新编简明英语语言学 Chapter 8 Language and society

实用标准文案Chapter 1: Introduction1.Linguistics: 语言学It is generally defined as the scientific study of language.( Linguistics studies not any particular language ,but it studies language in general)2.General linguistics:普通语言学 The study of language as a whole is called general linguistics.(language is a complicated entity with multiple layers and facets ) nguage: Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication.4.descriptive (描述性):A linguistic study aims to describe and analyze the language people actually use.5.prescriptive(规定性): It aims to lay down rules for “correct and standard” behaviors.i.e. what they should say and what they should not to say.6.synchronic(共时语言学): the description of language at some point of time in hiatory7.diachronic (历时语言学):the description of language as it changes through time3) speech（口语）Writing（书面语）These the two media of communication. Modern linguistics regards the spoken language as primary, not the written. (speech is prior to writing)ngue(语言): refers to abstract linguistic system shared by all the members of the speech community.It is the set of conventions and rules which language users all have to abide by. Such as: In English sentence must have subject and predicate.9.parole(言语):refers to the realization of langue in actual use.It is concrete use of the conventions and the application of the rules. (Saussure )petence(语言能力): the ideal user's knowledge of the rules of his language精彩文档．实用标准文案11.performance(语言应用):the actual realization of this knowledge in linguistic communication. (Chomsky)traditional grammar and modern linguistics1.linguistics is descriptive,while traditional grammar isprescriptive2.modern linguistics regards the spoken language as primary,not the writer.3. also in that it does not force languages into a latin-based framework.Functions of language.1.the descriptive function.2. the expressive function3.the social functionChapter 2: Phonology音系学phonetics:the study of the phonic medium of language;it is concerned with all the sounds that occur in the world' s languages9.The three branches of phonetics(1).Articulatory phonetics (发音语音学) (longest history)(2.)Auditory phonetics（听觉语音学）(3)Acoustic phonetics (声学语音学）2. Speech organs: three important areas⑴Pharyngeal cavity咽腔 ---- the throat;⑵The oral cavity口腔---- the mouth;⑶Nasal cavity –鼻腔--- the nose.The principle source such modifications is the tongue.The tongue is the most flexible.International Phonetic Alphabet [IPA]: the basic principle of theIPA is using one letter selected from major European languages to represent one speech sound.Broad transcription宽式音标. The transcription of speech sounds with letter symbols only.Narrow transcription窄式音标The transcription of speech sound with letters symbols and the diacritics.精彩文档．实用标准文案Aspirated and unaspiratedphonology: 音系学It aims to discover how speech sounds in a language 1).form patterns and how these sounds are used to convey meaning in linguistic communication.4. Phone, phoneme, allophoneA phone音素 is a phonetic unit or segment.The speech sounds we hear and produce during linguistic communicationare all phones. Phones do not necessarily distinguish meaning, some do, some don't, e.g. [ bI:t ] & [ bIt ], [spIt] & [spIt].A phoneme音位 is a phonological unit;it is a unit of distinctive value; an abstract unit, not a particular sound, but it is represented by a certain phone in certain phonetic context, e.g. the phoneme /p/ can be represented differently in [pIt], [tIp] and [spIt].Allophones 音素变体---- the phones that can represent a phoneme in different phonetic environmentssequential rule,⑴Sequential rule(序列规则): rule governing the combination of sounds in a particular language.⑵Assimilation rule（同化规则）: rule assimilating one sound to another by copying features of sequential phoneme,thus making the two phones similar.⑶Deletion rule（省略规则）: rule governing the deletion of a soundin a certain phonetic context although it is represented in spelling.6. Suprasegmental features（超切分特征）⑴StressWord stress and sentence stress⑵Tone声调Tones are pitch variations,which are caused by the differing rates of vibration of the vocal cords.English is not a tone language, but Chinese is.⑶Intonation语调When pitch, stress and length variations are tied to the sentence rather than to the word, they are collectively known as intonation. English has three types of intonation that are most frequently used: falling tone (matter of fact statement)rising tone (doubts or question)the fall-rise tone (implied message)精彩文档．实用标准文案the frise-fall tone (not frequently used)For instance, “That's not the book he wants.Chapter 3: MorphologyMorphology形态学: refers to the the study of the internal structure of 1).words and the rules by which words are formedMorpheme词素: It is the smallest meaningful unit of language. 2).Free morpheme自由词素:a morpheme can be a word by itself.3).Bound morpheme.黏着词素: a morpheme that must be attached to another 4).one.Allmorphs词素变体:the variant forms of a morpheme5).Chapter 4: SyntaxSyntax句法学: Syntax is a branch of linguistics that studies the rules that govern the formation of sentences.Word-level categories1,Major lexical categories2. minor lexical categoriesTo determine a word's categorie,three critera are usually employed1.meaning2.inflection3.distribution.Phrase:syntactic units that are built around a centain word category complementizers words which introduce the sentence complement complement clause the sentence introduced by the cmomplementizersD-structure:formed by the XP rule in accordance with the head's subcategorization propertiesS-structure:corresponding to the final syntactic form of the sentence which results form appropriate transformation .Chapter 5: SemanticsSemantics: 语义学can be simply defined as the study of meaning.The naming theory(命名论)）1Oldest notions concering meaning.most primitive one.It was proposed by the ancient Greek scholar Plato.words are just names or labels for things.2）The conceptualist view（意念论）It holds that there is no direct link between a lin-guistic form and what it refers to. In the interpretation of meaning, they are linked through the mediation of concepts in the mind.精彩文档．实用标准文案3)Contextualism（语境论）①Meaning should be studied in terms of situation, use, context—elements closely linked with language behavior. Two types of contextsare recognized:②Situational context: spatiotemporal situation③Linguistic context: the probability of a word's co-occurrence or collocation.④For example, “black” in black hair & black coffee, or black sheep differs in meaning; “The president of the United States” can mean either the president or presidency in different situation.4) Behaviorism（行为主义论）Bloomfield①Behaviorists attempted to define meaning as “the situation in which the speaker utters it and the response it calls forth in the hearer”.②The story of Jack and Jill:Jill JackS_________r--------s_________R3. Sense and reference①Sense---- is concerned with the inherent meaning of the linguistic form. It is the collection of all the features of the linguistic form; it is abstract and de-contextualized.②Reference----what a linguistic form refers to in the real, physical world; it deals with the relationship between the linguistic element and the non-linguistic world of experience.4. Major sense relationsSynonymy（同义关系）Synonymy refers to the sameness or close similarity of meaning.Words that are close in meaning are called synonyms. 同义词complete synonyms, i.e. synonymy that are mutually substitutable under all circumstances, are rareHomonymy（同音/同形异义）Homonymy: Homonymy refers to the phenomenon that words havingdifferent meanings have the same form,（1)Homophones（同音异义）: When two words are identical in sound,they are called homophones.e.g. rain/reign.（2)Homographs(同形异义): When two words are identical in spelling,they are homographs.e.g. tear v. / tear n.（3)Complete homonyms(同音同形异义): When two words are identical inboth sound and spelling, they are called complete homonyms.精彩文档．实用标准文案e.g. fast v. / fast adj.; scale v. /scale. n.Hyponymy（下义关系）more a sense to the relation between Hyponymy: Hyponymy refersgeneral, more inclusive word and a more specific word.eg.superordinate: flowerhyponyms: rose, tulip, carnation, lily（反义关系）Antonymy the term antonymy is used for oppositeness of meaning----there are often intermediate ）Gradable antonyms（等级反义词1)hot-cold, old-young, pair, e.g. forms between the two members of atall-short …----the denial of one member Complementary antonyms（互补反义词）2)alive-dead, other, e.g. the pair implies assertion of the of themale-female …----exhibits the reversal of the （关系反义词）3) Relational oppositesfather-son, husband-wife, the two items, e.g. relationship between give-receive, employer-employee, doctor-patient, buy-sell, let-rent, above-below …2) There are two aspects to sentence meaning:1.grammatical meaning 2. semantic meaning, e.g.selectional restrictions.Whether a sentence is semantically meaningful is governed by rules eg. constraints on what lexical items can go with what othersritish G. Predication analysis---- a way to analyze sentence meaning (BLeech).Chapter 6: Pragmaticsusea language speakers the 学study of how of 用1).Pragmatics:语sentences to effect successful communication.Pragmatics and semantics are both linguistic studies of meaning. What essentially distinguishes semantics and pragmatic s is whether the context of use is considered in the study of meaning精彩文档．实用标准文案of area is confined to the not If it is considered, the study being is is considered, the study traditional semantics; if itcarried out in the area of pragmatics.new model of speech actss⑴Austin'and utterance is concrete, meaning Utterance meaning: the of anis sentence meaning; it context-dependent. Utterance is based on realization of the abstract meaning of a sentence in a real situation of communication, or simply in a context.converse to Grice.His idea is that Cooperative Principle(CD):Paulto willing first of all be other, with each the participants must cooperate; otherwise, it would not be possible for them to carry on the talk.Principle of conversation (Paul Grice) 3）（数量准则）The maximof quantityMake your contribution as informative as required (for the current （使自己所说的话达到当前交谈目的所要求的详尽程purpose of the exchange).度。

新编简明英语语言学教程第2版学习指南答案Study Guide for New Concise English Linguistics Tutorial 2nd Edition AnswersIntroductionThe New Concise English Linguistics Tutorial 2nd Edition is a comprehensive guide to the study of the English language. This study guide provides answers to the exercises and questions found in the textbook, helping students to better understand the concepts and theories discussed in each chapter.Chapter 1: Introduction to Linguistics1.1 What is Linguistics?Linguistics is the scientific study of language and its structure, including phonology, morphology, syntax, semantics, and pragmatics.1.2 What are the subfields of Linguistics?The subfields of linguistics include phonetics, phonology, morphology, syntax, semantics, and pragmatics.1.3 What is the difference between prescriptive and descriptive grammar?Prescriptive grammar is concerned with rules for what is considered "correct" language use, while descriptive grammar describes how language is actually used by speakers.Chapter 2: Phonetics and Phonology2.1 What is phonetics?Phonetics is the study of the physical properties of speech sounds, including their production, transmission, and reception.2.2 What is phonology?Phonology is the study of the sound system of a language, including the patterns and rules that govern the pronunciation of words.2.3 What is the difference between consonants and vowels?Consonants are speech sounds that are produced with some degree of obstruction in the vocal tract, while vowels are speech sounds that are produced without obstruction.Chapter 3: Morphology3.1 What is morphology?Morphology is the study of the structure of words and how words are formed from smaller units called morphemes.3.2 What are free and bound morphemes?Free morphemes can stand alone as words, while bound morphemes must be attached to other morphemes to form a complete word.3.3 What is the difference between inflectional and derivational morphemes?Inflectional morphemes modify the grammatical function of a word (e.g., tense, number), while derivational morphemes create new words or change the meaning of existing words.Chapter 4: Syntax4.1 What is syntax?Syntax is the study of the structure of sentences and how words are combined to create meaningful phrases and sentences.4.2 What is the difference between phrases and clauses?Phrases are groups of words that function as a single unit within a sentence, while clauses are larger structures that contain a subject and a predicate.4.3 What is the difference between syntax and semantics?Syntax deals with the structure of language, while semantics is concerned with the meaning of language.Chapter 5: Semantics and Pragmatics5.1 What is semantics?Semantics is the study of meaning in language, including how words and sentences convey meaning.5.2 What is pragmatics?Pragmatics is the study of how context influences the interpretation of language, including the social and cultural factors that affect communication.5.3 What are speech acts?Speech acts are actions that are performed through speech, such as making a request or giving an order.ConclusionThis study guide provides answers to the exercises and questions found in the New Concise English Linguistics Tutorial 2nd Edition, helping students to deepen their understanding of the core concepts and theories in the study of English linguistics. By using this guide, students can enhance their knowledge andskills in the field of linguistics and improve their overall comprehension of the English language.。

Chapter 1: Introduction1.Linguistics:语言学It is generally defined as the scientific study of language.( Linguistics studies not any particular language ,but it studies language in general)2.General linguistics:普通语言学The study of language as a whole is called general linguistics.(language is a complicated entity with multiple layers and facets )nguage:Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication.4.descriptive (描述性):A linguistic study aims to describe and analyze the language people actually use.5.prescriptive(规定性): It aims to lay down rules for “correct and standard”　behaviors.i.e. what they should say and what they should not to say.6.synchronic(共时语言学): the description of language at some point of timein hiatory7.diachronic (历时语言学):the description of language as it changes throughtime3) speech（口语）Writing（书面语）These the two media of communication. Modern linguistics regards the spoken language as primary, not the written. (speech is prior to writing)ngue(语言): refers to abstract linguistic system shared by all the membersof the speech community.It is the set of conventions and rules which language users all have to abideby. Such as: In English sentence must have subject and predicate.9.parole(言语):refers to the realization of langue in actual use.It is concrete use of the conventions and the application of the rules. (Saussure )petence(语言能力): the ideal user’s knowledge of the rules of his language11.performance(语言应用):the actual realization of this knowledge in linguistic communication. (Chomsky)traditional grammar and modern linguistics1.linguistics is descriptive,while traditional grammar is prescriptive2.modern linguistics regards the spoken language as primary,not the writer.3. also in that it does not force languages into a latin-based framework.Functions of language.1.the descriptive function.2. the expressive function3.the social functionChapter 2: Phonology音系学phonetics:the study of the phonic medium of language;it is concerned with all the sounds that occur in the world’ s languages9.The three branches of phonetics(1).Articulatory phonetics (发音语音学) (longest history)(2.)Auditory phonetics（听觉语音学）(3)Acoustic phonetics (声学语音学）2. Speech organs: three important areas⑴Pharyngeal cavity咽腔---- the throat;⑵The oral cavity口腔---- the mouth;⑶Nasal cavity –鼻腔--- the nose.The principle source such modifications is the tongue.The tongue is the most flexible.International Phonetic Alphabet [IPA]:the basic principle of the IPA isusing one letter selected from major European languages to represent onespeech sound.Broad transcription宽式音标. The transcription of speech sounds with lettersymbols only.Narrow transcription窄式音标The transcription of speech sound with letterssymbols and the diacritics.Aspirated and unaspirated1). phonology: 音系学It aims to discover how speech sounds in a language formpatterns and how these sounds are used to convey meaning in linguisticcommunication.4. Phone, phoneme, allophoneA phone音素is a phonetic unit or segment.The speech sounds we hear and produce during linguistic communication areall phones. Phones do not necessarily distinguish meaning, some do, somedon’t, e.g. [ bI:t ] & [ bIt ], [spIt] & [spIt].A phoneme音位is a phonological unit;it is a unit of distinctive value; an abstract unit, not a particular sound, but it isrepresented by a certain phone in certain phonetic context, e.g. the phoneme/p/ can be represented differently in [pIt], [tIp] and [spIt].Allophones音素变体---- the phones that can represent a phoneme indifferent phonetic environmentssequential rule,⑴Sequential rule(序列规则): rule governing the combination of sounds in aparticular language.⑵Assimilation rule（同化规则）: rule assimilating one sound to another bycopying features of sequential phoneme,thus making the two phones similar.⑶Deletion rule（省略规则）: rule governing the deletion of a sound in acertain phonetic context although it is represented in spelling.6. Suprasegmental features（超切分特征）⑴StressWord stress and sentence stress⑵Tone声调Tones are pitch variations,which are caused by the differing rates of vibrationof the vocal cords.English is not a tone language, but Chinese is.⑶Intonation语调When pitch, stress and length variations are tied to the sentence rather thanto the word, they are collectively known as intonation.English has three types of intonation that are most frequently used:falling tone (matter of fact statement)rising tone (doubts or question)the fall-rise tone (implied message)the frise-fall tone (not frequently used)For instance, “That’s not the book he wants.Chapter 3: Morphology1). Morphology形态学: refers to the the study of the internal structure of wordsand the rules by which words are formed2). Morpheme词素: It is the smallest meaningful unit of language.3). Free morpheme自由词素:a morpheme can be a word by itself.4). Bound morpheme.黏着词素: a morpheme that must be attached to anotherone.5). Allmorphs词素变体:the variant forms of a morphemeChapter 4: SyntaxSyntax句法学: Syntax is a branch of linguistics that studies the rules thatgovern the formation of sentences.Word-level categories1,Major lexical categories2. minor lexical categoriesTo determine a word’s categorie,three critera are usually employed1.meaning2.inflection3.distribution.Phrase:syntactic units that are built around a centain word categorycomplementizers words which introduce the sentence complementcomplement clause the sentence introduced by the cmomplementizersD-structure:formed by the XP rule in accordance with the head’ssubcategorization propertiesS-structure:corresponding to the final syntactic form of the sentence whichresults form appropriate transformation .Chapter 5: SemanticsSemantics: 语义学can be simply defined as the study of meaning.1）The naming theory(命名论)Oldest notions concering meaning.most primitive one.It was proposed by the ancient Greek scholar Plato.words are just names or labels for things.2）The conceptualist view（意念论）It holds that there is no direct link between a lin-guistic form and what it refersto. In the interpretation of meaning, they are linked through the mediation ofconcepts in the mind.3)Contextualism（语境论）①Meaning should be studied in terms of situation, use, context—elements closely linked with language behavior. Two types of contexts are recognized:②Situational context: spatiotemporal situation-occurrence or collocation.③Linguistic context: the probability of a word’s co④For example, “black”　in black hair & black coffee, or black sheep differs in meaning; “The president of the United States” can mean either the president or presidency in different situation.4) Behaviorism（行为主义论）Bloomfield①Behaviorists attempted to define meaning as “the s ituation in which the speaker utters it and the response it calls forth in the hearer”．②The story of Jack and Jill:Jill JackS_________r--------s_________R3. Sense and reference①Sense---- is concerned with the inherent meaning of the linguistic form. It isthe collection of all the features of the linguistic form; it is abstract and de-contextualized.②Reference----what a linguistic form refers to in the real, physical world; itdeals with the relationship between the linguistic element and the non-linguistic world of experience.4. Major sense relationsSynonymy（同义关系）Synonymy refers to the sameness or close similarity of meaning.Words that are close in meaning are called synonyms. 同义词complete synonyms, i.e. synonymy that are mutually substitutable under all circumstances, are rareHomonymy（同音/同形异义）Homonymy: Homonymy refers to the phenomenon that words having differentmeanings have the same form,（1)Homophones（同音异义）: When two words are identical in sound, they are called homophones.e.g. rain/reign.（2)Homographs(同形异义): When two words are identical in spelling, they are homographs.e.g. tear v. / tear n.（3)Complete homonyms(同音同形异义):When two words are identical in both sound and spelling, they are called complete homonyms.e.g. fast v. / fast adj.; scale v. /scale. n.Hyponymy（下义关系）Hyponymy: Hyponymy refers to the sense relation between a more general,more inclusive word and a more specific word.eg.superordinate: flowerhyponyms: rose, tulip, carnation, lilyAntonymy（反义关系）the term antonymy is used for oppositeness of meaning1) Gradable antonyms（等级反义词）----there are often intermediate formsbetween the two members of a pair, e.g. old-young, hot-cold, tall-short …　2) Complementary antonyms（互补反义词）----the denial of one member ofthe pair implies the assertion of the other, e.g. alive-dead, male-female …3) Relational opposites（关系反义词）----exhibits the reversal of therelationship between the two items, e.g. husband-wife, father-son, doctor-patient, buy-sell, let-rent, employer-employee, give-receive, above-below …　2) There are two aspects to sentence meaning:1.grammatical meaning2. semantic meaning, e.g.selectional restrictions.Whether a sentence is semantically meaningful is governed by ruleseg. constraints on what lexical items can go with what othersPredication analysis---- a way to analyze sentence meaning (British G.Leech).Chapter 6: Pragmatics1). P ragmatics:语用学the study of how speakers of a language use sentences toeffect successful communication.Pragmatics and semantics are both linguistic studies of meaning.s is whether the What essentially distinguishes semantics and pragmaticcontext of use is considered in the study of meaningIf it is not considered, the study is confined to the area of traditional semantics;if it is considered, the study is being carried out in the area of pragmatics.⑴Austin’s new model of speech actsUtterance meaning:the meaning of an utterance is concrete, and context-dependent. Utterance is based on sentence meaning; it is realization of the abstract meaning of a sentence in a real situation of communication, or simplyin a context.Cooperative Principle(CD):Paul Grice.His idea is that to converse with each other, the participants must first of all be willing to cooperate; otherwise,it would not be possible for them to carry on the talk.3）Principle of conversation (Paul Grice)The maxim of quantity （数量准则）Make your contribution as informative as required (for the current purpose of the exchange). （使自己所说的话达到当前交谈目的所要求的详尽程度。

《新编简明英语语言学教程》1-6章复习题集浙江外国语学院英文学院《英语语言学概论》复习题集《英语语言学概论》课程复习题集 (1-6章)2021-5-16更新Chapter I Introduction2021I. Decide whether each of the following statements is TRUE or FALSE: 1. Linguistics is the scientific study of language.2. Competence and performance is distinguished by Saussure.3. A synchronic linguistics is the study of a language through the courseof its history. 4. Linguistics is generally defined as the scientific study of language. 5. Linguistics studies particular language, not languages in general.6. A scientific study of language is based on what the linguist thinks.7. In the study of linguistics, hypotheses formed should be based on language facts and checked against the observed facts.8. General linguistics is generally the study of language as a whole.9. General linguistics, which relates itself to the research of other areas, studies the basic concepts, theories, descriptions, models and methods applicable in any linguistic study.10. Phonetics is different from phonology in that the latter studies the combinations of the sounds to convey meaning in communication.11. Morphology studies how words can be formed to produce meaningful sentences. 12. The study of the ways in which morphemes can be combined to form words is called morphology.13. Syntax is different from morphology in that the former not onlystudies the morphemes, but also the combination of morphemes into words and words into sentences.14. The study of meaning in language is known as semantics. 15. Both semantics and pragmatics study meanings.16. Pragmatics is different from semantics in that pragmatics studies meaning not in isolation, but in context.17. Social changes can often bring about language changes. 18. Sociolinguistics is the study of language in relation to society.19. The arbitrary nature of language makes it possible for language to have an unlimited source of expressions.1浙江外国语学院英文学院《英语语言学概论》复习题集20. Synchronic linguistic is the study of a language through the course of its history.21. Modern linguistics is mostly prescriptive, but sometimes descriptive.22. Modern linguistics is different from traditional grammar.23. A diachronic study of language is the description of language at some point in time.24. Modern linguistics regards the written language as primary, not the written language.25. The distinction between competence and performance was proposed by F. de Saussure.26. Features that contrast words in meaning are called design features are said to be in complementary distribution. 27. Linguistic symbols are arbitrary.28. By arbitrariness Saussure means that the forms of linguistic signs bear somenatural relationship to their meaning.II. Fill in each of the following blanks with one word which begins with the letter given:1. If a linguistic study describes and analyzes the language people actually use, it is said to be d_______.2. Chomsky d efines “ competence” as the ideal user’s k__________ of the rules of his language.3. Langue refers to the a__________ linguistic system shared by all the members of a speech community while the parole is the concrete use of the conventions and application of the rules.43. D_________ is one of the design features of human language whichrefers to the phenomenon that language consists of two levels: a lower level of meaningless individual sounds and a higher level of meaningful units.5. Language is a system of a_________ vocal symbols used for human communication.6. S is the study of language in relation to society.7. The discipline that studies the rules governing the formation of words into permissible sentences in languages is called s________.2浙江外国语学院英文学院《英语语言学概论》复习题集8. Human capacity for language has a g ____ basis, but the details of language have to be taught and learned.9. P ____ refers to the realization of langue in actual use.10. Findings in linguistic studies can often be applied to the settlement of some practical problems. The study of such applications is generally known as a________ linguistics.11. Language is p___________ in that it makes possible the construction and interpretation of new signals by its users. In other words, they can produce and understand an infinitely large number of sentences which they have never heard be12 12. Linguistics is generally defined as the s ____ study of language.13. To help define and maintain interpersonal relations is the s function of language.III. There are four choices following each statement. Mark the choice thatcanbest complete the statement.1. The description of a language in a fixed instant is a _______ study. A.synchronic B. diachronic C. prescriptive D. systematic2. The application of linguistics principles and theories to languageteaching and learning is called _____. A. sociolinguisticsB. PsycholinguisticsC. computational linguisticsD. Applied Linguistics3. If a linguistic study describes and analyzes the language peopleactually use, it is said to be ______________.A. prescriptiveB. analyticC. descriptiveD. linguistic4. Which of the following is not a design feature of human language?A. ArbitrarinessB. DisplacementC. DualityD. Meaningfulness 5. Modern linguistics regards the written language as____________. A. primary B. correct C. secondary D. stable6. In modern linguistics, speech is regarded as more basic than writing,because ___________.A. in linguistic evolution, speech is prior to writing3浙江外国语学院英文学院《英语语言学概论》复习题集B. speech plays a greater role than writing in terms of the amount ofinformation conveyed.C. speech is always the way in which every native speaker acquires hismother tongue D. All of the above7. Many modern linguists have criticized traditional grammarians foradopting a _____ approach to language study.A. synchronicB. diachronicC. prescriptiveD. descriptive8. A historical study of language is a ____ study of language.A. synchronicB. diachronicC. prescriptiveD. comparative9. According to F. de Saussure, ____ refers to the abstract linguisticsystem shared by all the members of a speech community.A. paroleB. performanceC. langueD. Language10. Language is said to be arbitrary because there is no logicalconnection between_________ and meanings.A. senseB. soundsC. objectsD.ideas11. Language can be used to refer to contexts removed from the immediatesituations of the speaker. This feature is called_________, A.displacement B. duality C. flexibility D. cultural transmission12. The distinction between langue and parole was made by _______ earlylast century.A. American linguist N. ChomskyB. Swiss linguist F. de SaussureC. American linguist Edward SapirD. British linguist J. R. Firth 13.The fact that different languages have different words for the same object isgood proof that human language is .A. arbitraryB. rationalC. logicalD. culturalIV. Answer the following question:1. In what basic ways does modern linguistics differ from traditional grammar?4浙江外国语学院英文学院《英语语言学概论》复习题集2. What are the main features of human language that have been specified by C. Hockett to show that it is essentially different from animal communication system?Chapter 2：PhonologyI. Decide whether each of the following statements is true or false:1. Voicing is a phonological feature that distinguishes meaning in both Chinese andEnglish.2. If two phonetically similar sounds occur in the same environments and theydistinguish meaning, they are said to be in complementary distribution.3. A phone is a phonetic unit that distinguishes meaning.4. English is a tone language while Chinese is not.5. In linguistic evolution, speech is prior to writing.6. In everyday communication, speech plays a greater role than writing in terms ofthe amount of information conveyed.7. Articulatory phonetics tries to describe the physical properties of the stream ofsounds which a speaker issues with the help of a machine called spectrograph. 8. The articulatory apparatus of a human being are contained in three importantareas: the throat, the mouth and the chest. 9. The sound〔z〕is a voiced alveolar stop.9. Voicing is a distinctive feature for English consonants.10. When two different forms are identical in every way except for one sound segment that occurs in the same place in the string, then the two words are called minimal pairs. Sip and zip are a minimal pair, as are fine and vine, and veal and leaf.11. Vibration of the vocal cords results in a quality of speech sounds calledvoicing.12. English consonants can be classified in terms of place ofarticulation and the partof the tongue that is raised the highest.13. According to the manner of articulation, some of the types intowhich theconsonants can be classified are stops, fricatives, bilabial and alveolar.5感谢您的阅读，祝您生活愉快。

Chapter one Introduction一、定义1.语言学LinguisticsLinguistics is generally defined as the scientific study of language.2.普通语言学General LinguisticsThe study of language as a whole is often called General linguistics.3.语言languageLanguage is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication.语言是人类用来交际的任意性的有声符号体系。

4.识别特征Design FeaturesIt refers to the defining poperties of human language that distinguish it from any animal system of communication.语言识别特征是指人类语言区别与其他任何动物的交际体系的限定性特征。

Arbitrariness任意性Productivity多产性Duality双重性Displacement移位性Cultural transmission文化传递⑴arbitrarinessThere is no logical connection between meanings and sounds.P.S the arbitrary nature of language is a sign of sophistication and it makes it possible for language to have an unlimited source of expressions⑵ProductivityAnimals are quite limited in the messages they are able to send.⑶DualityLanguage is a system, which consists of two sets of structures ,or two levels.⑷DisplacementLanguage can be used to refer to contexts removed from the immediate situations of the speaker.⑸Cultural transmissionHuman capacity for language has a genetic basis, but we have to be taught and learned the details of any language system. this showed that language is culturally transmitted. not by instinct. animals are born with the capacity to produce the set of calls peculiar to their species.5.语言能力CompetenceCompetence is the ideal user’s knowledge of the rules of his language.6.语言运用performancePerformance is the actual realization of this knowledge in linguistic communication.语言运用是所掌握的规则在语言交际中的体现。

《新编简明英语语言学教程》Chapter1IntroductionChapter2PhonologyChapter3MorphologyChapter4SyntaxChapter5SemanticsChapter6PragmaticsChapter7Language ChangeChapter8Language and SocietyChapter9Language and CultureChapter10Language AcquisitionChapter11Second Language Acquisition Chapter12Language And The BrainChapter1Introduction考情分析本章分为两个部分，第一部分介绍了什么是语言学，主要是对语言学的定义、语言学的研究范围以及语言学中6对重要的概念进行了区分。

第二部分介绍了什么是语言，主要对语言的属性，语言的区别性特征以及语言的功能进行了详细的介绍。

本章常出的题型有填空题、翻译术语、术语解释、简答题以及论述题，大家在复习的时候尤其要注意以下重点内容:◆语言学中6对重要的概念区分Some important distinctions in linguistics(6)◆语言的识别性特征Design features of language(5)◆语言的功能Functions of languageContents1.1What is linguistics?1.1.1Definition1.1.2The scope of linguistics1.1.3Some important distinctions in linguistics(6)Prescriptive规定性vs.Descriptive描写性Synchronic共时性vs.Diachronic历时性Speech口语and Writing书面语Langue语言and Parole言语---Saussure索绪尔Competence语言能力and Performance语言运用---Chomsky乔姆斯基Traditional grammar传统语法and modern linguistics现代语言学1.2What is language?1.2.1Definitions1.2.2Design features of language(5)Arbitrariness任意性Productivity/Creativity创造性Duality/Double Articulation二重性Displacement移位性Cultural transmission文化传递性1.2.3Functions of languageVersion1Social function社会功能Expressive function表达功能Descriptive function描述功能Version2Code语码---Metalinguistic元语言功能Jakobson Addressee受话者---Conative意动功能Context语境---Referential所指功能Message信息----Poetic诗学功能Contact接触---Phatic communication寒暄功能Addresser说话者---Emotive情感功能Version3ideational概念功能Halliday interpersonal人际功能textual functions语篇功能Chapter1Introduction1.1What is linguistics?1.1.1DefinitionLinguistics is generally defined as the scientific study of language.◆It studies not any particular language,but it studies languages in general.◆It is a scientific study because it is based on the systematic investigation of linguisticdata,conducted with reference to some general theory of language structure.Q1.How do you interpret the following definition of linguistics:Linguistics is the scientific study of language?1.1.2The scope of linguisticsThe study of language as a whole is often called general linguistics.普通语言学Phonetics(语音学)——The study of sounds used in linguistic communication led to the establishment of phonetics.Phonology(音系学)——It studies how sounds are put together and used to convey meaning in communication.Morphology（形态学）——The study of the way in which these symbols are arranged and combined to form words has constituted the branch of study.Syntax(句法学）—It studies the rules governing the combination of words that form grammatically permissible sentences in languages.Semantics(语义学）——It studies the meaning conveyed.Pragmatics(语用学）——It studies the meaning in the context of language use.跨学科分支Sociolinguistics(社会语言学）:The studies of all these social aspects of language and its relation with society.Psycholinguistics(心理语言学）：The study of language to psychology.Applied linguistics(应用语言学）【2017术语解释104points】：The study of such applications is generally known as applied linguitics.In a narrow sense,it refers to the application of linguistic theories and principles to language teaching,especially the teaching of foreign andsecond languages.1.1.3Some important distinctions in linguistics(1)Prescriptive vs descriptive【2013简答题2710points】①Prescriptive（规定性）The linguistic study aims to lay down rules for“correct and standard”behavior in using language,i.e.to tell people what they should say and what they should not say.（为语言的“正确和规范”规定一系列的语法规则，例如告诉人们应该说什么和不应该说什么）【2015翻译术语18prescriptive grammar规约性语法】②Descriptive(描写性）The linguistic study aims to describe and analyze the language people actually use.（对人们使用的语言进行客观描述与分析）For example,traditional grammar is prescriptive because it aims to set models for people to follow.While modern linguistics is mostly descriptive because it is supposed to be scientific and objective and its task is to describe the language people actually use.Q2.What are the differences between the descriptive and the prescriptive approaches?（2）synchronic vs diachronic①Synchronic(共时性）——the description of a language at some point of time in history.(对某个时间点上的语言状态的描述)②Diachronic(历时性）——the description of a language as it change through time.It is a historical study;it studies the historical development of language over a period of time.【2011填空1】【2016术语解释216points】(它是对语言随着时间的变化而变化的描述，是一种历史性的研究，研究的是语言在某一段时间内的历史发展)Q4.Is modern linguistics mainly synchronic or diachronic?why?a.In modern linguistics,a synchronic approach seems to enjoy priority over a diachronic one. Because it is believed that unless the various states of a language in different historical periods are successfully studied,it would be difficult to describe the changes that have taken place in its historical development.现代语言学中，共时性研究比历时性研究更重要。

新编简明英语语言学教程（重点笔记-赶考秘籍）新编简明英语语言学教程(重点笔记-赶考秘籍)1.1 Linguistics is generally defined as the scientific study of language.It is a scientific study because it (a) is based on the systematic investigation of linguistic data. It (b) discovers the nature and rules of the underlying language system. It (c) collects language facts that display some similarities, and generalizations are made about them.The study of language as a whole if often called general linguistics.phonetics(语音学): the study of soundsphonology(音位学): how sounds are put together and used to convey meaningmorphology(形态学): how morphemes(词素) are arranged and combined to form wordssyntax(句法学): the study of rules that govern the combination of words to form grammatically permissible sentencessemantics(语义学): the study of meaningpragmatics(语用学): the study of meaning in the context of language useinterdisciplinary branches: sociolinguistics(社会语言学), psycholinguistics(心理语言学), applied linguistics(应用语言学) Important distinctions in linguisticsprescriptive(规定性old linguistics) vs. descriptive(描述性modern linguistics)synchronic(共时性) vs. diachronic(历时性): most linguistic studies are of synchronic descriptions, which is prior in modernlinguisticsspeech and writing: speech is prior to writing in modern linguisticslangue(语言系统abstract linguistic system) and parole(话语/言语realization of langue in actual use): Swiss linguist F. de Saussure----forefather of modernlinguisticscompetence(语言能力ideal user’s knowledge of rules of his language) and performance(语言运用actual realization of this knowledge): American linguist N.Chomskytraditional grammar and modern linguistics: Saussure’s book “Course in General Linguistics” marked the beginning of modern linguistics1.2 Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication.LAD: Language Acquisition Device -----ChomskyArbitrariness (任意性): Different sounds are used to refer to the same object in different languages.Productivity/creativity (能产性): Construction and interpretation of new signals are possible, so that large number of sentences can be produced.Duality (双层性): Two levels enable people to talk about anything within their knowledge.lower level(sounds)---higher level(words)Displacement(移位性): enable people to talk about a wide range of things, free from barriers caused by separation in time or place.Cultural transmission(文化传承): We are born with the ability to acquire language, the details of language system have to betaught and learned.2.1 Speech and writing are the two media for communication, of which speech ismore basic/primary.The sounds which are produced by humans through their speech organs and meaningful in communication constitute the phonic medium of language. The individual sounds within this range are the speech sounds.2.2 Phonetics is the study of the phonic medium of language, which concerned with all thesounds that occur in the world’s languages.articulatory phonetics, auditory phonetics, acoustic phoneticsSpeech organs:pharyngeal; cavity---throat; oral cavity---mouth; nasal cavity---noseIPA: 国际音标 diacritics: 变音符broad transcription: 宽式标音(used in dictionaries and teaching textbooks)narrow transcription: 严式标音(used by phoneticians in their study)vowels(the air stream meets with no obstruction) and consonants(obstructed)stops(塞音), fricatives(擦音), affricates(塞擦音), liquids(流音), nasals, glides, bilabial(双唇音), laviodental(唇齿音), dental(齿音), alveolar(齿龈音), palatal(腭音), velar(软腭音), glottal(喉音) close vowels, semi-close vowels, semi-open vowels, open vowels(openness)unrounded vowels, rounded vowels(shape of the lips)long/tense vowels----short/lax vowelsmonophthongs(单元音), diphthongs(双元音) (single or combined)2.3 Phonology and phonetics differ in their approach and focus.phonology: how speech sounds form patterns and are used to convey meaningconcerned with sound system of a particular languagephonetics: of a general nature, interested in all the speech soundsA phone(音素) is a phonetic unit or segment.(speech sounds are all phones)a phone does not necessarily distinguish meaningA phoneme(音位) is a phonological unit.(an abstract unit of distinctive value)not particular sound, but is realized by a certain phone in a certain phonetic context The different phones which can represent a phoneme in different phonetic environments are called the allophones(音位变体) of that phoneme.Rules in phonology:Sequential rules(序列规则)---rules that govern the combination of sounds in a particular language.Assimilation rule(同化规则)---assimilates one sound to another by “copying” a feature of a sequential phoneme, thus making the two phones similar. for easeof articulation(清晰发音) e.g. green, screamDeletion rule(省略规则)---e.g. desi g nationSuprasegmental features(超切分特征): the phonemic features that occur above the level of the segments.stress(重音)---word stress and sentence stressThe location of stress in English distinguishes meaning.E.g. ‘import (n.) im’port (v.) // blackbird vs. black bird tone(语调)---pitch variation(音高变体) distinguish meaning E.g. 汉语四声Intonation(音调)---English tones: falling tone, rising tone, fall-rise tone, rise-fall toneE.g. That’s not the book he wants.3.1 Morphology: study of the internal structure of words, and rules by which words are formed 3.2 open class words(开放类): new words can be added—nouns, verbs, adjective and adverbs closed class words(封闭类): “grammatical” or “functional” words3.3 Word is the smallest free form found in language.Morphemes are the minimal units of meaning.Free and bound morphemes(自由词素can be a word by itself 粘着词素must be attached to another one---affix)3.4 V----teachN Af----er3.5 Derivational and inflectional morphemes(派生词素和屈折词素)Free morphemes Bound morphemesRoot Root Affixdog, cat -ceive Prefix Suffixgrammar -vert Derivational Derivational Inflectional… -mit un-, dis- -ment -s, -ing, -‘s, -er3.6 Morphological rules determine how morphemes combine to form words. E.g. un-accept-able3.8 Another way to form words is compounding. E.g. bittersweetWord Formations: compounding, blending, backformation, shortening4.1 Syntax studies the rules that govern the formation of sentences.4.2 Category is a group of linguistic items which fulfill the same or similar functionsin a particular language such as a sentence, a noun phrase or a verb.Syntactic categories—word-level categories:major lexical categories (often assumed as the heads around which phrases are built) ---Noun (N) Verb (V) Adjective (A) Preposition (P)minor lexical categories---Determiner (Det) Degree words (Deg) Qualifier (Qual) Auxiliary (Aux) Conjunction (Con) Three criteria(条件) determining a word’s category: meaning, inflection (变形) and distribution (分布)A word’s category can be determined only by all three criteria.Phrase category is determined by the word category around which the phrase is built.noun phrase (NP), verb phrase (VP), adjective phrase (AP), prepositional phrase (PP)phrases that are formed of more than one word usually contain : head, specifier, complement4.3 Phrase structure rule---special type of grammatical mechanism regulating thearrangement of elements that make up a phraseNP→(Det) N (PP) an NP consists of a determiner, an N head, and a PP complementVP→(Qual) V (NP) a VP consists of a qualifier, a V head, and an NP complementAP→(Deg) A (PP) ……PP→(Deg) P (NP) ……XP rule: XP→(specifier) X (complement)Coordination rule: coordinate structures (consist a conjunction “and”/”or”)X→X *Con XEither an X or an XP can be coordinated; one or more categories can occur to theleft of the Con.4.4 Phrase elements: specifiers, complements, modifiersspecifiers determiner qualifier degree wordheads N V A / Pcomplementizers (Cs)—words introducing the sentence complementcomplement clause—sentence introduced by the complementizer complement phrase(CP)matrix clause—construction in which the CP embeded嵌入As, Ns, Ps can all take CP. Adjectives: (heads) afraid, certain, aware Nouns: (heads) fact, claim, belief Prepositions: (heads)over, aboutmodifiers: all lexical categories can have modifiers.AP(+Ns): precedes the head e.g. a very careful girl PP(+Vs): follows the head e.g.open with care AdvP(+Vs): precedes or follows the head e.g. read carefully/carefully readThe Expanded XP rule: XP→(Spec) (Mod) X (Complement*) (Mod)4.5 The S rule: S→NP VP ------ Inflp (=S)→NP Infl VP ------Infl can be taken by an abstractcategory encoded in a verb indicating tense or an auxiliary(助动词)4.6 Transformation a special rule that can move an element from one position to anotherauxiliary movement(助动词移位) inversion: move Infl to the left of the subject NP.within larger CPs (embedded or not): inversion: move Infl to C. P53 Figure 4-8do insertion(插入): insert interrogative do into an empty Infl position, than move Infl to C.deep and surface structure: e.g. Will the train arrive?Deep: S Surface: Will the train ____ arrive?NP VPDet N Infl Vthe train will arriveThe XP rule→D structure→transformations→S structure wh movement: move the wh phrase to the beginning of the sentence/the specifier position under CPP57 Figure 4-16 P58 Figure 4-18move αand constraints on transformationsmove α: general rule for all the movement rules α: any element that can be moved limits: inversion can move an auxiliary from the Infl to the nearest C position no element may be removed from a coordinate structure5.1 Semantics is the study of meaning (from a linguistic point of view.)5.2 The naming theory: The words used in a language are simply labels of the objects they stand for.The limitations of this theory are obvious. There’s verbs, adjectives, etc. and alsoabstract nouns.The conceptualist view: Words and things are relatedthrough the mediation of concepts in the mind.Contextualism: The meaning of a word is its use in the language.Behaviorism: The meaning of a language form is the situation in which the speaker utters it and the response it calls forth in the hearer.5.3 Sense and reference are two terms often encountered in the study of word meaning, whichare related but different aspects of meaning.Sense: e.g. “dog”---a domesticated mammal... refer to any animal that meets the features describedReference: “dog”---A said to B:”The dog’s barking.” refer to a certain dog known to both A&BMajor sense relations:synonymy---words that are close in meaningdialectal syn.(autumn in BE & fall in AE), stylistic syn.(daddy & father), syn. that differ in emotive or evaluative meaning(same meaning, different emotions)collocational syn.(different usage), semantically different syn.(differ slightly in meaning)polysemy(one word may have more than one meaning)homonymy (homophones--- two words same in sound, homographs---same in spelling, complete homonyms---same in both sound and spelling)hyponymy(relation between a general word—superordinate, and a specific word--hyponyms)antonymy(words that are opposite in meaning)gradable ant.---e.g. hot vs. cold complementary ant.---e.g. male vs. female relational ant.---e.g. husband vs. wife5.4 Sense relations between sentences:X is synonymous with Y. E.g. He was a bachelor all his life. / He never ma rried….X, True—Y, True; X, False---Y FalseX is inconsistent with Y. E.g. John’s married. / John’s a bachelor. X, T—Y, F; X, F—Y, TX entails Y. E.g. He’s been to France. / He’s been to Europe. X, T—Y, T; X, F—Y, may be T or FX presupposes Y. E.g. John’s bike needs repairing. / John has a bike. X, T—Y, T; X, F—Y, TX is a contradiction. E.g. My unmarried sister married a bachelor. X is always false.X is semantically anomalous. (absurd in the sense)5.5 componential analysis----lexical meaning E.g. man---+HUMAN, +ADULT, +ANIMATE, +MALE predication(谓项) analysis---sentence meaning E.g. The kids like apples. ---KID, APPLE (LIKE)Tom smokes. ---TOM (SMOKE) It is hot. --- (BE HOT)6.1 Pragmatics studies how speakers of a language use sentences to effect successfulcommunication (meaning in a certain context).Sentence meaning vs. utterance meaningUtterance is the realization of the abstract meaning of a sentence in a real situation of communication or context, it is context-dependent.6.2 Speech act theory: aim to answer “What do we do when using language?”----John Austinin late 1950slocutionary act(言内行为—字面意思), illocutionary act(言外行为—目的), perlocutionary act(言后行为—结果)John Searle: classification of illocutionary acts---five generaltypes of things we do with languageSpecific acts that fall into each type share the same illocutionary point1. representatives/assertive: stating or describing, saying what the speaker believesto be trueE.g. The earth is a globe.2. directives: trying to get the hearer to do something E.g. Close the door. / Willyou close the door?3. commissives: committing the speaker himself to some future course of actionE.g. I promise to come. / I will bring you the book tomorrow without fail.4. expressive: expressing feelings or attitude towards an existing stateE.g. It’s kind of you to ... / I’m sorry for the mess I’ve made.5. declarations: bringing about immediate changes by saying somethingE.g. I now declare the meeting open. / I appoint you chairman of the committee. Indirect speech act--primary speech act (goal of communication) + secondary speech act (means by which he achieves the goal) ----Searle6.3 Conventional implicature(暗示) & nonconventional implicature-----GriceCon. imp. E.g. He is rich but he is not greedy. imp. Rich people are usually greedy. The participants must first of all be willing to cooperate to converse with each other.The general principle is called the Cooperative Principle. (CP)Four maxims(准则) under CP: The maxim of quantity (informative but no more than required), quality (don’t say what you believe to be false or what you lack adequateevidence), relation (be relevant), manner (avoid obscurity or ambiguity & be briefand orderly)These maxims can be violated. (when misleading, lying, etc.) Chap. 7 Language change (diachronic 历时的) Historical linguisticsphonological changes: vowels---the most dramatic change morphological and syntactic change:morphological: Addition of affixes (Fusion 融合word word---base +suffix /prefix +base)Loss of affixes---some are via sound changessyntactic: change of word order Old English: subject-object-verbchange in negation rule Old English: I love thee not.lexical and semantic change:lexical: Addition of new words---takes place obviously and quicklyCoinage (coin for new things and objects), Clipped words (缩略构词), Blending (combine parts of other words, e.g. brunch), Acronyms (首字构词 e.g. WTO),Back-formation (subtract affixes from old words, e.g. donate---from “donation”)Functional shift /Conversion (shift without adding affixes, e.g. to knee/cool; a reject)Borrowing (borrow from other languages, e.g. bonus from Latin, cycle from Greek…)Loss of words---takes place gradually over severalgenerationsSome words are short-lived because of the discontinuation of the object they name.semantic: three processes of semantic change---semantic broadening: e.g. holiday =holy day in the past, but any rest day todaysemantic narrowing: e.g. girl = young person of either sex in the past semantic shift: e.g. nice = ignorant a thousand years ago recent trends: moving towards greater informality, influence of American English, influence of science and technology (space travel, computer and internet lang. etc.)causes of language change: development of science &tech., social & political changesand needs, the way children acquire language, grammarsimplification, elaboration & complication, etc. No singlecauseChap. 8 Language and societySociolinguistics is the sub-field of linguistics that studies the relation betweenlanguage andsociety, between the uses of language and the social structures in whichthe users of language live. (社会语言学) Halliday & HudsonLanguage is used to communicate meaning, and to establish and maintain social relationships.Social background determines the kind of language one uses, and language reflects one’s info.speech community---the social group that is singled out for any special studyVarious social groups exist within a speech community. Asocial group may distinguish itself from the rest of the community by the educational background,the occupation, the gender, the age , of the ethnic affiliation of its members. speech variety(变体)---any distinguishable form of speech used by a speaker or a group of speakersthree types of speech variety of special interest: regional dialects, sociolects, registersTwo approaches to sociolinguistic studies: macro-sociolinguistics & micro-sociolinguisticsThe varieties of language are related to the users and the use to which the language is put.Dialectal varieties: regional dialect (linguistic variety used by people living in the same geographical region---geographical barrier), sociolect(characteristic of a particular social class---different social conditions),language and gender (female speech is less assertive and thus sounds morepolite), language and age (old people are more conservative and like using oldwords more), idiolect (personal dialect), ethnic dialect (social dialect ofa language cutting across regional differences e.g. Black English)Register: the type of language which is selected as appropriate to the type of situation linguistic repertoire---the totality of linguistic varietiespossessed by an individualthree social variables that determine the register(the features appropriate to the situation):field of discourse (语场purpose and subject-matter of communication non-technical or technical, determines the vocabulary used and the phono.& gramm. features),tenor of discourse (语旨 who the participants are and therelationship between them determines the formality and the level of technicality),mode of discourse(语式 the means of communication)E.g. a lecture on biology in a technical collegeField: scientific (biological) Tenor: teacher—student (formal, polite) Mode: oral (lecturing)Degree of formality: intimate—casual—consultative—formal—frozenStandard dialects (employed by government, used by mass media, taught in edu.institutions, based on a selected variety of lang., usually local speech ofpolitical or commercial centers, for official purposes or any formal occasions) Pidgin (a variety that mixes or blends languages) and Creole (a pidgin becoming the primary lang. of a speech community of which the children acquire the pidgin as native lang.)Chap. 9 Language and culture are interdependent on each other and have evolved together. Culture is integrated pattern of human knowledge, belief, & behavior. (material & spiritual cult.) Relationship between lang. &cult. : Language symbolizes cultural reality, plays a major role in perpetuating of a culture, is related to what the culture is andaffects a culture’s way of thinking. Language is to culture what part isto whole.discourse communities--- members of the social group use similar lang. to meet their needsdiscourse accents---unique uses of each group’s language, the ways and the style of their talkingSapir-Whorf Hypothesis (SWH): Language filters people’s perception and the way they categorize their experiences.Language reflects cultural preoccupations and constrains the way people think. Context is important in complementing the meanings encoded in the language.Any linguistic sign has a denotative (指示意义—内含), connotative (暗涵意义—外延), or iconic(图像意义) kind of meaning. All these types of meanings are boundwith cultural encodings or associations.some cultural differences in language use: greeting and terms of address, gratitude and compliments, color words, privacy and taboos(禁忌), rounding off numbers,words and cultural specific connotations, cultural-related idioms, proverbsand metaphorsCulture contact--- acculturation(文化移入 political conquests and expansions), assimilation (吸收 immigration), amalgamation (合并 ethnical mix / synthesisrather than the elimination or absorption)Cultural overlap (文化重叠owe to similarities in natural environ. and human psychology)Cultural diffusion (文化扩展e.g. loan words gradually and unceasingly)cultural imperialism (文化帝国主义)---owe to linguistic imperialismspecial language policy protecting the purity of their languages---linguisticnationalismChap. 10 Language acquisition---child’s acquisition of his mother tongueThree theories: the behaviorist (行为主义语言习得观), the innatist(语法天生…),the interactionist (互动主义…)Behaviorist: language is a kind of behavior, language learning is simply a matter of imitation and habit formation. Children imitate words selectively andaccording to their own understanding of the sounds or patterns, which is basedon what the children have already known instead of what is “available” inthe environment. This theory fails to explain how they acquire more complexgrammatical structures of the languageInnatist: LAD was described as an imaginary “black box” existing somewhere in the human brain. It is said to contain principles that are universal to allhuman languages.Universal Grammar: innate knowledge of basic grammatical system Children ‘s acquisition of grammatical rules is guided by principles of an innate UG.Interactionist: language is a result of the complex interplay between the human characteristics of the child and the environment in which he grows.child directed speech (CDS)(slow rate, high pitch音高, rich intonation抑扬, shorter and simpler sentence structure)The cognitive development relates to language acquisition mainly in two ways: First, as children’s conceptual development leads to their language development, their language development also helps in the formation andenhancement of the concept.Second, the cognitive factors determine how the child makes sense of the linguistic system himself instead of what meanings the child perceives (理解) and expresses.Two factors remarkably relevant to children’s language developmentLanguage environment is essential in providing input for language acquisition:Behaviorist: language environment plays a major roleInnatist: environment is a stimulus that triggers the pre-equipped LADInteractionist: call for the quality of the language samples available in the ling. environmentAge they start to learn the language:Critical Period Hypothesis (CPH): LAD works successfully only when it’s stimulate d at the right time—a specific and limited time period for languageacquisition (Eric Lenneberg)Two versions of CPH: strong one—children must acquire their first language by pubertyweak one—language learning will be more difficult and incomplete after puberty----consensus: there’s a critical period for first language acquisition Stages in child language development:Phonological development—children must pass one stagebefore proceeding to the nextVocabulary development—under-extension, over-extension Vocabulary development goes together with the child’s knowledge of theenvironment.Children may under-extend or overextend it when learning a new word.under-extension: e.g. child gets confused hearing the color of white used for paper when he first thought it as the word for snowover-extension: a child takes a property of an object and generalizes it.likely to occur laterGrammatical developmentPragmatic developmentAtypical development (非典型发展)hearing impairment (听力损伤), mental retardation (智力缺陷), autism (孤独症), stuttering (口吃), aphasia (失语症), dyslexia (诵读困难), dysgraphia (书写困难)Chap. 11 Second language acquisition (SLA) is the systematic study of how one person acquiresa secondlanguage subsequent to his native language (NL/L1).Whether the target language (TL) to be learnt is called a second language (SL/L2) or a foreign language (FL) depends on its status as a second language or foreignlanguage in the country.Contrastive Analysis (CA)--1960s :positive/negative transfer: the former facilitate targetlanguage learning, the latter interfereCA compares the forms and meanings across two languages to locate the mismatches or differences so as to predict the possible learning difficulty.It was soon found problematic: uninformative, inaccurateError Anal ysis (EA): independently describe the learners’ interlanguage (their version of the target language and the target language itself), and comparethe two forms to locate mismatches.It gives less consideration to learner s’ native language than CA. reach heyday in 1970sTwo main sorts of errors: interlingual errors (语际错误result from cross-linguistic interference at different levels—phonological, lexical…),intralingual errors (语内错误result from faulty or partial learning of theTL, independent of the NL e.g. learning strategies-based error)Overgeneralization—the use of previously available strategies in new situations Cross-association—interference of two words similar in meaning, spelling and pronunciation EA was criticized for its neglect of learners’ role as active participants in learning. (mid-1970s)Interlanguage: Three important characteristics—systematicity (系统性), permeability (渗透性), fossilization (石化 a processoccurring from time to time in which incorrectlinguistic features become a permanent part ofthe way a person speaks or writes a language.fossilized pronunciation leads to accent)Input Hypothesis---Krashen: two independent means or routes of second language learning:acquisition: subconscious process learning: conscious efforts Learners advance their language learning gradually by receiving “comprehensible input”. ”i+1”It received criticism later, for he mistook “input” as “intake”.Individual differences: language aptitude (天资), age of acquisition, personality motivation----instrumental motivation (for external goal), integrative motivation (for the wish to identify with the target culture),resultative motivation (for external purposes), intrinsic motivation(for pleasure),learning strategies (motivation plays an important role in use of learning strategies)----cognitive strategies (认知策略involved in analyzing, synthesizing(合成) and internalizing(内在化) what has been learned), metacognitivestrategies (元认知策略the techniques in planning, monitoring andevaluating one’s learning), affect/social st rategies (deal with theways learners interact or communicate with other speakers, native ornon-native)Chap. 12 Language and the brainneurolinguistics (神经语言学): study of language disorders and the relationship between the brain and language. lateralization (侧化)—cognitive functions controlled by eitherside of the brainThe brain is divided into two sections:the lower section—brain stem(脑干 shared by all animals to keep the body aliveby maintaining the essential functions)the higher section—cerebrum(大脑differs in different species, not essential for life)cerebellum—at the rear of the brain , beneath the cerebrum, behind the brainstem neuron神经元 Neurons form the cortex(脑皮层 the surface of the brain)The cortex has many wrinkles: a ridge (hills) called sulcus, a deep and prominent sulcus called fissureThe cortex is the decision-making organ of the body and “storehouse”of “memory”, it makes human distinctive in the animal world—animals have no cortex.The cortex is separated by the longitudinal fissure into the left and right cerebral hemispheres, the main connection between which is a bundle of nerve fibers called corpus callosum Each hemisphere has its own substructures called lobes:the frontal ~, parietal ~, temporal ~, occipital ~Investigative techniques for the study of the brain:Autopsy studies(尸体解剖): to find the relationship between the area of brain damage and the type of disorder the patient displayed while alive.investigation of the brain itself: SAT, CT scanning, PET, MRI, fMRI“Sodium(钠) Amytal” Test (SAT)--riskyComputerized Axial Tomography (CT scanning): X-ray to create brainimages—static(静态) images。