英语国家社会与文化(下)名词解释(中英)

英语国家社会与文化重点术语1. British Monarchy：英国君主制，指的是英国的君主制政府体制。

2. House of Commons：下议院，指的是英国主要立法机关之一，也是英国议会的两个部分之一。

3. House of Lords：上议院，指的是英国另外一个主要立法机关，也是英国议会的两个部分之一。

4. Prime Minister：首相，指的是英国执政党领导人，是英国内阁的首脑和政府的领导者。

5. Cabinet：内阁，指的是由首相挑选的政府部长组成的政府机构，决定英国政府的政策和行动。

6. Queen’s Speech：女王演讲，每年在英国的议会开幕时，由女王亲自发表的演讲。

7. Politics：政治，指的是社会维护社会稳定，调节社会关系，实现社会发展的活动过程。

8. Parliament：英国议会，是讨论和决定英国国家政策的高级立法机构，也是英国政府的最高权力机构。

9. Law：法律，规范国家内外秩序、保障国家和民族利益和权利的检测过程。

10. Constitution：宪法，是一国的政权体系以及公民权利和义务的根本法。

11. Human Rights：人权，指人们在代表国家的政府的保护下，享有的一系列的权利和自由。

12. Freedom of Expression：言论自由，指人民可以自由地表达自己的想法，不受任何形式压制。

13. National Identity：国家认同，指共同体中具有特定文化、语言、信仰等共同性的独特性，共同为国家特定历史、凝聚力和竞争力而努力。

14. Diversity：多样性，指的是不同文化、不同宗教、不同背景和不同选择等等，都在一起被尊重、受到容纳、并互相影响。

15. Multiculturalism：多元文化，指的是一个社会中的多种文化，有存在的多样性的社会。

16. Immigration：移民，指的是一个国家的人口在短时间内有显著的增长，或者将永久定居于其他国家的行为。

TEXT1783年和平条约承认美国独立和沿东海岸的大西洋前13个英国殖民地成为13个新的民族国家。

这13个国家是：马萨诸塞州，康涅狄格州，罗得岛州和新罕布什尔州的新英格兰东北部，马里兰州，宾夕法尼亚州，特拉华州，纽约和新泽西州的大西洋中部，和弗吉尼亚州，北卡罗来纳州，南卡罗来纳州和格鲁吉亚南方。

虽然独立宣言，宣布13日联合殖民地“是，和权利应该是自由和独立的国家”，他们并不十分关注未来的政治制度，美国和有关国家之间和政府的关系，明确新国家。

阿宪法迫切需要。

Articles of Confederation当独立战争结束后，美国并没有一个统一的国家，因为它是今天。

每一个新的国家有自己的政府和组织一个独立的国家一样十分。

每个做出了自己的法律和处理其内部事务的。

在战争期间，各国已同意派代表工作的全国代表大会后，一起图案的“代表大会”是与英国进行的战争。

战争结束后获胜，国会将只处理的问题和需要的个别国家不能单独处理。

这将筹集资金，偿还债务的战争，使条约建立货币制度，与外国交易。

该协定，规定这一合作计划被称为的邦联。

邦联的失败，因为国家并没有与国会合作，或与对方。

当国会需要钱支付国家军队或支付所欠法国和其他国家的债务，一些国家拒绝作出贡献。

国会已获得无权迫使任何国家做任何事情。

它不能税务任何公民。

只有国家在公民生活可以这样做。

许多美国人担心未来。

怎么能赢得尊重其他国家，如果国家没有偿还债务？他们怎么能够提高建筑物的道路或运河的国家，如果美国不一起工作？他们认为，国会需要更多的权力。

国会要求每个国家都派代表参加在费城公约，城市的独立宣言签署了，讨论改变，就必须加强对邦联。

最小的州，罗得岛，拒绝，但来自其他12个国家的代表参加了会议。

这次会议后来被制宪会议，已知5月开始的1787年。

乔治华盛顿在独立战争的军事英雄，是主持人。

其他54人出席了会议。

一些想要一个强有力的，新的政府。

有的没有。

Constitution在该公约，设计了政府对美国新形式的代表课程。

英语国家社会与文化（下）名词解释（中英）The Resource Management Act 资源管理法案The Resource Management Act reflects New Zealander’s environmental awareness. Under the Act, laws governing land,air and water resources are combined together to ensure the sustainable management of natural resources. It focuses on the effects of human activities on the whole environment as well. The Act came into force in 1991. With it , New Zealand leads the world in environmental legislation.资源管理法案反映了新西兰人的环保意识。

根据该法案，法律将土地，空气和水资源结合在一起管理，以确保自然资源的可持续管理。

它侧重于人类活动对整个环境的影响。

该法案于1991生效。

有了它，新西兰在环境立法方面领先世界。

Maoritanga 毛利文化Maoritanga is the Maori word for “ Maori culture. It refers to all the elements of the rich cultural heritage of the indigenous people in New Zealand, including their languages, customs and traditions.毛利文化是毛利语中的“毛利文化。

它是指在新西兰土著居民丰富的文化遗产中的所有元素，包括他们的语言，习俗和传统。

Going to School in America Today每年秋季近50万青少年通过美国约10万小学和中学新学年开始学校的门口走。

从幼儿园教室灌装到12年级，他们参加为5小时，平均每天班，每周5天，直到第二年夏天开始。

这些学生中的一部分的教育历史上最雄心勃勃的承诺之一：美国的教育工作，整个国家人口。

我们的目标是和自共和国的最初几十年中一直对实现普遍扫盲，并提供必要的知识和技能，以便促进他们自己的个人福利以及个人的广大市民。

尽管这个目标尚未完全实现，但它仍然是对美国的教育系统是针对理想。

在已取得的进展，显见其范围和已在对实现这一目标过程中形成的教育方法。

约85％的美国学生参加公立学校（学校由美国纳税人的支持）。

另外15％参加私人学校，他们的家庭选择要特别出勤费。

5的美国私立学校都是由4个教堂，犹太教堂或其他宗教团体。

在这样的学校，宗教教义的课程，其中还包括阅读，数学，历史，地理和科学传统的学术课程。

（宗教教育的一部分，是在公立学校不给。

）两种教育系统，合并后的公共和私人开支，超过一千九万点零万美元一年。

从这个角度看，美国的教育是一个功能强大的消费。

谁决定如何数百万美元的这些人中许多应该用于教师工资，新的计算机或额外的书籍，每年？私立学校符合国家标准的使用费，他们收集他们认为最好的。

但是，在涉及公共税收，支出遵循教育委员会学校（决策者在国家）和/或地区的水平。

同样的事情也是如此对学校课程，教师标准和认证的决定，以及全面衡量学生的进步。

Education—A Local Matter从夏威夷到特拉华州，从阿拉斯加到路易斯安那州，在美国50个州都有其自己的法律规范的教育。

从国家与国家，有些法律是相似，有些则没有。

例如：所有的州都要求青年人上学。

（不同的年龄限制：32个州要求参加到16岁，8至18岁;等）因此，在美国每一个儿童都享有高达13年的教育。

这是真的，不论孩子的种族，宗教，性别，学习问题，肢体伤残或不能讲英语。

Unit3:美国的开始什么是美国？这已经变成了一个经典的问题，这个问题不仅是外国人参观美国时会发出的，连美国人自己也在问这个问题。

当美国人感到困惑的时候，当他们处在危机当中时，他们会问他们到底是谁，并且尝试去查明作为一个美国人的意义在哪里。

实际上，这个著名的问题是出自一位名叫赫克托·圣约翰·德克雷夫科尔的法国人所提出来了，他在18世纪定居于宾夕法尼亚州。

在1782年，这位法国农夫在伦敦出版了一本名为《一封来自美国农民的信》，在这本书中，他提出了这个问题，并且反问他自己：“那美国人呢，他们是新的种族吗？他既不是欧洲人，也不是欧洲人的后裔，他们是一种在任何国家都看不到的强大的血缘融合。

我可以向你例证在一个家庭中，爷爷可能是英国人，他的妻子是荷兰人，他的儿子嫁给了一个法国人，而且他们的儿子娶了4个不同国家的老婆。

美国人是这样的人：他们把所有过去的偏见和习俗抛在脑后，而从他们所热爱的新生活方式、他们所依附的新政府、他享有的新地位中接受新的一套。

来自各个民族的人，在此熔成为一个新的名族，他们的劳动及他们的后代必将给世界带来大的变化......美国人是一种新人，他按新的原则办事，他们因此必须吸取新的思想，形成新的见解......这就是美国人。

”按照德克雷夫科尔所说的，如今的美国人和他们的后裔都是欧洲人混种，但是却没有把美洲印第安人和黑种人考虑在内。

如今，对于美国人的描述越来越复杂。

在美国的家庭中，女婿和儿媳可能是欧洲人的后裔，也可能是非洲美国人或是亚洲移民，尽管这种家庭是由白人黑人亚洲人混血而成，但这毕竟只是少数。

想要去了解美国的话，让我们先回到美国的过去。

新大陆美洲大陆居住的是两次长期人口迁移运动所带来的人民，第一次是从亚洲来的，第二次是从欧洲和非洲。

向美洲的第一次人口迁移运动大约始于25000年之前，当时在西伯利亚的部族为了寻找新的猎场或逃避追赶的敌人越过白令海峡，到达阿拉斯加。

到1492年，大约1000～2000万土生土长的美洲人生活在美洲，他们被哥伦布错认为印度人。

英语国家社会与文化重点术语
monwealth of Nations: 英联邦，包括英格兰，威尔士，苏
格兰，北爱尔兰和52个唯一的独立共和国或王国。

2.The United Kingdom: 英国，由英格兰，威尔士，苏格兰和北爱尔
兰组成。

3.British Isles: 不列颠群岛，由英国，爱尔兰，苏格兰，威尔士和
英格兰大部分其他岛屿组成。

4.English language: 英语，它是英国最主要的语言，在英联邦和其
他英语国家有广泛使用。

5.English literature : 英语文学，指的是用英语撰写的文学作品，
起源于英国，并被全世界传播。

6.British monarchy: 英国君主制，也称英国王室，是以女王或国王
为头的君主制，历史悠久。

7.British culture: 英国文化，指的是由英国及其前殖民地创造的文化，包括文学，艺术，表演艺术，音乐，电影，体育，宗教，历史，
建筑和社会习俗等。

8.British accent: 英国口音，指用英语讲话时，英国人所使用的口音，有不同的地区口音。

9.British cuisine: 英国菜肴，指由英国的食品、烹饪方法和历史习
惯组成的料理，融合欧洲，北美洲，中东和亚洲元素。

10.United Kingdom flag: 标志联合王国的国旗，也称为Union Jack，由英格兰，威尔士和苏格兰三块组成。

名词解释英文版1. Economy（经济）：指一个国家或地区在一定时期内生产、分配和消费商品和服务的总体活动。

2. Technology（技术）：指人类在改造自然和满足自身需求的过程中所创造的知识、方法和工具。

3. Environment（环境）：指人类生存和发展的自然条件和社会条件。

4. Education（教育）：指通过传授知识、培养能力和塑造人格，使个体和社会得到发展的过程。

5. Health（健康）：指个体在身体、心理和社会适应方面的良好状态。

6. Culture（文化）：指一个国家或地区在历史长河中形成的独特的生活方式、价值观念和艺术表现形式。

7. Politics（政治）：指国家或地区内部和外部权力关系的运作和管理。

8. Law（法律）：指由国家制定和实施的规范人们行为的规则和制度。

9. Society（社会）：指由一定数量的人组成的具有共同文化、价值观和生活方式的群体。

10. Art（艺术）：指人类在审美和情感表达方面所创造的各种形式的作品和活动。

重要工具。

通过学习这些名词的英文解释，我们可以更好地理解和参与国际交流与合作。

名词解释英文版11. Innovation（创新）：指在现有知识和技能的基础上，创造出新的产品、服务、方法或理念，以满足人类需求或解决问题。

12. Sustainability（可持续性）：指在满足当前世代需求的同时，不损害后代满足其需求的能力。

13. Diversity（多样性）：指在一个群体、组织或社会中，存在不同的观点、背景、文化、性别、年龄等特征。

14. Inequality（不平等）：指在资源、机会、权力或社会地位方面存在差异，导致某些人或群体处于不利地位。

15. Human rights（人权）：指人类在生存、发展、自由和尊严方面享有的基本权利，这些权利应受到国家和社会的保护。

16. Democracy（民主）：指一种政治制度，其中人民通过选举、投票等方式参与决策，政府权力来源于人民。

Absolute Decline and RelativeDecline到19世纪80年代英国经济在世界上占主导地位产生一个世界上，一半的煤，铁，半制成品的棉花三分之一。

英国航运数额更大的世界其他地区加起来比。

但即使到1900年这不再是这样，英国有超过都被美国和德国，当然也从1945年到现在，对英国经济的故事通常是作为一个思想的下降。

这是可以理解的，而是误导，因为它实际上一直是经济稳定增长时期，迅速提高生活水平。

英国仍然是七工业经济大集团之一。

但也有描述为这一时期下降的原因之一。

中英双方作为第二次世界大战的成功盟友之一战后世界，同其主要竞争对手的一些国家，如德国和日本，经济遭到破坏。

同时英国是一个更加庞大帝国的中心。

数字显示，英国是仅次于美国在国际经济中。

因此，英国当时显然是在强大的经济地位，它的地位显然不再占据，这表明一些下降排序。

但基本的正面描述的经济规模表面上的事实，世界贸易是英国比例很高，因此在1945年，没有透露有关英国的立场，重要的负面事实即使这样。

首先该国了负债累累，以资助战争，累计出售其海外资产多，借用美国和加拿大的大量资金。

这些债务意味着英国进入一个重大的经济问题，战后时代。

其次，帝国时代已经结束。

印度，俗称为“在大英帝国的皇冠”珠宝称，1947年取得独立，只有2年后战争结束。

这是在帝国的最大元素，提供原材料，并为英国商品的大市场。

这与印度的关系已不再可用，帝国的其它国家也纷纷仿效印度独立，剩下的只是一个中等规模的欧洲国家，英国的人口只有五分之一的美国的大小，第三，尽管相对快速和顺利的非殖民化自由的过程中，英国仍然不得不维持一个庞大而昂贵的地方，许多海外的军事存在，直到该进程完成（主要是由60年代末）。

此外，政府立场的其中一个职位的塑造者，战后世界需要大量的军事贡献，作为北约的主要伙伴之一两者，作为安理会常任理事国。

所有这一切的结果是英国用于军事比其大多数竞争对手其国民财富（尤其是其研究和开发预算）的比例较高。

英语国家社会与文化重点术语在英语国家的社会和文化中，有许多重要的术语被广泛使用和讨论。

这些术语反映了英语国家的独特价值观和方式。

以下是一些在英语国家社会和文化中常见的重要术语。

1. 自由（Freedom）: 自由是英语国家社会和文化中非常重要的价值观。

它包括个人自由、言论自由、宗教自由和政治自由等。

人们坚信，每个人都有权利追求幸福和自我实现，而不受限制或压制。

2. 平等（Equality）: 平等是另一个重要的价值观，意味着每个人都应该被平等对待，不受财富、种族、性别、宗教或其他身份特征的歧视。

英语国家注重提供平等的机会和待遇，以确保社会的公正性和包容性。

3. 多元文化主义（Multiculturalism）: 多元文化主义指的是英语国家社会中不同文化、种族和宗教群体的共存和接纳。

这意味着人们不仅尊重和容忍其他文化的差异，还重视文化多样性对社会的贡献和丰富。

4. 民主（Democracy）: 民主是英语国家非常重视的政治制度。

它鼓励所有公民参与决策过程，通过选举来选择政府和领导人。

民主也意味着尊重个人权利和基本自由，同时保护少数群体的利益。

5. 社交礼仪（Etiquette）: 社交礼仪是英语国家文化的一部分，强调个人与他人的尊重和礼貌。

这包括正式的礼节、表达感谢和给予对他人的尊重。

6. 幽默（Humor）: 幽默在英语国家文化中是非常重要的。

幽默被视为生活中的一种积极态度，人们经常使用幽默来缓解紧张的局势和改善人际关系。

8. 教育（Education）: 教育在英语国家非常重要，被认为是达到个人成功和社会发展的关键。

英语国家致力于提供高质量的教育，以便培养学生的技能和知识，并帮助他们实现自己的潜力。

9. 家庭（Family）: 家庭是英语国家的核心，被视为最重要的社会单位。

家庭关系通常非常亲密，家庭成员之间的相互支持和彼此照顾被视为非常重要。

10. 慈善（Charity）: 在英语国家，慈善事业是社会文化的重要组成部分。

The Easter RisingIn order to gain independence, different Irish groups had been fighting against the British institutions and the British military forces. One such activity was the Easter Rising which took place in 1916. the rebels occupied Dublin’s Post Office and forced the British to take it back by military force. The leaders of the rebellion were executed by the British authorities.Sinn FeinSinn Fein is a legal political party in Northern Ireland which supports the IRA to fight for the union of Ireland. The leaders of Sinn Fein prefer union with Ireland by a twin campaign, both military and political which they call the policy of “the Bullet and the Ballot Box”. It believes that without the participation of Sinn Fein the political problem of Northern Ireland cannot be thoroughly solved.The Good Friday AgreementAs a result of multi-party negotiations, the Good Friday Agreement was approved on 10 April 1998. This agreement assures the loyalist community that Northern Ireland remains part of the United Kingdom and it won’t change its political status unless the majority of the people of Northern Ireland agree. Under the terms of the agreement, Northern Ireland should be governed by three separate jurisdictions: that of the Republic of Ireland , that of Great Britain and that of its own elected executive government of ten ministers. The Bill of Rights of 1689In 1688, King James II’s daughter Mary and her husband William were invited by the politicians and church authorities to take the throne, on condition that they would respect the right of Parliament. The Bill of Rights was passed in 1689 to ensure that the King would never be able to ignore Parliament. The House of LordsThe House of Lords consists of the Lords Spiritual, who are the Archbishops and most prominent bishops of the Church of England; and the Lords Temporal, which refers to those lords who either have inherited the seat from their forefathers or they have been appointed. The lords mainly represent themselves instead of the interests of the public.The House of CommonsThe House of Commons is the real center of British political life because it is the place where about 650 elected representatives make and debate policy. These MPs are elected in the General Elections and should represent the interests of the people who vote for them.The electoral campaignsBefore a general election, the political parties would start their electoral campaigns in order to make their ideologies and polities known to the public. The campaign involves advertisements in newspapers, door-to-door campaigning, postal deliveries of leaflets and “party electoral broadcast”on the television. The parties also try to attack and criticize the opponents’ policies. Therefore, these campaigns sometimes can be quite aggressive and critical.Class system in British societyThe class system does exist in British society. Most of the British population would claim themselves to be either of middle-class or working-class, though some people would actually belong to the upper middle-class or lower middle-class. Class divisions are not simply economic, they are cultural as well. People of different classes may differ in the kind of newspapers they read, in the way they speak and in the kind of education they receive. One of the distinctive features about the British class system is that aristocratic titles can still be inherited.Ethnic relations in the UKThe coming of immigrants groups from other parts of the world has greatly enriched British culture. But ethnic relations are also sometimes tense: the local people view the newcomers as a threat to their way of living; and despite much official actions to minimize racism, both subtle and overt oppression remains. The immigrant population is not well-off economically. They face problems of unemployment, under-representation in politics and unfair treatment by police and by the justice system.Relative decline of the UKThe UK has experienced an economic decline since 1945. But this is a relative decline rather than an absolute one. Britain is wealthier and more productive than it was in 1945, but since other countries developed more rapidly, it has slid from being the second largest economy to being the sixth. Privatisation in the 1980sThe British economy went through a particularly bad period in the 1970s, with high rates of inflation and devaluation of the Pound. Therefore, in the 1980s, when the Conservative party under Margaret Thatcher was in power, an extensive programme of privatization was carried out. Many state-owned businesses(such as steel, telecom, gas, aerospace) were turned into private companies. Privatisation was successful in controlling inflation but at the same time unemployment rate increased rapidly.“The City”“The City” refers to the historic area at the centre of London. It is one of the biggest financial centres in the world with the greatest concentration of banks, insurance companies and businesses dealing in commodities. At the heart of the city is the London Stock Exchange.Elizabethan DramaThe general flowering of cultural and intellectual life in Europe during the 15th and 16th centuries is know ad the Renaissance. In British culture, one of the most successful and long－lasting expressions of this development lay in drama. That was the period of the reign of Queen Elizabeth. The first professional theatre in London opened in 1576,and others followed, performing the plays of many notable playwrights, including Christopher Marlowe ,Ben Jonson and William Shakespeare.RomanticismRoughly the first third of the 19th makes up English literature’s romantic period .Writers of romantic literature are more concerned with imagination and feeling than with the power of reason.. A volume of poems called Lyrical Ballads written by William Wordsworth and Samuel Taylor Coleridge is regarded as the romantic poetry’s’’Declaration of Independence’’. Keats, Byron and Shelley, the three great poets, brought the Romantic Movement to its height. The spirit of Romanticism also occurred in the novelModernismModernism refers to a form of literature mainly written before World War is characterized by a high degree of experimentation. It can be seen as a reaction against the 19th century of forms of Realism. Modernist writers express the difficulty they see in understanding and communicating how the world works .Often, Modernist writing seems disorganized, hard to understand. It often portrays the action from the viewpoint of a single confused individual, rather than from the viewpoint of an all－knowing impersonal narrator outside the action. One of the most famous English Modernist writers is Virginia Woolf.Comprehensive schoolsComprehensive schools are the most popular secondary schools in Britain today. Such schools admit children without reference to their academic abilities and provide a general education. Pupils can study everything from academic subjects like literature to more practical subjects like cooking. Independent schoolsIndependent schools are commonly called public schools which are actually private schools that receive their funding through the private sector and tuition rates, with some government assistance. Independent schools are not part of national education system, but the quality of instruction and standards are maintained through visits from Her Majesty’s Inspectors of Schools. These schools are restricted to the students whose parents are comparatively rich.The Open UniversityThe Open University was founded in Britain in the 1960s for people who might not get the opportunity for higher education for economic and social reasons. It’s open to everybody and does not demand the same formal educational qualifications as the other universities. University courses are followed through TV, radio, correspondence, videos and a net work of study centres. At the end of their studies at the Open University, successful students are awarded a university degree,The foundations of British foreign policyThe contemporary foreign policy of the UK is greatly influenced by its imperial history and also by its geopolitical traits. As Britain lost its empire so recently, British policy-makers frequently forget that Britain is not as influential as it used to be in world affairs. Another decisive influence upon the way Britain handles its external affairs is geopolitical attitude to Europe.The CommonwealthIn the author’s opinion, the Commonwealth is a voluntary association of states which is made up of Britain and mostly of former British colonies. There are 54 members of the Commonwealth including one currently suspended member: many of these are developing countries like India and Cyprus; other are developed nations like Australia, Canada and New Zealand. The Commonwealth was set up as a forum for continued cooperation and as a sort of support network.Quality papersThey belong to one of the categories of the national dailies. The quality papers carry more serious and in-depth articles of particular political and social importance. They also carry reviews, such as book reviews, and feature articles about high culture. These papers are also referred to as “the broadsheets” because they are printed on large-size paper. The readers of such newspapers are generally a well-educate middle class audience. TabloidsA tabloid is a small format newspaper with color photos and catchy headlines. Tabloids are interested in scandals and gossip usually about famous people. They also carry lots of crime, sports and sensational human interest stories so as to attract readers. Stories are short, easy to read and often rely more on opinions than fact. They belong to a category of national papers different from quality papers.The three traditions of Christmas in BritainThere are three Christmas traditions which are particularly British: one is the Christmas Pantomime, a comical musical play. The main male character is played by a young woman while the main female character, often an ugly woman called “the Dame,” is played by a man. Another British Christmas tradition is to hear the Queen give her Christmas massage to her realm over the television and radio. A third British tradition is Boxing Day, which falls on the day after Christmas. Traditionally, it was on Boxing Day that people gave Christmas gifts or money to their staff or servants. Now that most British people do not have servants, this custom is no longer observed. However, a new Boxing Day custom has emerged, in the cities: shopping. Shops open up to sell off al their Christmas stock decorations, food, cards and gift items at low prices.The Great FamineThe Great Famine took place from 1845-1848 when successive potato crops failed and many people of Ireland starved to death, or died of the diseases which preyed on malnutrition. Many left the country for the New World. The Great Famine became a watershed in Irish history, not merely because there was mass starvation and emigration, but also because the British government appeared to be indifferent to the fate of the poorest people in its nearest colony. Naturally this period is characterized by campaigns for national independence and land reform.The Irish parliamentThe Parliament of Ireland is comprised of two houses: the Parliament and the Senate. Government policy and administration may be examined and criticizedin both Houses ;but under the Constitution the Government is responsible to the Parliament alone.Women’s Liberation MovementInaugurated in the early 1970s, the women’s movement concentrated first on gaining control of their own fertility, demanding birth control, divorce, and the right to have an abortion if necessary. The first two goals have been achieved over a span of about twenty years, but abortion is still legally forbidden in the Republic or Ireland and is still regarded as a highly emotional topic. The second objective was to secure the right of women, and that of particularly married women, to work. Today, about half of the women of Ireland of working age hold down full-time jobs.The Irish diasporaThe Irish diaspora, as it has been called, is a scattering of Irish people across the world, usually as the result of dire conditions at home----famine, foreign domination, and poverty. As a result, Irish people can today be found in significant concentrations in many countries. In fact, it is hard to go anywhere and not find Irish people.The DreamingThe Dreaming is the belief system from ancient times that has bound indigenous groups together. The central principle of the Dreaming is that the people who live on the continent have special responsibilities to the land. The people don’t own the land, instead the land owns the people. The stories of the Dreaming provide principles of how people should live and interact with each other. They also provide knowledge of the land so that the indigenous people can survive in the life-threatening environment.Terra NulliusTerra Nullius is from Latin. It means a land that owned by no one. The British declared the Australian continent Terra Nullius to justify their invasion of the indigenous people’s land. It served to legitimize their taking possession of the land and devalue the indigenous people as uncivilized and not fully human.The policy of assimilationThe policy of assimilation was implemented at the beginning of the 20th century. It was founded on the belief that the white culture was progressive and superior while the indigenous culture was inferior. To implement the policy, indigenous children were taken away from their parents to be put into protected reserves, whose purpose was to destroy the culture of the Dreaming and replace it with Christianity. The impact grew up losing both their families and culture. In nature, it is the extension of the policy of segregation.The “Washminister” form of policyThe “Washminister” form of policy is adopted by the Australian government. It is a mixture of the US Washington system of government and the British Westminster system. This means that the political structure of the government is based on a Federation of States with a three-tier system of government. However, the chief executive is a Prime Minister, instead of a President as in the US system.MulticulturalismMulticulturalism was adopted in 1973. It was comprised of 3 areas of policy: Cultural Identity, which means the right to express and share one’s cultural heritage; Social Justice, to right to equal treatment and opportunity; and Economic Efficiency, the need to maintain and develop the skills of all Australians regardless of their backgrounds.The White Australia PolicyThe White Australia Policy was officially adopted by the Commonwealth of Australian in 1901, in the Immigration Restriction Act. It was made to stop Chinese and other non-British migrants from entering and settling down in Australia. This was mainly achieved through a diction test in a European language. The White Australia Policy was officially abolished in 1973.。