic stimulus in him, which is indicated by a small letter s. R refers to the eventual physical response Jack makes in getting the apple for Jill. Thus, Bloomfield argued that meaning consists in the relation between speech (which is shown by r----- s) and the practical events S and R that precede and follow it. In this way, he wanted to contrast his theory with the mentalistic theories which involve thoughts, concepts, images, etc.But to interpret meaning in terms of the relation between speech and physical entities and events needs to know other 'predisposing factors' concerning thespeaker and hearer. This is a task Bloomfield found too difficult to accomplish and thus he did not pursue.(4)Contextual theory of meaning. The Operational theory or Meaning-is-use Theory of meaning. Representatives--- L. Wittgenstein, S. Chase and J. R. Firth. Explains that the meaning of an expression is determined by, if not identical with, its use in language. The famous English linguists Chase and Firth advocated that the true meaning of a word is to be found by observing what a man does with it, not what he says about it. The German philosopher Wittgenstein goes a step further. He boldly asserted that the meaning of a word is its use.2. How do you understand ambiguity?Ambiguity refers to the linguistic phenomenon in which one linguistic expression allows more than one understandings or interpretations. E.g. the office of the president is vacant.Basically, ambiguity can be classified into two types: A. Lexical ambiguity:1) words with more than one sense. She can’t bear children. 2) Some words are ambiguous. He put it in the boot.3) A single word, with several different meanings which are not closed related. Mug-- He had a mug./ He had an ugly mug. 4) A word with several very closely related senses is ambiguous.B. Syntactic ambiguity. Structural ambiguity is concerned with the syntactic representation of sentences. It occurs when more than one syntactic structure can be associated with a sequence of words. E.g. 1) American history teacher 3. How would you describe the oddness of the following sentences, using semantic feature?A. The television drank my water.B. His dog writes poetry.4. synonymy, antonymy, polysemy, homonymy, hyponymy Polysemy: The same word may have two or more different meanings. This is known as polysemy; such a word is polysemic.Homonymy: Lexical items which have the phonological or spelling norm, but differ in meaning are called homonyms. Such a linguistic phenomenon, i.e. identity of form and diversity of meaning is referred to as homonymy.Hyponymy: It refers to the sense relation between a more general, more inclusive word and a specific word. The word is more general in meaning is called the superordinate and the more specific words are called its hyponyms. Hyponyms of the same superordinate are co-hyponyms to each other. E.g flower-----rose, tulip, carnation, lily. Animal----dog, cat, tiger, lionAntonymy: The term antonymy is used for oppositeness of meaning. Words that are opposite in meaning are antonyms. Oppositeness can be found on different dimensions. Root contrast derivative contrast semantic contrast (1) gradable (2) complementary (3) converses~Synonymy---sameness of meaningStyle: the same cognitive meaning but different stylistic meaning.(1) cast (literary, biblical) .throw (general). Chuck (slang)Dialect---geographical variationRegister—varieties of a language according to their topic and context of use.E.g. you can’t cancel your room reservation. No cancellations can be accepted.Lecture 81. What does pragmatics study?P20How does pragmatics differ from semantics, and utterance meaning from sentence meaning? How are semantics and pragmatics different from each other? Traditional semantics studied meaning, but the meaning of language was considered as something intrinsic, and inherent, i.e. a property attached to language itself. Therefore, meanings of words, meanings of sentences were all studied in an isolated manner, detached from the context in which they were used. Pragmatics studies meaning not in isolation, but in context. The essential distinction between semantics and pragmatics is whether the context of use is considered in the study of meaning . If it is not considered, the study is restricted to the area of traditional semantics; if it is considered, the study is being carried out in the area of pragmatics.How does a sentence meaning differ from an utterance meaning? A sentence meaning is often considered as the intrinsic property of the sentence itself in terms of a predication. It is abstract and independent of context. The meaning of an utterance is concrete, and context-dependent. The utterance meaning is based on sentence meaning; it is realization of the abstract meaning of a sentence in a real situation of communication, or simply in a context. For example, “There is a dog at the door”. The speaker could utter it as a matter- of- fact statement, telling the hearer that the dog is at the door. The speaker could use it as a warning, asking the hearer not to approach the door. There are other possibilities, too. So, t he understanding of the utterance meaning of “There is adog at the door” de pends on the context in which it is uttered and the purpose for which the speaker utters it.2. What are the five illocutionary speech acts Searle specifies? (1) Representatives(阐述类)---- stating or describing ,saying what the speaker believes to be true.The earth is flat.（2）directives (指令类)----trying to get the hearer to do somethingDon’t touch that.(3) commissives (承诺类) -----committing the speaker himself to some future course of actionE.g: I promise to come.(4) expressives ( 表达类) ----expressing feelings or attitude towards an existing state.e.g : I’m sorry for the mess I have made.(5) declaration ( 宣布类)---- bringing about immediate changes by saying somethingPriest: I now pronounce you husband and wife.Referee: you are out!Lecture 91. what contributions has sociolinguistics provided to the field of language teaching?。