A Mushroom Fruiting Body-Inducing Substance Inhibits Activities of Replicative DNA Polymerases

Postharvest Biology and Technology 41(2006)191–197Sensory shelf life of shiitake mushrooms stored underpassive modified atmosphereGast´o n Ares a ,∗,Carina Parentelli b ,Adriana G´a mbaro a ,Claudia Lareo b ,Patricia Lema baSecci´o n Evaluaci´o n Sensorial,C´a tedra de Ciencia y Tecnolog´ıa de Alimentos,Facultad de Qu´ımica,Universidad de la Rep´u blica,Avda.Gral.Flores 2124,CP 11800Montevideo,UruguaybInstituto de Ingenier´ıa Qu´ımica,Facultad de Ingenier´ıa,Universidad de la Rep´u blica,Julio Herrera y Reissig 565,CP 11300Montevideo,UruguayReceived 22August 2005;accepted 26March 2006AbstractThe aim of the present work was to evaluate the influence of passive modified atmosphere packaging on the sensory characteristics and shelf life of shiitake mushrooms (Lentinula edodes ).Mushrooms were packaged under atmospheric air in bags of three different films:low density polyethylene (PE),polypropylene (PP)and a polypropylene macroperforated film.Bags were stored at 5◦C for 16days.Mushroom respiration rate,package atmosphere composition and mushroom weight loss were determined.Sensory characteristics of mushrooms were determined by descriptive analysis,and a consumer study was performed during storage.Descriptive analysis showed that mushrooms stored under modified atmosphere had a higher deterioration rate than those stored in PP macroperforated films.Mushrooms stored under atmospheric air during the entire storage time showed a lower rejection rate and a longer shelf life than those stored in passive modified atmosphere.These results suggest that high CO 2concentrations (higher than 9%)accelerated mushroom deterioration,indicating that shiitake mushrooms are more sensitive than other mushroom species.©2006Elsevier B.V .All rights reserved.Keywords:Shiitake mushrooms;Modified atmosphere;Sensory evaluation;Shelf life1.IntroductionOf all the cultivated mushrooms,shiitake mushrooms (Lentinula edodes )have seen the greatest growth in the last decade in terms of both indoor and outdoor cultivation,plac-ing its market volume second after Agaricus bisporus (Royse,2001).Since mushrooms are fast respiring and highly perish-able,prolonging post-harvest storage while preserving their quality would benefit the mushroom industry as well as con-sumers.The use of modified atmosphere packaging to extend the shelf life of mushrooms has been extensively reported (L´o pez-Briones et al.,1993;Roy et al.,1996;Tano et al.,1999).Modified atmosphere packaging alters the normal composition of air to provide an optimum atmosphere for∗Corresponding author.E-mail address:gares@.uy (G.Ares).decreasing the product respiration rate,preserving its quality and increasing its shelf life.This can be passively achieved inside a package as a result of mushroom respiration,con-suming oxygen and producing mainly carbon dioxide,and gaseous exchange between the atmosphere on the inside and the outside of the package (Farber et al.,2003).The con-centration of oxygen and carbon dioxide inside a passive modified atmosphere package depends on product respira-tion rate and film permeability,which affects the rate of gas exchange across the film (Tano et al.,1999).The decrease in oxygen concentration and increase in carbon dioxide concentration must not exceed a certain critical threshold (Beaudry et al.,1992).Excessive accumulation of carbon dioxide inside the package can cause physiological injuries to the product,which in the case of mushrooms,results in severe browning (Nichols and Hammond,1973;L´o pez-Briones et al.,1992).The lack of oxygen leads to anaerobic respiration accompanied by off-odours due to the produc-0925-5214/$–see front matter ©2006Elsevier B.V .All rights reserved.doi:10.1016/j.postharvbio.2006.03.013192G.Ares et al./Postharvest Biology and Technology41(2006)191–197tion of volatile substances,such as ethanol and acetaldehyde (L´o pez-Briones et al.,1992;Burton et al.,1987).Anaerobic conditions could lead as well to the potential for growth of foodborne pathogens such as Clostridium botulinum(Farber et al.,2003).Consumer studies are an appropriate tool for determining a food product’s sensory shelf life.However,no studies have been found reporting the use of consumer data to determine the shelf life of modified atmosphere packaged mushrooms.The aims of the present work were:(a)to evaluate the influence of passive modified atmosphere packaging on sen-sory characteristics of shiitake mushrooms,(b)to evaluate correlations between mushroom deterioration and respiration rate and package atmosphere composition,and(c)to estimate sensory shelf life of shiitake mushrooms stored under passive modified atmosphere,using consumer data.2.Materials and methods2.1.Mushrooms and storage conditionsShiitake mushrooms(L.edodes)cultivated on logs,grown on a commercial farm in Artigas,Uruguay,were acquired. Within24h after harvest,mushrooms were transported refrigerated at5±1◦C to the School of Engineering in Mon-tevideo,Uruguay.Mushrooms(70±5g)were selected at random and packaged under normal atmospheric air in20cm×30cm sealed bags of twofilms which have different permeability: low density polyethylene(PE)(60␮m thickness),common polypropylene(PP)(40␮m thickness).As control a macrop-erforated common polypropylenefilm was used(40␮m thickness,1.3×104perforations/m2,0.2mm2surface).This film maintains the atmosphere within the package at nor-mal air composition.Bags were sealed using a Supervac GK105/1packaging machine with air injection,and stored at 5±0.5◦C(which is the most commonly used retail storage temperature)and a relative humidity of73–77%.Measures were performed after0,5,8,12,14and16days of storage. The storage times were determined according to preliminary studies.2.2.Package atmosphere compositionThe evolution of package atmosphere composition was followed using gas chromatography.Oxygen and carbon dioxide concentration were determined by injecting1mL of the headspace package atmosphere into a gas chromatograph (Shimadzu GC-14B)equipped with an Alltech CTR1col-umn and a thermal conductivity detector.The gas carrier was Helium at aflow rate of0.67mL/s and the temperature of the column and the detector was set at60◦C.Syringe nee-dle was inserted through a1cm2square of adhesive rubber applied to the package to prevent air leaking from or into the package.2.3.Respiration rateA closed system was chosen to measure respiration rate of the product.At each storage time,approximately70g of mushrooms from the three storage conditions were placed under normal air for1h.Then,mushrooms were held in2.5L airtight stainless steel jars.The jars were stored at10◦C.A septumfixed on the lid allowed sampling of the atmosphere within the jar.Samples of1mL were withdrawn from the jars at each hour for6h.The atmospheric composition(O2and CO2)was measured by gas chromatography,as described in Section2.2.As CO2concentration correlated linearly with time,res-piration rate(expressed as CO2production rate)was cal-culated as the slope of the CO2concentration versus time curve.2.4.Weight lossWeight loss was determined by weighing the contents of the packages before and after the storage period.Weight loss was expressed as the percentage of loss of weight with respect to the initial weight.2.5.Trained sensory panelA panel of10assessors was trained in descriptive analysis of mushrooms.A preliminary test was performed to identify those defects most likely to appear due to prolonged storage.Four sam-ples with different deterioration times(1,3,5,8days)were presented to the assessors,who wrote down the descriptors that made those samples different.Through open discussion with the panel leader,the assessors agreed on the descriptors that best differentiated the stored samples from the fresh one. These descriptors were:off-odour,gills colour,gills unifor-mity,cap surface uniformity,presence of dark zones on the cap,andfirmness.Once the descriptors were selected,assessors were trained by measuring samples stored at5◦C for0,3,5and10days using10cm unstructured intensity scales.2.6.Sensory analysisMushrooms were served in closed odourless plastic con-tainers at room temperature.A balanced complete block experimental design was carried out.Each panellist eval-uated the mushrooms samples twice at different times on the same day.For scoring,10cm unstructured scales anchored with“nil”and“high”were used,except for the gills colour descriptor,for which the anchors were“white”and“brown”.The testing was carried out in a sensory lab-oratory that was designed in accordance with ISO8589: 1988.G.Ares et al./Postharvest Biology and Technology41(2006)191–1971932.7.Consumer panelConsumers were recruited among students and workers from the School of Chemistry in Montevideo,Uruguay.The study was carried out using40people who consumed mush-rooms.Their ages ranged from18to50and they were approximately50%female and50%male.At each storage time,each consumer received three sam-ples,corresponding to the different storage conditions,pre-sented monadically in random order.For each sample,con-sumers answered“yes”or“no”to the question“Would you normally eat this product?”2.8.Data analysis2.8.1.Analysis of varianceIn order to evaluate the assessor’s performance,an analy-sis of variance(ANOV A)was performed on the sensory data, separately for each attribute,using sample,assessor,repeti-tion and their interaction as variation factors.According to this analysis,the sensory panel was homogeneous,repeatable and showed good discriminative capacity.2.8.2.Repeated measures analysis of varianceA repeated measure is a kind of multivariate response in which the same variable is measured at several times.In these data,measures close in time tend to be more highly correlated than measures far apart in time.Also,variances of repeated measures often change with time.These poten-tial patterns of correlation and variation may combine to produce a complicated covariance structure of repeated mea-sures.For these reasons standard analysis of variance may produce invalid results(Littel et al.,1998).Therefore,a repeated measures analysis of variance in which the degrees of freedom are modified using the Geisser–Greenhouse correction factor is applied(Gurevitch and Chester, 1986).A two factor(time and storage condition)repeated mea-sure analysis of variance for all samples was performed on the atmosphere composition,weight loss and sensory data obtained.Mean rating and Fisher’s Least Significant Differ-ence for each term were calculated.2.8.3.Correlation matrixCorrelation matrix between the sensory parameters con-sidered was obtained in order to identify the relationship between them.2.8.4.Logistic regressionA logistic regression analysis was carried out considering percentage of rejection(percentage of people who reject the sample)as dependent variable and sensory panel scores as independent variable.All these analysis were performed using Genstat5Release 3.2(Lawes Agricultural Trust,Rothamsted).2.8.5.Sensory shelf life estimationSurvival analysis methodology was used to estimate the sensory shelf life of mushrooms,using the results obtained from consumers when asked if they would normally consume the samples with different storage times.The key concept of this methodology is to focus the sensory shelf life hazard on the consumer rejecting the product.Defining a random variable T as the storage time at which the consumer rejects the sample,the rejection function F(t) can be defined as the probability of a consumer reject-ing a product before time t,that is F(t)=P(T≤t).Choos-ing a Weibull distribution for T(Lindsay,1998;Klein and Moeschberger,1997a),the rejection function is given by:S(t)=S sevln(t)−µwhere S sev(·)is the survival function of the smallest extreme value distribution:S sev(w)=exp(−e w),andµandσare the model’s parameters.To estimate sensory shelf life,the probability of a con-sumer rejecting a product,i.e.F(t),must be chosen.The most commonly used consumer rejection percentages are25%and 50%(Hough et al.,2003;G´a mbaro et al.,2004).In the present study,in order to be conservative and assure product quality, a25%consumer rejection was chosen.In order to establish if the storage condition influenced rejection times,the following log linear regression model with inclusion of indicator variables was applied(Klein and Moeschberger,1997b):ln(T)=µ+σW=β0+β1Z1+σW(1) where T is the storage time at which a consumer rejects a sample,β0,β1are regression coefficients,Z1the indicator variable indicating the condition:PE(Z1=0),PP(Z1=1), macroperforated(Z1=2),σthe shape parameter,which does not depend on the indicator variables,and W is the error dis-tribution.Calculations were performed using procedures from S-PLUS statistical software(Insightful Corp.,Seattle,Wash-ington,USA).A5%significance level was considered.3.Results and discussion3.1.Package atmosphereThe evolution of CO2and O2concentration inside the package during the16days of storage are shown in Figs.1and2,respectively.As expected,atmosphere composition of the macroper-forated packages remained constant and was equal to atmo-spheric air composition.In both PE and PP packages,O2concentration rapidly decreased during thefirst5days of storage,and then remained constant(1.3%)until the end of the tested time.Despite their different permeability,no significant difference was found in194G.Ares et al./Postharvest Biology and Technology 41(2006)191–197Fig.1.CO 2concentration inside the packages.the O 2concentration inside the PE and PP packages,probably due to the high respiration rate of mushrooms.In the PP packages,CO 2concentration increased during the first 5days,reaching a concentration of 13.6%,and then decreased to 8%at the end of the storage time.This decrease could be explained by CO 2diffusion through the film due to the high concentration difference across the film.In PE packages CO 2concentration increased during the first 5days of storage,reaching a maximum concentration of 9%,which remained constant until day 12and then decreased.Throughout the duration of the test,CO 2concentration was significantly (p <0.001)higher in PP packages than in the PE ones.This could be explained by the lower CO 2per-meability of the PP film (0.0173and 0.0041cm 3m −2Pa −1at 25◦C for 25␮m PE and PP films,respectively (Parry,1993)).CO 2permeation rate across PP packaging film is lower than across PE film,resulting in a higher concentration inside the package.3.2.Respiration rateThe respiration rate of shiitake mushrooms throughout the 16-day storage period is shown in Fig.3.Initial respi-ration rate of shiitake mushrooms (178␮g kg −1s −1of CO2Fig.2.O 2concentration inside thepackages.Fig.3.Respiration rate (expressed as CO 2production rate)vs.storage time.at 10◦C)was higher than values encountered in literature for other mushroom species,such as A.bisporus (21␮g kg −1s −1of CO 2at 10◦C (Varoquaux et al.,1998)).A significant (p <0.05)decrease in respiration rate with storage time was found for mushrooms stored under the three tested conditions,which could be attributed to mushroom deterioration.Mushrooms stored in PE and PP packages showed a signif-icantly lower respiration rate than those stored in PP macrop-erforated packages.This could be explained by high CO 2concentration developed inside PE and PP packages.No significant difference was found in the respiration rate of mushrooms stored in PE when compared to those stored in PP.3.3.Weight lossMushrooms stored in PP or PE exhibited a weight loss of 5.6%at the end of the 16-day storage period.On the other hand,mushrooms stored in PP macroperforated pack-ages showed a significantly (p <0.001)higher weight loss,reaching 47.5%after 16day of storage.For that reason a polypropylene macroperforated film with a lower number of perforations (1.5×103perforations/m 2)was evaluated.In this film the weight loss reached 14%after 12day of storage.3.4.Sensory analysisAll the selected sensory attributes were significantly (p <0.001)affected by storage time.This supports the validity of the chosen descriptors as indicators of mushroom deterio-ration.As mushroom deteriorates,the gills become browner and less uniform,the cap becomes less firm,and its surface less uniform with increasing dark zones.Average values for the sensory attributes are shown in Table 1.Mushrooms stored in PP and PE developed off-odour.This could be explained due to the rapid decrease of O 2con-centration to 1.3%in the first days of storage.At this low O 2concentration anaerobic respiration initiated in the mush-room tissue,leading to production of fermentation products,responsible of off-odours.These results are in agreement withG.Ares et al./Postharvest Biology and Technology41(2006)191–197195 Table1Average panel ratings for the evaluated sensory attributes,measured on a0–10sensory intensity scaleCondition Off-odour Gills colour Gills uniformity Cap uniformity Dark zones in the cap Firmness PE 5.2a 5.4a 4.5b 4.2b 5.2a 4.5bPP 4.8b 5.5a 4.4b 4.4b 4.6b 4.2c Macroperforated0.8c 2.8b 5.7a 6.0a 2.8c 6.8a Means with different letters are significantly different(p<0.05).previous reports for A.bisporus(Burton et al.,1987),that suggest that the oxygen level inside the package must not fall below3–4%to avoid anaerobic respiration.Furthermore,off-odour of mushrooms stored in PP was significantly(p<0.05)higher than those stored in PE.This could be explained by the higher CO2concentration devel-oped inside PP packages that may reduce the oxidative capacity of mitochondria,leading to anaerobic respiration (Rahman et al.,1995).On the other hand,mushrooms stored in macroperforated bags did not developed off-odor during the entire storage time,which agreed with the high O2concentration of the atmosphere package.The gills were significantly(p<0.001)browner and sig-nificantly(p<0.001)less uniform in mushrooms stored in PE and PP packages than those stored in macroperforated packages.Furthermore,the cap surface was significantly(p<0.001) less uniform and had more dark zones in mushrooms stored in PE and PP than those stored in macroperforatedfilms.Regardingfirmness,those mushrooms stored in macrop-erforated packages were significantly(p<0.001)firmer than the ones stored in PE or PP packages.Mushrooms in PP packages were significantly lessfirm than the ones in PE packages.These results show that,although mushrooms in macrop-erforated packages had a higher respiration rate than the ones in PE or PP,they had a lower deterioration rate.No correlation was found between mushroom respiration and mushroom deterioration rate.This suggests that,at these conditions, physiological damage caused by high CO2concentrations had a greater effect than respiration rate in determining sen-sory mushroom deterioration rate.For Agaricus mushrooms it has been reported that CO2 concentrations higher than12%cause loss offirmness and an increase in the enzymatic browning due to cell membrane damage(Nichols and Hammond,1973).While CO2reached concentrations higher than12%,in PP packages in PE packages CO2concentration was lower than10%during the entire tested time.This might indicate that shiitake mushrooms are more susceptible to high CO2 concentrations than Agaricus mushrooms.These results suggest that with the employedfilms stored at5◦C,passive modified atmosphere accelerates mushroom sensory deterioration.All the sensory attributes considered were highly corre-lated to each other(correlation coefficients higher than0.92). This indicates that they were all affected in the same direction by mushroom deterioration.Due to this high correlation val-ues,the number of attributes to evaluate shiitake mushrooms during their shelf life could be reduced,selecting those easier to handle by assessors.3.5.Logistic regressionIn order to identify which attributes are considered by con-sumers when deciding whether to accept or reject shiitake mushrooms for its consumption,a logistic regression was perform between consumer rejection percentage and average sensory panel ratings for the studied attributes.This regres-sion gave an excellentfit for all the sensory attributes(R2 higher than0.79).This is related to the fact that all the sensory descriptors studied behaved similarly throughout the16-day storage period,and were highly related to each other.The attribute intensities corresponding to a25%consumer rejection are shown in Table2.These sensory limits could be used in future shelf life studies to determine the sensory failure of shiitake mushroom,using a sensory panel of trained assessors.3.6.Sensory shelf life estimationThere are no statistical tests to compare the goodness of fit of different parametric models used for interval-censored data.Therefore visual assessment of how parametric models adjust to the non-parametric estimation was used to choose the most adequate model(Hough et al.,2003).The follow-ing standard distributions were compared:smallest extreme value,normal,logistic,Weibull,log-normal and log-logistic. Since the Weibull distribution adjusted best for all storage conditions,it was chosen to model rejection times for the present data.The maximum likelihood estimates of the parameters of the Weibull distribution for each storage condition are shown in Table3.The influence of indicator variables is analyzed Table2Attribute intensity that corresponded to a25%consumer rejection,for each of the studied descriptors,measured on a0–10sensory intensity scale Descriptor Intensity Off-odour 1.7 Gills colour 3.4 Gills uniformity 6.2 Cap uniformity 5.5 Dark zones in the cap 1.9 Firmness7.3196G.Ares et al./Postharvest Biology and Technology 41(2006)191–197Table 3Values of log–normal distribution parameters µand σand their confidence intervals for the failure function Sample µ±standard error σ±standard error PE 2.32±0.080.46±0.07PP2.28±0.090.49±0.07Macroperforated2.79±0.040.24±0.04separately.These parameters can be used to plot consumer rejection percentage versus storage time of each storage con-dition,as shown in Fig.4.These curves were used to estimate the shelf life (x -axis)with its confidence interval,by entering with a 25%consumer rejection (y -axis).For a 25%consumer rejection,estimated shelf lives were 5±2days for mushrooms stored in PE or PP,and 12±2days for mushrooms stored in macroperforated packages.Therefore,mushrooms stored in macroperforated bags had a significantly higher shelf life than the ones stored in sealed PE or PP bags.No significant difference was found between the shelf life of the mushrooms stored in PE or PP.There-fore,in the studied conditions passive modified atmosphere did not extend the shelf life of mushrooms,when compared with those maintained under atmospheric air compostion.These results are in agreement with the sensory data obtained.3.6.1.Influence of indicator variablesDistributions for each condition were compared to the other two to study the influence of the indicator variable “storage condition”in consumer rejection time distribution.Results are shown in Table 4.Significant differences were found between rejection time distributions of mushrooms stored in macroperforated bags when compared to the other two conditions.However,no significant difference was found between the rejection time distributions of mushrooms stored in PE and PP.Mushrooms stored in macroperforated bags had a lower rejection rate than those stored in PE or PP,in agreement with their lower deterioration rate.Therefore,the storage ofshi-Fig.4.Consumer rejection percentage vs.storage time.Table 4Comparison between different storage conditions by rejection time distribution SampleRejection time distribution PE–PPNSPE–Macroperforated ***PP–Macroperforated***NS:no significant difference.***Highly significant difference (p <0.01).itake mushrooms in modified atmosphere packages,with high CO 2concentrations and low O 2concentrations,increased consumer rejection rate and decrease their shelf life,when compared to mushrooms stored under air during the 16day storage period.4.ConclusionsShiitake mushrooms showed a higher respiration rate and a higher susceptibility to high CO 2concentration than other mushrooms varieties.Although film permeability significantly affected the package atmosphere,no significant difference was found in the shelf lives of mushrooms stored in PE and PP.In the studied films,passive modified atmosphere resulted in a significantly higher mushroom deterioration rate than that of mushrooms maintained at atmospheric air conditions during the entire 16-day storage period.This explains the fact that mushrooms stored in modified atmosphere had a lower shelf life than those stored under air (5and 12days,respectively).In a polypropylene macroperforated film with 1.5×103perforations/m 2,the weight loss reached 14%after 12days of storage.No correlation was found between mushroom deteriora-tion rate and mushroom respiration rate;which indicates that in the studied conditions physiological damage caused by high CO 2concentrations had more effect in determining sen-sory mushroom deterioration rate.The methodology of correlating consumer rejection to sensory panel scores to define mushroom quality is an improvement over more arbitrary criteria presented in most studies.AcknowledgmentsThe authors are indebted to PDT (Programa de Desarrollo Tecnol´o gico)for financial support,and extremely grateful to Ana Gim´e nez for her help.ReferencesBeaudry,R.M.,Cameron,A.C.,Shirazi,A.,Lange,D.D.,1992.Modified atmosphere packaging of blue-berry fruit:effect of temperature on package oxygen and carbon dioxide.J.Am.Soc.Hortic.Sci.117,436–441.G.Ares et al./Postharvest Biology and Technology41(2006)191–197197Burton,K.S.,Frost,C.E.,Nichols,R.,1987.A combination of plastic permeablefilms system for controlling post-harvest mushroom quality.Biotechnol.Lett.9(8),529–534.Farber,J.N.,Harris,L.J.,Parish,M.E.,Beuchat,L.R.,Suslow,T.V.,Gor-ney,J.R.,Garrett,E.H.,Busta,F.F.,2003.Microbiological safety of controlled and 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本文部分内容来自网络整理，本司不为其真实性负责，如有异议或侵权请及时联系，本司将立即删除！== 本文为word格式，下载后可方便编辑和修改！ ==ted,寻找蛋白质的替品:我们为什么不食用昆虫呢?,的英语演讲稿篇一：TED英语演讲稿TED英语演讲稿TED英语演讲稿I was one of the only kids in college who had a reason to go to the P.O. box at the end of the day, and that was mainly because my mother has never believed in email, in Facebook, in texting or cell phonesin general. And so while other kids were BBM-ing their parents, I was literally waiting by the mailbox to get a letter from home to see how the weekend had gone, which was a little frustrating when Grandma was in the hospital, but I was just looking for some sort of scribble, some unkempt cursive from my mother.And so when I moved to New York City after college and got completely sucker-punched in the face by depression, I did the only thing I could think of at the time. I wrote those same kinds of letters that my mother had written me for strangers, and tucked them all throughout the city, dozens and dozens of them. I left them everywhere, in cafes and in libraries, at the U.N., everywhere. I blogged about those letters and the days when they were necessary, and I posed a kind of crazy promise to the Internet: that if you asked me for a hand-written letter, I would write you one, no questions asked. Overnight, my inbox morphed into this harbor of heartbreak -- a single mother in Sacramento, a girl being bullied in rural Kansas, all asking me, a 22-year-old girl who barely even knew her own coffee order, to write them a love letter and give them a reason to wait by the mailbox.Well, today I fuel a global organization that is fueled by thosetrips to the mailbox, fueled by the ways in which we can harness social media like never before to write and mail strangers letters when they need them most, but most of all, fueled by crates of maillike this one, my trusty mail crate, filled with the scriptings of ordinary people, strangers writing letters to other strangers not because they're ever going to meet and laugh over a cup of coffee,but because they have found one another by way of letter-writing.But, you know, the thing that always gets me about these letters is that most of them have been written by people that have never known themselves loved on a piece of paper. They could not tell you about the ink of their own love letters. They're the ones from my generation, the ones of us that have grown up into a world where everything is paperless, and where some of our best conversationshave happened upon a screen. We have learned to diary our pain onto Facebook, and we speak swiftly in 140 characters or less.But what if it's not about efficiency this time? I was on the subway yesterday with this mail crate, which is a conversation starter, let me tell you. If you ever need one, just carry one of these. (Laughter) And a man just stared at me, and he was like, "Well, why don't youuse the Internet?" And I thought, "Well, sir, I am not a strategist, nor am I specialist. I am merely a storyteller." And so I could tell you about a woman whose husband has just come home from Afghanistan, and she is having a hard time unearthing this thing called conversation, and so she tucks love letters throughout the house as away to say, "Come back to me. Find me when you can." Or a girl who decides that she is going to leave love letters around her campus in Dubuque, Iowa, only to find her efforts ripple-effected the next day when she walks out onto the quad and finds love letters hanging from the trees, tucked in the bushes and the benches. Or the man who decides that he is going to take his life, uses Facebook as a way to say goodbye to friends and family. Well, tonight he sleeps safelywith a stack of letters just like this one tucked beneath his pillow, scripted by strangers who were there for him when.These are the kinds of stories that convinced me that letter-writing will never again need to flip back her hair and talk about efficiency, because she is an art form now, all the parts of her, the signing,the scripting, the mailing, the doodles in the margins. The mere fact that somebody would even just sit down, pull out a piece of paper and think about someone the whole way through, with an intention that is so much harder to unearth when the browser is up and the iPhone is pinging and we've got six conversations rolling in at once, that isan art form that does not fall down to the Goliath of "get faster,"no matter how many social networks we might join. We still clutch close these letters to our chest, to the words that speak louder thanloud, when we turn pages into palettes to say the things that we have needed to say, the words that we have needed to write, to sisters and brothers and even to strangers, for far too long. Thank you. (Applause) (Applause)篇二：Ted视频点评-我们为什么不食用昆虫呢？Ted视频点评-我们为什么不食用昆虫呢？Ted演讲，《我们为什么不使用昆虫呢？》是由荷兰瓦赫宁根大学的一位教授Marcel Dicke演讲的，他从经济，营养，疾病环境等多个角度进行演讲，说服人们食用昆虫。

山东农业大学学报(自然科学版),2023,54(5):650-656VOL.54NO.52023 Journal of Shandong Agricultural University(Natural Science Edition)doi:10.3969/j.issn.1000-2324.2023.05.002多脂鳞伞P-YD01的菌丝生物学特性及引种驯化栽培试验吴耀越,程欣荣,黄宇柯,朱仁启,陈文思,张大川,初洋*烟台大学生命科学学院,山东烟台264005摘要:对采自烟台大学校园的一株多脂鳞伞(P-YD01)进行了形态学及ITS序列分析鉴定，并对其菌丝生物学特性、最佳培养基配方及驯化栽培进行等进行了研究。

结果表明，P-YD01的最适碳源、氮源分别为D-果糖、牛肉膏，最佳培养温度为25℃-30℃，最适生长pH在5.0。

研究发现P-YD01以玉米粉作为母种培养基时生长最快，最适出菇季节应为秋冬季，最适栽培培养基为棉籽壳培养基。

搔菌操作可以明显提高多脂鳞伞其出原基整齐度和子实体匀称度。

关键词:多脂鳞伞;菌丝生物学特性;培养基;驯化;栽培中图法分类号:S736.15文献标识码:A文章编号:1000-2324(2023)05-0650-07 Mycelial Biological Characteristics and Domestication,CultivationExperiment of Pholiota adiposa P-YD01WU Yao-yue,CHENG Xin-rong,HUANG Yu-ke,ZHU Ren-qi,CHEN Wen-si, ZHANG Da-chun,CHU Yang*College of Life Sciences/Yantai University,Yantai264005,ChinaAbstract:A strain of Pholiota adiposa(P-YD01)taken from the campus of Yantai University was analyzed and identified by morphological identification and ITS sequence analysis,and its mycelial biological characteristics,optimal medium formulation and domestication and cultivation were studied.The results show that the optimal carbon and nitrogen sources of P-YD01are D-fructose and beef extract,and the optimal culture temperature is25°C-30°C,and the optimal growth pH is at 5.0.It is found that P-YD01grows fastest in cornmeal primary medium,the optimal mushroom season should be fall,and the optimal cultivation medium is cottonseed shell medium.In addition,scratching mycelium operation for Pholiota adiposa can significantly improve its primodium emergence neatness and fruiting body homogeneity.Keywords:Pholiota adiposa;mycelial biological characteristic;culture medium;domestication;cultivation大型真菌，又称蕈菌，在自然界中种类繁多，分布广泛，且具有丰富营养[1,2]。

2013年9月28日托福写作真题解析综合写作:Why bioluminescent mushroom produce light阅读：Three theories1 spreading of pores(light在fruiting bodies那个地方)2 preventing predators(by attracting the predators that prey on mushroom-feed insects)3 get rid of harmful chemicals听力反驳：Less convincing1 有些light不在那个body里，即发光和存spore不是一个部位2 研究表明蘑菇吸引到的predator很少，不足以吃完insects3 getting rid of harmful chemical是本能，不然就会死。

但有的蘑菇有发光有的却没有，甚至同一个species也是有的没有，有的有，而他们中的大多数也能防止有害物质并存活下来。

独立写作：When you are assigned an important presentation for work or school, you prefer to work on it right away so that you can work on it a little bit every day, or wait until you have a good idea about the presentationA lot of students prefer to start their schoolwork closer to when it’s due, but not me. I like to start working as soon as I get an assignment.One reason I think this method works better is because it feels less stressful. For example, if you spread out an essay assignment over 2 weeks instead of doing it all in 2 days, the assignment suddenly do esn’t seem as daunting. You only need to work on it an hour or two a day, instead of cramming all of your writing and research into a 48-hour marathon. But this reason alone wouldn’t be enough to get me working on assignments early.Another reason it’s be tter to start tackling schoolwork right away is that spreading work out over a longer period gives you more time to consider different approaches to your task. If you’re writing about a historical event, for example, it might be helpful to think about it from multiple perspectives. But rushing through your writing and research over the course of 2 days may not give you the pauses you need to distance yourself from the work and consider different interpretations. If you took your time, on the other hand, you might get flashes of inspiration during your time away from working on the assignment. Developing your topic bit by bit every day, you can incorporate interesting or unconventional ideas that might not have occurred to you had you just left the assignment untouched until the last minute.Finally, I think doing your work early is a good way to actually retain the material. Studies have shown that spaced-repetition—that is, reviewing previously learned material at spaced out intervals—is far more effective for remembering information than just cramming. That’s because our brains need some time to process and incorporate the information we’ve learned into our long-term memory. By reinforcing our knowledge over a period of, say, weeks rather than hours, we give our brains the time they need to really learn things thoroughly. I know this holds true for me personally—if I study in the weeks leading up to a test rather than just the night before, I remember the information much better.It’s easy to put off work u ntil the last minute, but starting early has a lot of benefits. It’s less stressful, for one thing, but it also gives you time to consider your approach more fully and you learn better by starting early, too. Beginning work as soon as it’s assigned will be nefit you greatly in the long run.。

Inside the Living Cell: Structure andFunction of Internal Cell PartsCytoplasm: The Dynamic, Mobile Factory细胞质：动力工厂Most of the properties we associate with life are properties of the cytoplasm. Much of the mass of a cell consists of this semifluid substance, which is bounded on the outside by the plasma membrane. Organelles are suspended within it, supported by the filamentous network of the cytoskeleton. Dissolved in the cytoplasmic fluid are nutrients, ions, soluble proteins, and other materials needed for cell functioning.生命的大部分特征表现在细胞质的特征上。

细胞质大部分由半流体物质组成，并由细胞膜（原生质膜）包被。

细胞器悬浮在其中，并由丝状的细胞骨架支撑。

细胞质中溶解了大量的营养物质，离子，可溶蛋白以及维持细胞生理需求的其它物质。

The Nucleus: Information Central（细胞核：信息中心）The eukaryotic cell nucleus is the largest organelle and houses the genetic material (DNA) on chromosomes. (In prokaryotes the hereditary material is found in the nucleoid.) The nucleus also contains one or two organelles-the nucleoli-that play a role in cell division. A pore-perforated sac called the nuclear envelope separates the nucleus and its contents from the cytoplasm. Small molecules can pass through the nuclear envelope, but larger molecules such as mRNA and ribosomes must enter and exit via the pores.真核细胞的细胞核是最大的细胞器，细胞核对染色体组有保护作用（原核细胞的遗传物质存在于拟核中）。

英语作文我最喜欢的科学家屠呦呦句子My Favorite Scientist: Tu YouyouHi there! My name is Lily and I'm in 5th grade. For our class assignment this month, we had to pick our favorite scientist and write about them. I picked the amazing Tu Youyou!Tu Youyou is a Chinese scientist who was born in 1930. That makes her 93 years old now! Can you believe someone that old is still working as a scientist? I think that's so cool. Tu Youyou has made some really important discoveries that have helped millions of people.The biggest thing Tu Youyou is known for is discovering a treatment for malaria. Malaria is a very serious disease caused by tiny parasites that get inside your body through mosquito bites. It makes you feel terrible with fever, chills, and fatigue. Malaria is especially dangerous for young kids and can even be fatal if not treated properly.For a very long time, the main medicine used to treat malaria was quinine. It comes from the bark of a cinchona tree. Quinine does help malaria, but it also has some really bad side effects that can make you feel even sicker! So doctors and scientists were always looking for better anti-malarial drugs.That's where Tu Youyou comes in. In the 1960s, she was hired to be part of a secret research project run by the Chinese military. Their goal was to find better malaria treatments, because malaria was a big problem for soldiers fighting in regions like Vietnam where the disease was widespread.Tu and her team looked at over 2000 different traditional Chinese herbal medicines to see if any of them could cure malaria. Can you imagine having to test 2000 different plant extracts? That's an insane amount of work! But Tu Youyou didn't give up.Finally, they found an ancient recipe for a special type of wormwood plant used to treat fever. When they tested the extract from this wormwood plant on malaria parasites, it killed them! Tu had discovered a powerful anti-malarial compound that was even more effective than quinine but with way fewer side effects. It was an amazing breakthrough.The new anti-malarial drug based on Tu's discovery was called artemisinin. It started being used in Chinese hospitals in the 1970s to treat malaria patients. But it wasn't until many years later, in the early 2000s, that artemisinin was widely distributed around the world by the World Health Organization.Artemisinin has saved millions of lives, especially in regions of Africa where malaria is a huge problem. In 2015, Tu Youyou was awarded the Nobel Prize in Medicine for her discovery. At age 85, she became the first Chinese woman ever to win a Nobel!I think Tu's story is so inspiring. She showed amazing perseverance, working for years to test all those herbal medicines until she found one that worked. And her discovery has literally saved the lives of countless children and adults around the globe who would have died from malaria.Beyond just her scientific achievements, I admire Tu's humility and dedication to helping people. She said her award belongs to the "entire scientific community in China" and that she'll use the Nobel prize money to continue training young scientists. How cool is that?I also love that Tu Youyou valued traditional Chinese medicine and looked to ancient remedies for inspiration. So many important modern drugs were first discovered from plants and herbs used in traditional practices. We shouldn't disregard that knowledge!If I could ask Tu Youyou one question, I would want to know what advice she has for young girls who want to become scientists. From what I've read about her life, I imagine she'd sayto follow your curiosity, work really hard, and never give up even when the going gets tough. Those seem like great words of wisdom.Tu Youyou just has such a fascinating life story – the struggles she overcame, her brilliant scientific mind, and the way her work has benefited humanity on a global scale. She's inspired me to study hard in science class and dream big about making amazing discoveries that could help people too!When I'm older, I'd love to be like Tu and work to develop new medicines out of plants and herbs found in nature. Who knows what other powerful treatments are out there just waiting to be uncovered? With passion, grit and some scientificknow-how, maybe I could play a role in that kind of impactful research one day.For now though, I'll settle for getting an A on this report about my new hero, Tu Youyou! Thanks for reading about why I admire her so much. Let me know if you have any other questions!。

★启用前注意保密2024年普通高等学校招生全国统一考试模拟测试 (二)英语本试卷共10页，满分120分。

考试用时120分钟。

注意事项：1.答卷前，考生务必将自己所在的市(县、区)、学校、班级、姓名、考场号、座位号和考生号填写在答题卡上，将条形码横贴在每张答题卡右上角“条形码粘贴处”。

2. 作答选择题时，选出每小题答案后，用2B铅笔在答题卡上将对应题目选项的答案信息点涂黑；如需改动，用橡皮擦干净后，再选涂其他答案。

答案不能答在试卷上。

3.非选择题必须用黑色字迹的钢笔或签字笔作答，答案必须写在答题卡各题目指定区域内相应位置上；如需改动，先画掉原来的答案，然后再写上新答案；不准使用铅笔和涂改液。

不按以上要求作答无效。

4.考生必须保证答题卡的整洁。

考试结束后，将试卷和答题卡一并交回。

第二部分阅读 (共两节，满分50分)第一节 (共15 小题; 每小题2.5分, 满分37.5 分)阅读下列短文，从每题所给的A、B、C、D四个选项中选出最佳选项。

AVolunteer Art & Architecture Tour Guide for BostonPublic Library, Copley SquareThe goal is to generate public interest in the history, art, and architecture of Boston Public Library, including its special collections and exhibitions at the Central Library inC opley Square.ROLE AND EXPECTATIONS·To conduct public and private group tours of the Central Library's art , architectur e,and exhibitions, answering questions from groups and recording attendance statistics after tours conclude.• To continue to inform oneself of the art, architecture, hist ory, holdings, and exhibi tions of Boston Public Library.QUALIFICATIONS• Interest in history, art, and architecture in general, and of Boston Public Library i n particular.• Confidence in addressing and presenting information to large groups; prior guidin g英语模拟测试 (二) 第 1 页 (共10页)or public speaking experience desirable.· A strong command of the English language is required, and f luency in other languages is highly preferred.TRAININGAccepted candidates will be asked to attend tour guide training meetings. New gu ides are expected to complete training around four months. Progress evaluations willbe ongoing throughout the training period, and continue through the first six monthsof working as a full guide.REQUIREMENTS• Minimum commitment of two tours per month (or 24 tours per year).• Commitment to attending tour guide meetings and enrichment programs for cont inuing education.REVIEWRegular assessments and evaluations will be conducted based on the above crite ria to ensure that volunteers meet the necessary qualifications.Interested candidates should complete the application form below and send it to t ************.21. What does a volunteer tour guide need to do after tours?A. Ensure safety of the artworks.B. Maintain cleanness of the hall.C. Document the numbers of visitors.D. Answer questions about qualifications.22. How long will the progress evaluations last?A. 4m onths.B. 6 months.C. 10 months.D. 12 months.23. Which will result in a poor review of the position?A. Insufficient (不足的) working hours.B. Absence of a second language.C. Little relevant volunteer experience.D. Limited knowledge about exhibitions.BAs a mushroom scientist, you are vastly outnumbered, with estimates suggesting t hat there are between 2.2 million and 3.8 million species of fungi (真菌), the majori ty of which are yet to be identified. However, professionals in the field are not alo ne in their efforts to uncover new species. An enthusiastic community of amateurs has emerged,bridging the gap between professionals and non-professionals. These amateurs have even made significant discoveries. One such amateur is Taylor Lockwood, a 74-ye ar-old mushroom enthusiast and professional photographer.英语模拟测试 (二) 第2 页 (共10 页)In 1984, while living on the Mendocino coast of California, Taylor Lockwood develo ped a fascination with mushrooms. “Outside my cottage were these amazing mushrooms,”h e says.“And it was as if these mushrooms looked at me and said, ‘Taylor, go out and tell the world how pretty we are.’” Lockwood answered their call and purchased camera equipment to capture their true nature. His passion for photographing mushrooms was s o intense that he would even di g holes next to the mushrooms to get the perfect angle for his shots.In the Monongahela National Forest, Taylor Lockwood discovered an unusual mush room that looked like tiny fingers wearing off-white gloves. Upon further investiga tion, fungi researcher Amy Rossman confirmed that it was a “hazel glove”mushroom, which is a rare find. “Mushrooms are not like plants,” Rossman says. “They don' t come up at the same time every year, and so sometimes it can be decades between w hen a fungus fruits.”Rossman says that's why it's so valuable to have people like TaylorLockwood searching through the forest with a trained eye.A few years ago, Taylor Lockwood realized that still photos weren't sufficient, so he chose to create time-lapse (延时拍摄的) videos of mushrooms. “When I do time-laps e,I see so much life happening around the mushrooms —— insects, worms and other small creatures interacting with them,” he says. Lockwood's love for art is evident in his approach to filming mushrooms over time. Although he appreciates the scientific aspect of his work, he identifies himself as an artist at heart.24. What can we learn about mushroom amateurs from paragraph 1?A. They keep close track of the growth of fungi.B. They help identify new species of mushroom.C. They replace professional scientists in the field.D. They classify the majority of mushroom species.25. What inspired Lockwood to photograph mushrooms?A. His desire for knowledge.B. His curiosity about nature.C. The beauty of nearby mushrooms.D. The appeal of outdoor photography.26. Which of the following best describes Lockwood according to paragraph 3?A. Skilled and observant.B. Focused and flexible.C. Talented and optimistic.D. Organized and responsible.27. Why did Lockwood decide to make time-lapse videos of mushrooms?A. To improve his photography techniques.B. To capture dynamic life in an artistic way.C. To collect biological data for further research.D. To adopt a new approach to scientific studies.英语模拟测试 (二) 第3 页 (共10页)CWhen we encounter a troublesome problem, we often gather a group to brainstorm.H owever, substantial evidence has shown that when we generate ideas together, we fail to maximize collective intelligence.To unearth the hidden potential in teams, we're better off shifting to a process called“brainwriting”. You start by asking group members to write down what is going on in their brains separately. Next, you pool them and share them among the group wi thout telling the authors. Then, each member evaluates them on his or her own, only a fter which do the team members come together to select and improve the most promising options. By developing and assessing ideas individually before choosing and expandin g on them, the team can surface and advance possibilities that might not get attentio n otherwise.An example of great brainwriting was in 2010 when 33 miners were trapped undergro und in Chile. Given the urgency of the situation, the rescue team didn't hold brainsto rming sessions. Rather, they established a global brainwriting system to generate indi vidual ideas. A 24-year-old engineer came up with a tiny plastic telephone. This speci alized tool ended up becoming the only means of communicating with the miners,making i t possible to save them.Research by organizational behavior scholar Anita Woolley and her colleagues help s to explain why this method works. They find that the key to collective intelligence is balanced participation. In brainstorming meetings, it's too easy for participation to become one-sided in favor of the loudest voices. The brainwriting process ensures t hat all ideas are brought to the table and all voices are brought into conversation. T he goal isn't to be the smartest person in the room. It's to make the room smarter.Collective intelligence begins with individual creativity, but it doesn't end the re.Individuals produce a greater volume and variety of novel ideas when they work alon e.That means they not only come up with more brilliant ideas than groups but also more terrible ideas. Therefore, it takes collective judgment to find the signal in the noi se and bring out the best ideas.28. What is special about brainwriting compared with brainstorming?A. It highlights independent work.B. It encourages group cooperation.C. It prioritizes quality over quantity.D. It prefers writing to oral exchanges.英语模拟测试 (二) 第 4 页 (共10页)29. Why does the author mention the Chile mining accident in paragraph 3?A. To introduce a tool developed during brainwriting.B. To praise a young man with brainwriting technique.C. To illustrate a successful application of brainwriting.D. To explain the role of brainwriting in communication.30. How does brainwriting promote collective intelligence according to paragraph 4?A. By blocking the loudest voices.B. By allowing equal involvement.C. By improving individual wisdom.D. By generating more creative ideas.31. Which step of brainwriting does the author stress in the last paragraph?A. Individual writing.B. Group sharing.C. Personal evaluation.D. Joint discussion.DAs most Americans spend at least 50% of their food budget dining out, public c riticism falls on restaurants to help consumers make healthier food choices. The Me nuLabeling Final Rule has come into effect, requiring restaurants with more than 20 locations to show the calories of food on menus.By representing these values in a discrepant way—using physically larger numbe rs on the page for lower-calorie options, and smaller numbers for high-calorie food s—businesses can shift customers' preferences toward healthier food, according to RuiyingCai from the Washington State University.In their study, Cai and her colleagues asked participants to choose between a l ess healthy item and a healthier option after randomly assigning them to two groups. In the first group, ca lorie counts and font(字体) sizes rose and fell together. I n the second group, the size became larger as the calorie count fell. Researchers a lso asked participants questions to assess their health-consciousness.Results showed participants in the second group, who saw low calorie counts pri nted in large sizes, were more likely to adopt the healthier option. Moreover, less health-conscious participants were the most affected, while people with more health awareness were less influenced since they already favored healthier food.This research adjusted customer behaviors by creating a Stroop effect. Named af ter psychologist J. Ridley Stroop, the Stroop effect refers to a delay in reaction t o mismatch in its classic form. For example, if the word “purple” is written in gr een, it takes英语模拟测试 (二) 第 5 页 (共10页)respondents longer time to identify the color than if the word and the color match. Similarly, the effect is observed when the physical size of the number does not mat ch its number in this study.“Restaurants are interested in encouraging customers to make healthier choices,”Cai said. However, simply labeling the food as healthy may not have the intended effec t.“Healthy food items could be profitable for restaurants, but whenever a‘healthy’la bel is attached, people may assume it does not taste good,” she explained. “W e're try ing to provide restaurants with indirect suggestions, rather than saying it out loud.”32. What does the underlined word“discrepant”in paragraph 2 mean?A. Creative.B. Relative.C. Conflicting.D. Misleading.33. Which of the following type of customers would benefit most from the research?A. Strict diet followers.B. Convenience food fans.C. Homema de meal lovers.D. Health magazine readers.34. What is paragraph 5 mainly about?A. The significance of research results.B. The measurement of response delays.C. The psychological basis of the study design.D. The influential variations of the Stroop effect.35. Which of the following might be Cai's suggestion for restaurants?A. Use font magic to drive healthier choices.B. Pay more attention to the taste of the food.C. Create a quiet dining atmosphere for customers.D. Attach“healthy” labels to the food on the menu.第二节 (共5 小题; 每小题2.5分, 满分12.5分)阅读下面短文，从短文后的选项中选出可以填入空白处的最佳选项。