Introduction to Organisation Behaviour

高中英语必修一短文记词Welcome Unit 我的高中第一天【选背】Tian Hua is an exchange student from China’s Lakeside Junior High School. She looks good, think fast and play hard. On campus, you’ll never see her without a book. If she’snot in class, she’s either in the library or in the computer lab. Her goal is to starther own IT company. Here is her first day at America’s South Hill Senior High School.田华是一名来自中国湖畔初中的交换生。

她长相姣好，思维敏捷，该玩时就玩个痛快。

在校园里，你会发现她总是带着书。

如果不上课，她要么在图书馆要么在计算机实验室。

她的目标是创办一家她自己的信息技术公司。

下面是她在美国南山高中的第一天。

注意：选背段落是正文的背景介绍，包含的单词表词汇（黑体加粗）在必背段落中还会复现。

【必背】This morning, I felt anxious and frightened because I am not outgoing and I'm juniorto my my new classmates from different nations. I look forward to making a good first impression on them, but what if some guys annoys me or make me awkward? What if they don’t enjoy my company and leave me alone at last?今早时，我觉得焦虑害怕，因为我不大外向，又比来自不同国家的新同学们年龄小。

Introducing the EFQM Excellence Model 2010IntroductionAgenda for TodayWhy change the Model?Drivers of change The Core Team The ProcessIntroduction the EFQM Excellence Model 2010Fundamental Concepts of Excellence Criteria and Criterion Parts RADAR and ScoringImplementing the EFQM Excellence Model 2010EFQM Excellence Award 2010 Assessor Training Implementation Guides Self-AssessmentOngoing Review and Update ProcessDrivers of ChangeKey Drivers of ChangeFeedback from EFQM Member Survey (Apr-09) Recognition of strong and emerging trends, such as innovation, risk management and sustainability Feedback from the National Partners, Assessors and Training Faculty Feedback from EU on improving the relevance and visibility of the ModelThe Core Team should:Represent the key stakeholders of EFQM, including key members, public sector, National Partners, assessor and training communities Seek addition feedback and input from academia and relevant EU departments Complete the review for launch at EFQM Forum 2009The revised version of the Model must retain:The “9 box” Model 8 Fundamental Concepts RADAR scoringEFQM Board of Governors requested review (May-09)The Core TeamEFQM Assessor NetworkChristian Forstner, Andre Van Der GeestPublic SectorMarie Lindsay, Jacques PhilippaertsKey MembersMatt FisherEFQM TrainersChris Hakes, Geoff CarterEFQM National PartnersAndre Moll, Andreas RedlingEFQMPierre Cachet, Herve LegenvreReview ProcessEFQMAppoint “Core Team”Core TeamIdentify “Working Group” Request input on key themes Consolidate inputsWorking GroupsProvide input on key themes3 year cycle Identify “key themes” Review Concepts and RADAR Develop 1st Draft Model Develop design template Develop 2nd Draft Model Approve design template Print & distribute Approve final document Review & comment Review & comment Review & comment Review & commentDesign PrinciplesModel should be generic and applicable to all organisations Wording simplified and relevant to all sectors Focus on including emerging trends and topics Language targeted to managers Concepts are action oriented Fundamental Concepts integrated into the Criterion Parts and RADAR Build on the work done in 2005 on reviewing the Fundamental Concepts7If you want to ask questions…At the end of each section, there will be the opportunity to ask questions. If you want to ask a question about the section you’ve just seen, put up your hand and someone will bring a microphone. There will be also time for more general questions at the end of the meeting. After the meeting, you can email us at info@Introducing the EFQM Excellence Model 2010The Fundamental Concepts of ExcellenceAchieving Balanced ResultsDefinitionExcellent organisations meet their Mission and progress towards their Vision through planning and achieving a balanced set of results that meet both the short and long term needs of their stakeholders and, where relevant, exceed them.Key ChangeFocus is now on developing the key set of results required to monitor progress against the vision, mission and strategy, enabling leaders to make effective and timely decisions.11Adding Value for CustomersDefinitionExcellent organisations know that customers are their primary reason for being and strive to innovate and create value for them by understanding and anticipating their needs and expectations.Key ChangeFocus is now on clearly defining and communicating the value proposition and actively engaging customers in the product and service design processes.12Leading with Vision, Inspiration & IntegrityDefinitionExcellent organisations have leaders who shape the future and make it happen, acting as role models for its values and ethics.Key ChangeThe concept is now more dynamic, focusing on the ability of leaders to adapt, react and gain the commitment of all stakeholders to ensure the ongoing success of the organisation.13Managing by ProcessesDefinitionExcellent organisations are managed through structured and strategically aligned processes using fact-based decision making to create balanced and sustained results.Key ChangeThe focus is now on how the processes are designed to deliver the strategy, with end to end management beyond the “classic” boundaries of the organisation.14Succeeding through PeopleDefinitionExcellent organisations value their people and create a culture of empowerment for the balanced achievement of organisational and personal goals.Key ChangeThe focus is now on creating a balance between the strategic needs of the organisation and the personal expectations and aspirations of the people to gain their commitment and engagement.15Nurturing Creativity & InnovationDefinitionExcellent organisations generate increased value and levels of performance through continual and systematic innovation by harnessing the creativity of their stakeholders.Key ChangeThe concept now recognises the need to develop and engage with networks and the need to engage all stakeholders as potential sources of creativity and innovation.16Building PartnershipsDefinitionExcellent organisations seek, develop and maintain trusting relationships with various partners to ensure mutual success. These partnerships may be formed with customers, society, key suppliers, educational bodies or Non-Governmental Organisations (NGO).Key ChangeThe concept has been extended to include partnerships beyond the supply chain and recognises that these should be based on sustainable mutual benefits to succeed.17Taking Responsibility for a Sustainable FutureDefinitionExcellent organisations embed within their culture an ethical mindset, clear values and the highest standards for organisational behaviour, all of which enable them to strive for economic, social and ecological sustainability.Key ChangesThe concept now focuses on actively taking responsibility for the organisation’s conduct and activities and managing it’s impact on the wider community.18Questions?EFQM Excellence Model 2010 EnablersThe ModelChanges to TitlesPolicy & Strategy becomes StrategyThe feedback indicated confusion regarding the definition of the word “policy”, especially in the public sector, where policy is often set by political bodies outside the organisation. It was agreed that “Strategy” is a term that everyone understands.Processes becomes Processes, Products and ServicesOver the previous reviews of the Model, the content of this criterion evolved to become increasingly focused on the customer, although the title remained “Processes”. The change now reflects the content of the criterion.Key Performance Results becomes Key ResultsThe change to the name and the underlying definitions focus this criterion on “achieving what is aimed for in the organisation’s strategy”..1. LeadershipDefinition Excellent organisations have leaders who shape the future and make it happen, acting as role models for its values and ethics and inspiring trust at all times. They are flexible, enabling the organisation to anticipate and react in a timely manner to ensure the ongoing success of the organisation.1a. Leaders develop the mission, vision, values and ethics and act as role models 1b. Leaders define, monitor, review and drive the improvement of the organisation’s management system and performance. 1c. Leaders engage with external stakeholders 1d. Leaders reinforce a culture of excellence with the organisation’s people 1e. Leaders ensure that the organisation is flexible and manages change effectivelyExample of Mapping Concepts to Criteria1a. Leaders develop the mission, vision, values and ethics and act as role modelsSet and communicate a clear direction and strategic focus; they unite their people in sharing and achieving the organisation’s core purpose and objectives – Leading with Vision Inspiration & Integrity Secure the future of the organisation by defining and communicating a core purpose that provides the basis for their overall Vision, values, ethics and corporate behaviour – Taking Responsibility for a Sustainable Future Champion the organisation’s values and are role models for integrity, social responsibility and ethical behaviour, both internally and externally. – Leading with Vision Inspiration & Integrity Foster organisational development through shared values, accountability, ethics and a culture of trust and openness. - Succeeding through People Ensure their people act with integrity and adopt the highest standards of ethical behaviour. – Taking Responsibility for a Sustainable Future Develop a shared leadership culture for the organisation and review and improve the effectiveness of personal leadership behaviours.- adapted from 2003 Model1. LeadershipDefinition Excellent organisations have leaders who shape the future and make it happen, acting as role models for its values and ethics and inspiring trust at all times. They are flexible, enabling the organisation to anticipate and react in a timely manner to ensure the ongoing success of the organisation.1a. Leaders develop the mission, vision, values and ethics and act as role models 1b. Leaders define, monitor, review and drive the improvement of the organisation’s management system and performance. 1c. Leaders engage with customers, partners and representatives of society 1d. Leaders reinforce a culture of excellence with the organisation’s people 1e. Leaders ensure that the organisation is flexible and manages change effectively2. StrategyDefinition Excellent organisations implement their mission and vision by developing a stakeholder focused strategy. Policies, plans, objectives and processes are developed and deployed to deliver the strategy.2a. Strategy is based on understanding the needs and expectations of both stakeholders and the external environment 2b. Strategy is based on understanding internal performance and capabilities 2c. Strategy and supporting policies are developed, reviewed and updated to ensure economic, societal and ecological sustainability 2d. Strategy and supporting policies are communicated and deployed through plans, processes and objectives3. PeopleDefinition Excellent organisations value their people and create a culture that allows the mutually beneficial achievement of organisational and personal goals. They develop the capabilities of their people and promote fairness and equality. They care for, communicate, reward and recognise, in a way that motivates people, builds commitment and enables them to use their skills and knowledge for the benefit of the organisation.3a. People plans support the organisation’s strategy 3b. People’s knowledge and capabilities are developed 3c. People are aligned, involved and empowered 3d. People communicate effectively throughout the organisation 3e. People are rewarded, recognised and cared for4. Partnerships & ResourcesDefinition Excellent organisations plan and manage external partnerships, suppliers and internal resources in order to support strategy and policies and the effective operation of processes.4a. Partners and suppliers are managed for sustainable benefit 4b. Finances are managed to secure sustained success 4c. Buildings, equipment, materials and natural resources are managed in a sustainable way 4d. Technology is managed to support the delivery of strategy 4e. Information and knowledge are managed to support effective decision making and to build the organisational capability5. Processes, Products & ServicesDefinition Excellent organisations design, manage and improve processes to generate increasing value for customers and other stakeholders.5a. Processes are designed and managed to optimise stakeholder value 5b. Products and Services are developed to create optimum value for customers 5c. Products and Services are effectively promoted and marketed 5d. Products and Services are produced, delivered and managed 5e. Customer relationships are managed and enhancedEFQM Excellence Model 2010 ResultsThe ModelChanges to ResultsAll now have the same definition, which is aligned to RADAR Defines “key focus areas” rather than a long list of “possible measures” Criterion 9 is now split as:9a: Key Strategic Outcomes, focusing on what is achieved compared to what was stated in the strategy 9b: Key Performance Indicators, focusing on leading indicators used to predict the strategic outcomesClarifies the scope of Criterion 8, with clear alignment to the strategies adopted by the organisationExample: 6. Customer ResultsDefinition Excellent organisations:Develop and agree a set of performance indicators and related outcomes to determine the successful deployment of their strategy and supporting policies, based on the needs and expectations of their customers. Set clear targets for Key Results based on the needs and expectations of their customers, in line with their chosen strategy. Demonstrate positive or sustained good Customer Results over at least 3 years. Clearly understand the underlying reasons and drivers of observed trends and the impact these results will have on other performance indicators and related outcomes. Anticipate future performance and results. Understand how the Key Results they achieve compare to similar organisations and use this data, where relevant, for target setting. Segment results to understand the experience, needs and expectations of specific customer groups.Example: 6a. PerceptionsThese are the customers’ perceptions of the organisation. They may be obtained from a number of sources, including customer surveys, focus groups, vendor ratings, compliments and complaints. These perceptions should give a clear understanding of the effectiveness, from the customer’s perspective, of the deployment and execution of the organisation’s customer strategy and supporting policies and processes. Depending on the purpose of the organisation, measures may focus on:Reputation and image Product and service value Product and service delivery Customer service, relationship and support Customer loyalty and engagementExample: 6b. Performance IndicatiorsThese are the internal measures used by the organisation in order to monitor, understand, predict and improve the performance of the organisation and to predict their impact on the perceptions of its external customers. These indicators should give a clear understanding of the efficiency and effectiveness of the deployment and execution of the organisation’s customer strategy and supporting policies and processes. Depending on the purpose of the organisation, measures may focus on:Products and services delivery Customer service, relationships and support Complaints and compliments External recognitionQuestions?RADAR & ScoringWhat feedback did we focus on:Measure and act upon what matters (not everything!)Define key results…Move towards more balance for StakeholdersChanged weightingsSustainability demands a forward view.Its not just about the past 3 years. Seek evidence to give confidence that the organisation believes performance will continue in the futureSpeed and flexibility are important (It’s an ever more uncertain world…)Strengthened attributesCreativity and innovation are of increasing importanceAdded attributes38Results: Relevance and usability Scope Integrity Segmentation Performance Trends Targets Comparisons CausesApproach: Sound IntegratedDeployment: Implemented Systematic Assess & Refine: Measurement Learning & Creativity Innovation & ImprovementKey Changes: Enablers1. Seek embedding of refinements over time2. Deploy with a flexibility to manage changes in environment and re-deploy if needed3. Measure both “Efficiency” and “Effectiveness”4. Use creativity to generate new / changed approaches and evaluate, prioritise and use the outcomes40Key Changes: Results1. “Relevance and Usability” comes first with focus on: -”scope/relevance” -’Integrity” - “segmentation”2. A focus on “key” results is added.3. “Targets” and the “Comparisons” judgements will focus on Key Results4. Assessors will seek evidence to understand if the organisation has confidence that performance will be sustained41Balancing the WeightingsPeople 9% 10%People Results 9% 10%Leadership 10%Policy & Strategy Strategy 10% 8%Processes, Processes Products & 14% Services 10%Customer Results 20% 15%Key Performance Key Results Results 15% 15%Partnerships & Resources 9% 10%Society Results 6% 10%Split between 8a & 8b is now 50/50Questions?Summary of Key ChangesThe EFQM Excellence Model2010Summary of Key ChangesFundamental Concepts now full integrated with the 9 criteriaBullets from Fundamental Concepts for the basis of the bullets in the relevant criterion parts Language simplified, number of “may include” bullets reduced and now focus on what excellent organisations do in practiceConcepts incorporated or emphasised include;Creativity and Innovation, Sustainability, Corporate Governance, Organisational Agility, Risk Management, Promoting products & services, Supplier ManagementResults focus on “key results required to achieve the organisation’s vision and strategy”This is written into both the 9 criteria and the RADAR e.g. scope, targets and benchmarks should focus on key results Future focus increased (sustaining excellent performance)Weighting applied to the criteria has been reviewed and simplifiedAll Enablers now 10%, Customer & Key results are 15% each, People & Society are 10% Society results now 50% perception, 50% performanceKey Changes to Criterion PartsSome of the specific changes made include:1e - focus is now on organisational agility and ability to adapt to the changing organisational environment 2a & 2b - 2a focuses on the external drivers of change, 2b focuses on the current and potential capabilities of the organisation 4a - now includes managing suppliers and the scope of "partnerships" extended beyond the supply chain 5a & 5b - the old sub-criteria have been combined to recognise that "process improvement" and "process management" cannot be viewed separately 5c - focus is now on effectively promoting the organisation's products and services to current and potential customersIntegration of Fundamental Concepts into the ModelX = Text from Fundamental Concept directly reflected in sub-criterion x = Adaptation of text from Fundamental Concept appears in the sub-criterionQuestions?Implementing the EFQM Excellence Model 2010。

为什么组织行为学对公司很重要Why organisational behaviour is important for a companyOrganisational behaviour refers to the study of individual, group performance, and activity within an organisation. It is an attempt to create the business organisation in a creative manner. It helps to provide an understanding to examine the factors that are necessary to create an effective organisation.Importance of Organisational BehaviourIt is very important to study the Organisational behaviour. It gives the direction to an organisation and also helps to understand theorganizational life. Let’s discuss the importance of Organisational behaviour:skill developmentHelps to develop the skills of the employees and gain of knowledge to enhance the performance of the employees. Employees should remain up to date with new technology and use existing one in a better way. Training also improves the required skills of the employees and teach them to perform the tasks independently.Understanding customer behaviourThe behaviour of the customer helps the organisation to decide what products and services to be offered. When an organisation builds a strong connection with the customer, anorganisation will get an idea about the customer needs. For understanding the customer behaviour the organisation must conduct surveys and one on one interviews.Employee MotivationMotivating your employees is not a big task. In fact, itschedule to have a conversation with them. It is the level of energy, commitment and the creativity that helps the organisation. Use employee reviews on a regular basis to discuss the improvements.Goals of Organisational behaviourEvery organisation uses a structure that will help to promote the business performance. The organisation guru Drucker has identified 8 keyelements which will explain the goals of organisation behaviour briefly. The elements are:InnovationInnovation means the positive change in the implementation of organisation by providing the relevant solutions to the customers or full fill their needs in the unique ways.ProductivityProductivity is “anything that makes an organisation function better.” It is one of the most important goal, i.e. to produce the large output with small inputs. It requires the active participation between the employer and employee on a regular basis.Development and the management performanceManagement training is important because it is the key to organisational success. Most of the activities within the company are organised for the development of an employee and organisation. Some companies provide special training programs to the managers. IBM organises 15 days training management program every year.Models of organizational behaviourAutocraticThis model depends on power. Power is given to the employees those who complete their task on time. The penalty is charged for not completingthe task on time. Those who are in command have the power to say “you do it or else.”Depends on powerEmployees result is depended on the bossEmployee need is subsistencePerformance result is minimalCustodialThis model depends upon economic resources. The employees are oriented towards the benefits, security and depend upon the organisation. In this, employees won’t work as a team.-Depends on economic resource-Employee orientation is security and benefit-Employees are self-dependent-Performance result is passive cooperationSupportiveThis model depends on leadership. Managers motivate their employees to perform better. They spend time with their employees in order to understand them in a better way.Depends on leadershipEmployee orientation is security and benefitEmployee result in participationEmployee needs status and recognitionCollegialIn this model, employees are dependent on each other and work as team management.Depends upon partnershipEmployee orientation is responsible behaviourEmployee needs is self-actualizationPerformance result is moderate enthusiasmSystemThis model is based on the performance and on the trust factor. It reflects the values where managers focus their attention to help the employees by developing the feelings of hope and courage.Depends upon trust and understandingEmployee orientation is ownershipEmployee result is self-motivationPerformance result is passion and organisational goalRelation of models to human needsThese five models are related to human needsEach model performance is connected with each otherList of organisational behaviour conceptsThe main concepts of organisational behaviour are:--The nature of the people-The nature of organisationThe nature of the people includesIndividual differences:Individual difference is the reality that makes every individual different from another individual. The difference can take place in many ways for example likes, dislikes, physical appearance, interest, etc.Example- Manager should not judge anyone apart from their work, and all the employees should be equally treated.PerceptionPerception tells about their behaviour in the organisation. It helps in noticing the information and categorizing this information. After categorizing apply this information within the framework.Example- Rohit thinks that late night parties will spoil the youth. Whereas, Neha thinks that late night parties are a way of making new friends. Here you can see that both Rohit and NehaMotivational behaviourIt is the force which helps the employees to achieve the goals. Managers should apply motivational techniques to help the employees in achieving the desired goals.The motivational behaviour approaches are:Intrinsic ApproachIn this, the employees enjoy their work. Employees enjoy their job’s challenges because they get personal satisfaction out of it.Extrinsic ApproachIn this, employees participate in an activity for reward. These rewards are the benefits which are provided to the workers in return for work.ValuesEmployees should be valued and appreciated for their skills. So, it is important to pay attention and actively look for the opportunity to reward all the employees.Nature of organisationOrganisations include different types of activities to achieve organisational goals and objectives. In an organisation, work is assigned to every individual according to their skills and efficiency.The nature of organisation includes-Social SystemIt is a system in which human interaction takes place in different ways. A system which interacts with the surrounding.Types of social systemFormalOrganisation, in which the job of each employee is clearly defined.Focuses on work experiencePurpose is to fulfill the ultimate objectives of the organisation-Example- Success party after getting a jobInformalOrganisation formed within the formal organisation as network of relationship. In this people interact with each other.Focuses on personal relationshipsPurpose is to satisfy their social and psychological needsExample- Birthday partyMutual Interest It is a coordination which takes place between the organisation and employees. Every organisation needs employees or vice-versa. So, it’s a mutual understanding between organisation and employees, that helps the organisation to achieve respective goals and objectives.Morals and EthicsThey are the principles concerned with group, individual and organisation. Leaders use ethics in an organisation to manage employees. Leaders use code of ethics to determine discipline procedures and acceptable behaviour for all workers in organisation.Theories of Observational BehaviourObservational behaviour includes different types of theories. Each theory has its own importance and functions.Theories of PersonalityPersonality type A and BThe theory describes the two different personality types.Type AThat’s why they are not able to relax properly and they make sure that everything is done properly.Type BType B is totally different from the type A. At the time of competition their focus is not on loosing or winning the task, their focus is to enjoy the task.Predicting job performanceThere is two criticism which takes place. The important factors predicting the job performances are leadership, creativity, attendance and cooperation. But every organisation demands different performances. Some organisation wants the employees to be creative and liable while social firms require creativity.Theories of IntelligenceEmotional intelligence theory:Emotional intelligence is the ability to understand and manage emotions of yourself and the people around you. It is a way of identifying and choosing the way we think and react. The aim of the leader is to finish the task successfully.One general TheoryIt is the ability of a person to perform the certain tasks and skills. The other general factor which Sperman developed is the concept of the G factor which underlies all intelligent behaviour.Theory of Multiple IntelligenceAccording to GardenerWe can improve education by addressing the intelligence of our students. An intelligence is a process to information that can be activated in cultural setting to solve problems.Theories of MotivationCommon Sense TheoryIt is believed that every individual has a different perception of doing the job and earning money.Common Sense Approach 1Trust factor is not thereIf they are not controlled, they will pursue their own goalsThey are lazy or unreasonableCommon Sense Approach 2They are independent and creative in their workThey work for the betterment of the organisationGoal setting theoryIt is a technique used to increase the incentives for the employees to complete the work quickly and effectively. It results in the better performance of the employees by increasing motivation and the efforts.Herzberg’s Two Factor TheoryThe theory states that some factors cause job satisfaction and other cause dissatisfaction.According to Herzberg, intrinsic motivators and extrinsic motivators have an inverse relationship.Theory of Attitude and BehaviourOrganisational Behaviour ModificationIt is the system used to improve the performances of individuals and group in organisations.Five steps of Organisational Behaviour Modification are:IdentificationIdentify the task which is related to the behaviour performed; critical behaviour is observed and measured.MeasurementAfter identification, the next step for a manager is to measure the frequency of critical behaviour over time.AnalysisAfter measurement, the manager has to do an analysis of the behaviour which requires the modification.DevelopAfter analysis, the manager will develop an effective strategy. As there are many strategies which can be used at this stage. But the strategy will depend upon the type of situation.EvaluateThe last step is to evaluate whether the strategies are working properly or not.Single loop learningIn this, the organisation basically modifies its result in order to achieve the desired outcomes. In this, if we are facing problems then we can add up our own ideas and actions to improve the situation accordingly.Double loop learningIn this, you are forced to think about your actions. This is an important thing because we need to start and analyze our own processes. It will lead you to deeply understand and analyze your work.Benefits of observational behaviourThe study of observational behaviour is beneficial in many waysIt encourages the social interaction within theirHelps in improving the functional behaviour within the organisation. Helps in achieving the higher productivity.Helps in motivating the people in the organisationObservation behaviour implies the effective management of human resourcesObservation behaviour delivers the job satisfaction to employees and creates the positive environment in the organisation.Observational behaviour develops the interaction between the individual and organisation.It maintains the relationships between the individual and organisationalWhy study Organisational behaviourStudy of observational behaviour is important to understand how to build and maintain a strong and cooperative work force. It is not only important for the organisation but also for the students and managers perspective also.Let’s just discuss itWhy managers require the knowledge of organisational behaviourManagers in the organisation have different and important roles. That’s why manager must have organisation skills to run the department smoothly.Time ManagementTime Management helps the managers to establish department goals and determine the objectives to reach those goals on deadline. There are “Three Ps” for the effective time management. They are planning, and procrastination with the help of these three Ps. Managers can divide their task. The “to-do list” isalso important to keep the records and to priorities the task accordingly. He must ensure that goal has been achieved efficiently to the business standards.Professional developmentThe managers should maintain a professional decorum between his staff and himself. The rules and regulators should be the same for everyone. The manager should interact with employees on a regular basis to provide the feedback to help them. He must be aware of his responsibilities.Communicate with executive leadershipThere should be a regular communication between the managers and employees.Managers should have the learning skills in order to see career progression with the company. Communication will also help the organisation to convey the status and contribution made to an overall business.Importance of organizational behavior in managementOrganisational behaviour provides solutions as well the challenges which are faced by organisations. The importances are:Organisations are mix of people in terms of age, gender and race etc. Managers have to deal with the groups and the employees belongs to the different cultures. They have to exercise control and channelize the behaviour in each direction.Organisations behaviour helps in better management as it helps in improving the skills.Organisational behaviour helps the management to become flexible and enable to execute the organization on global scale.Management has to ensure that employees do everything to satisfy the customer needs.Management has to effectively deal with work force by promoting its awareness.Many organisational behaviour projects are available online. Students can take help from these projects. Many times the student gets such projects in their school and colleges. These organisational practices will help you in job fit purposes as well. So, with the help of theseprojects they can complete their organisational behaviour revision notes and lecture notes.。

英语阅读资料男女大脑有何不同Women's brains are different from men's[1]Men and women show differences in behaviour because their brains are physically distinct organs, new research suggests. Male and female brains appear to be constructed from markedly different genetic blueprints.[2]The differences in the circuitry1 that wires them up and the chemicals that transmit messages inside them are so great as to point to the conclusion that there is not just one kind of human brain, but two, according to recent neurological2 studies.[3]Men may be from Mars and women may be from Venus, and since the American psychotherapist3 John Gray wrote his famous book, in 1992, on the idea, it has been a commonplace to think of men and women as being from different planets in terms of their emotional responses.[4]But until recently, these differences were often explained by the action of adult sex hormones, or by social pressures that encouraged males and females to behave in a certain way.[5]Increasingly, however, these assumptions are being challenged, according to a review of recent neurological research appearing in recent New Scientist magazine, and it is becoming clear that the brains of men and women show numerous anatomical4 differences.[6]Some of these divergences, the review by Hannah Hoag suggests, could explain a number of mysteries, such as why men and women are prone to different mental health problems, why some drugs work well for one sex but have little effect on the other, and why chronic pain tends to affect women more than men.[7]Although it has long been known that there were some male-female differences, it was thought they were confined to the hypothalamus5, the brain region involved in regulating food intake, fighting and the sex drive, among other things. But it is becoming clear that the relative sizes of many of the structures inside female brains are different from those of males.[8]One study, by scientists at Harvard Medical School, found that parts of the frontal lobe6, which houses decision-making and problem-solving functions, were proportionally larger in women, as was the limbic cortex, which regulates emotions. Other studies have found that the hippocampus7, involved in short-term memory and spatial navigation, is also proportionally larger in women than in men –"perhaps surprisingly, given women's reputation as bad map readers" says the New Scientist review.[9]Proportionally larger brain areas in men include the parietal cortex, which processes signals from the sensory organs and is involved in space perception, and the amygdala8, which controls emotions and social and sexual behaviour. "The mere fact that a structure is different in size suggests a difference in functional organisation," says Dr Larry Cahill of the Centre for the Neurobiology of Learning and Memory, at the University of California, Irvine.[10]One area of research concerns the brain's pain-suppressing mechanisms, and points to the fact that they may be organised differently in men and women. This would explain why women can suffer long-term pain more, and why there can be sex differences in response to opium-derived painkilling drugs. The study notes: "Women get more relief from the opioid painkiller nalbuphine9 compared to men, whereas in men morphine is more effective and nalbuphine actually increases the pain intensity." It is possible these findings could lead to new painkillers being developed that are tailored to be more effective in women – but that is some way off10.[11]Mental health is another area where real brain differences may offer explanations. Women are diagnosed with depression twice as often as men, and this may be linked to relative levels of the neurotransmitter serotonin. Boys, on the other hand, are more likely than girls to be diagnosed with autism, Tourette's syndrome11, dyslexia, attention-deficit disorder and early-onset schizophrenia. The review reports that Margaret McCarthy of the University of Maryland in Baltimore believes that hormone-like substances called prostaglandins, which help masculinise the male brain around the time of birth, may be partly to blame.[12]One of the reasons why physiological differences between male and female brains have not been widely noted before may be that most of what we know about the brain comes from studies of males, animals and human volunteers.[13]Professor Jeff Mogil from McGill University, in Montreal, Canada, who has demonstrated major differences in pain processing in males and females, puts it even more forcefully. He is astonished that so many researchers havefailed to include female animals in their studies. "It's scandalous," he said. "Women are the most common pain sufferers, and yet our model for basic pain research is the male rat."男女大脑有何不同[1]最新研究表明，男女行为上表现出来的差异是因为他们的大脑是有着显著不同的器官。

Topic2_Organisations组织结构Topic 2: Organisations2.1 INTRODUCTIONThis Topic asks you to read important material from the set text book as well as a notes in this work book designed to provide a basic understanding of organisation theory.You are asked to undertake an exercise at the beginning and the end of the Topic that is de-signed to help you relate the theoretical ideas to your work situation in a meaningful way.2.2 LEARNING OBJECTIVESTo gain a basic knowledge of the organisational forms that exists.To become aware of how organisations and people interact.To enhance professional reflection on how you and your organisation relate.2.3 EXERCISE 1In order to get you thinking about organisations please gather the following materials and reflect on them:The organisation chart for your company or organisation.The organisation chart for the business unit within which you work.The organisation chart for the division and/or department in which you work.The organisation chart for the project team(s) in which you work.When you have these materials reflect on how they relate to each other in terms of:Risk managementDecision processesCommunications routesDisciplines (e.g. various engineering disciplines)Human resources managementBudgets and financial managementInteraction (and transactions) with client(s)Interaction (and transactions) with sub-contractors and service providersEducation and training provisionWhen you reflect on these things consider whether there are any communication, reportingor authority issues or problems which become apparent.2.4 ORGANISATIONAL FORMSIn order to analyse an organisation it is first necessary to understand the structure of the or-ganisation. There follows a brief discussion on the shape of organisations (tall or flat) and their type – power, task, matrix and person.2.4.1 Tall or FlatSpan of ControlA manager’s span of control means the number (span) of people that manager actually di-rectly manages. It is generally recognised that 7 or 8 is the most it should be. More than this means that a manager’s work is very fragmented and too stressful.Tall organisations are those with many layers. Spans of control are relatively small but these organisations are said to be relatively less enjoyable to work in compared with flat organisa-tions where spans of control are greater but where there are far fewer layers.Figure 1: Layers and Forms of OrganisationsTall OrganisationsTall organisations have good and bad points. Advantages and disadvantages must be consid-ered in the context of the purpose of the organisation and the nature of the people in the or-ganisation.AdvantagesClose supervision and control of performance is possible due to small spans of control. Rela-tively fast communications are possible if communication lines are well maintained. How-ever, the many layers of the organisation can cause problems in this regard.DisadvantagesSupervisors can become too involved and fail to delegate enough. The many levels of man-agement can make decisions very slow and problematic. This type of organisation is costly due to the many levels. There is a great distance between top management and middle and lower levels. This is not good for morale and team spirit.Flat OrganisationsThe trend is towards flat organisations. There are obvious advantages over tall organisations but there are disadvantages too.AdvantagesSupervisors are forced to delegate. Clear policies are required to support the activities of delegated authority. Careful selection of employees is essential. They need to be well edu-cated and have the potential to function well in this type of organisation.DisadvantagesOverloading and resultant stress in supervisors is not uncommon. Loss of control can occur due to high span of control. There is a requirement for high quality managers. These are very expensive and may be difficult to recruit. The cost of recruiting is also relatively high due to the need to offset risk by careful recruitment.One organisation’s advantage may be another’s disadvantage.2.3.2 Structure of OrganisationsHandy (1993) refers to Harrison’s “ideal types” of organisational culture or organisation structures. It is highly unlikely that these will be found in their pure form. Organisations will usually display a dominant form and aspects of one or more other forms. Departments and project teams can display aspects of these ideal types.Power CultureRole CultureTask Culture (PROJECT MATRIX)Person CultureFigure 2: Power Culture(After Handy (1999) p.183)This type of organisation is rarely large. High levels of control and personal contact are re-quired. This style of organisation requires faith in the individual. The intersections between the concentric circles and spokes are the people in the organisation. The concentric circles represent levels – the centre being the boss (or king). The spokes represent functions. This type of organisation has a high turnover of employees. Morale tends to be low. If the centre leaves the whole structure can quite quickly collapse.Many small and medium enterprises are like this. The Mafia is a power culture. It is not un-common to find this type of organisation in departments of large organisations where the head of department is a powerful character.Figure 3: Role Culture(After Handy (1999) p. 185)This type of organisation is a classic bureaucracy. It is based on the so-called rational ap-proach or sometimes called a functional organisation. In this form there are many procedures and standards. All positions have clear job descriptions. Co-ordination occurs at the top of the organisation. Performance above role or out of role is not required and in fact is not re-warded. People with great initiative and skill in project management do not fit well in this type of organisation. This style of organization works well in a stable environment and an organisation of this type is secure and predictable.This type of organisation may not be a good one in a dynamic industry. However, there are many large organisations that display many aspects of this type. On the other hand govern-ment departments and other such organisations need to be based on this type because they are accountable to the public and they expect continuity, stability, equity and predictability.Figure 4: Task Culture (Matrix)This is a project management matrix organization often very apparent in project based or-ganisations. It is adaptable and very responsive in the market. It enables high flyers to be identified and brought on. Project teams draw on specialists from the functional departments. However, this type of organisation is very stressful as it means that all employees have two managers (a project manager and a functional manager). Control is difficult and stress in managers can result from this. It is essential that employees are carefully selected and then very carefully inducted and trained. Figure 5 indicates the strengths and weaknesses of ma-trix structures.Figure 5: Matrix Structure - Strengths and Weaknesses (After Daft (2007) Exhibit 6.12, p. 211)STRENGTHSWEAKNESSES1. Achieves co-ordination necessary to meet dual demands from customers1. Causes participants to experience dual authority, which can be frustrating and confusing2. Flexible sharing of human resources across products2. Means participants need good inter-personal skills and extensive training3. Suited to complex decisions and fre-quent changes in unstable environment3. Is time consuming; involves frequent meetings and conflict resolution sessions4. Provides opportunity for both functional and product skill development 4. Will not work unless participants understand it and adopt collegial rather than vertical transactional typerelationships 5. Best in medium-sized organisations with multiple products and services5. Requires great effort to maintain power balanceFigure 6: Person Culture(After Handy (1999) p. 190)This is a rare type of organisation. It cannot be large. It is based on mutuality and consent. Individuals leave but are not evicted. Power resides in experts such as with information tech-nology or engineering skills. Personality does not impress but ability and skill does.This is the sort of organisation found in design consultant. Also research and design teams can display a strong tendency in this direction. They are difficult to manage.2.4.3 Static versus Dynamic OrganisationsThe “traditional” role culture functional organisations such as those found in the Former So-viet Union, government ministries and old companies that have undergone little change can be said to be “static hierarchies”. The global business environment with its turbulent politi-cal, economic, social and technological influences requires organisations to be far more re-sponsive to change. The major stakeholders (see Figure 7) of an organisation need a “learning organisation to ensure survival over the long term. Figure 8 indicates the basic dif-ferences in the organisational design between static and dynamic organisations. A very goodFigure 7: Major Stakeholders of an Organisation (After Daft (2007) Exhibit 1.7, p. 23)read on this subject, other than references to change and organisations in McKenna(2006) is the book: “When Giants Learn to Dance”, by Rosabeth Moss Kanter.2.4.4Exercise 2: What is Your Organization Like?Write notes on the following:(i) Define the organisation, department and project team in which you work in terms of the four ideal types discussed above.(ii) Should the organisational form you have defined be changed and if so why?OWNERS AND SHAREHOLDERS Financial return on investment SUPPLIERS Satisfactory transactions Revenue from purchasesCOMMUNITYCorporate citizenContribution to community PayConditions EMPLOYEESSatisfaction PaySupervisionCareer development Work / life balanceCUSTOMERSGoods & services Service Value CREDITORSCreditworthinessMANAGEMENTEfficiency EffectivenessGOVERNMENTObserve laws and regulations Fair competitionORGANISATIONPeople and OrganisationsFigure 8: Organisational Design in Stable and Turbulent Contexts(After Daft (2007) Exhibit 1.8, p. 29)M e c h a n i c a l S y s t e m D e s i g n N a t u r a l S y s t e m D e s i g nO r g a n i s a t i o n a l C h a n g eS t a b l e E n v i r o n m e n t E f f i c i e n t P e r f o r m a n c eT u r b u l e n t E n v i r o n m e n t L e a r n i n g O r g a n i z a t i o n2.5 ORGANISATIONAL DECLINEResearch cited by Daft (2007) has led to a model of organisational decline seen in Figure 9. The first stage (Blinding Stage) is often missed by managers in the organisation. Signs of this stage beginning are such things as procedures not working properly due to being to “cumbersome”, difficulties with clients, over capacity and so on.If the situation created by these problems is not managed with “prompt action” the organisa-tion will lurch into the next stage. The second stage (Inaction Stage) happens because of denial by executives. There is still a way out of the situation through “corrective action” but this is more deep routed action than the “prompt action” necessary at the “Blinded Stage”. The “corrective action” will involve widening participation in decision processes, engendering higher levels of ownership and commitment. It is also important for middle and senior managers to listen to what colleagues and subordinates say is wrong. If the “Inaction Stage” continues it will turn into the “Faulty Action Stage”.The “Faulty Action Stage” is characterised by the need for really serious change due to ma-jor under performance. There is a need to restate values and goals, often accompanies by downsizing and re-organisation. The solution is “Effective Re-organisation”. Failure to ad-dress the problems effectively at this stage will usually result in an inability to prevent total organisational failure. The next stage in decline is “Crisis Stage”.The “Crisis Stage” is typified by anger and an attempt to start again or “go back to basics” as Daft (2007) calls it. The only solution is a major re-organisation. There will normally need to be significant downsizing at this stage. Top managers almost always need to be replaced at this stage if the next stage of decline is to be avoided.The final stage is “Dissolution Stage” to which there are no choices left. The situation be-comes irreversible.These stages can apply to both corporate organisations and projects. Project managers need to be able to read the situation to understand which stage they are at.Figure 9: Stages of Organisational Decline(After Daft (2007) Exhibit 13.8, p. 497)2.6 SUMMARYHopefully you will have now been able to see how some of the theoretical ideas presented in the workbook and textbook relate to your work context.The important things to remember are the basic structural models of organisation design and the issues and problems associated with change in organisations.The following exercises are designed to facilitate the reflective aspects of your learning process.2.7 EXERCISE 3Explain the significance of transformational and transactional leadership with respect to pro-ject management.What are the four ideal types of organisation that can be used to define an organisation?What are the typical problems you would expect to come across in matrix organisations? 2.8 EXERCISE 4Go back to the material you gathered for EXERCISE 1 in this Topic. Look at your notes and the material you gathered.Now reflect on what you wrote again.What do you think that you do that could be changed to improve how you relate to the or-ganisation for which you work? What are the essential changes you would like to see to the organisation that you believe would make your contribution more effective and/or efficient?How can you communicate changes you would like to see in your organisation?2.9 REFERENCES & BIBLIOGRAPHY* Recommended further reading*Daft, R.L. (2007) Understanding the Theory and Design of Organizations, Thompson South Western, Mason, USA. Handy, C. (1999) Understanding Organisations, Penguin.Harrison, R, (1972) How to describe organizations, Harvard Business Review, Sept-Oct.McKenna, E. (2006) Business Psychology and Organisational Behaviour: A student Hand-book, Psychology Press.*Moss Kanter, R. (1994) When Giants Learn to Dance, Routledge, London.Robbins, S.R. and Judge, T.A. (2007) Organizational Behavior, Pearson / Prentice Hall, (Twelfth Edition), Pearson Education Ltd.Directed ReadingThe set textbook for this Module is:McKenna, E. (2006) Business Psychology and Organisational Behaviour: A student Hand-book, Psychology Press. For this Topic it is essential that you read:Chapter 14 Organisation Structure and Design pp 455-504.。

Chapter1 Introduction to organizational behavior✓Organizational Behavior:The systematic study of the actions and attitudes that people exhibit within organizations✓Systematic Study of Determinants of Employee Performance:➢Actions or Behaviors：Productivity, Absenteeism, Turnover , Organizational citizenship➢Attitudes– Job Satisfaction: a. Possible link between satisfaction and productivityb.Satisfaction appears to be negatively related to absenteeism andproductivityc.Humanistic responsibility to provide employees with challenging,intrinsically rewarding, and satisfying job✓Organization: a. Consciously coordinated social unitb. Composed of two or more peoplec. Functions to achieve a common goal or set of goalsd. Formal roles define and shape the behavior of its members✓OB Encompasses Behavior in Diverse Organizations: Manufacturing:Service firms Schools Hospitals Churches Military units Charitable organizations Local, state, and federal government agencies✓Contributing Disciplines(Level of Analysis):➢Micro (individual): Psychology➢Macro (group processes and organization) : Sociology, Social Psychology, Anthropology, Political Science✓Toward an OB discipline P4 1.1✓Goals of Organizational Behavior: explanation, prediction, control✓Challenges and Opportunities: a.Increasing age of typical workerb.More women and minorities in the workplacec.Requirements to meet global competitiond.Severed loyalty bonds between employees and employers ✓What is Quality Management?➢Intense focus on customer→Outsiders -- purchasers of products and services→Insiders -- interact with and serve others in the organization➢Concern for continual improvement→Commitment to never be satisfied→“Very good” is not good enough→Quality can always be improved➢Improvement in quality of everything the organization does“Quality” applies not only to the final product, but to→How organization handles deliveries→How rapidly it responds to complaints→How politely the phones are answered➢Accurate measurement→Uses statistical techniques to measure every critical performance variable in operations➢Empowerment of employees→Involves people on the line in the improvement process→Teams are widely used as empowerment vehicles for finding and solving problems ✓ A Managerial Perspective：a. Improving People Skills b. Managing Work Force Diversityc. Responding to Globalizationd. Empowering Peoplee.Stimulating Innovation andChange f. Coping with “Temporariness” g. Helping Employee Balance Work-Life Conflicts h. Declining Employee Loyalty i. Improving Ethical Behavior✓Levels of OB Analysis: Individual Level Group Level Organization System Level Chapter2 Job Attitudes✓What the fundamental values of the organizational development can be found in the general manager’s approach to management? Respect, Support, Trust, Innovation ✓What contribution to the organization can be found in those values?A good work environment will be benefit to employees’ self-realization and theestablishment of team and learning organization.✓Attitude:Attitudes are evaluative statements or judgments concerning objects, people, or events. They reflect how we feel about something. When I say I like my job, I am expressing my attitude about work.✓Three components of Attitudes : Cognitive, Affective, Behavioral✓What are the Major Job Attitudes?➢Job Satisfaction: A positive feeling about the job resulting from an evaluation of its characteristics➢Job Involvement: Degree of psychological identification with the job where perceived performance is important to self-worth. High level of both job involvement andpsychological employment are positively related to organizational citizenship and jobperformance. High job involvement is also related to reduced absences and lowerresignation rates.➢Psychological Empowerment (PE): a. Belief in the degree of influence over the job, competence, job meaningfulness, and autonomy. b. Good leaders empower theiremployees by involving them in decisions, making them feel their work is important,and giving them discretion to do their own thing. c. Higher level of Job Involvement andPE are positively related to Organizational citizenship and job performance.✓other Major Job Attitudes:➢Organizational Commitment: Identifying with a particular organization and its goals and wishes to remain a member.✧The three forms of OC:Affective – emotional attachment to organization (e.g. pro-environmental firms)Continuance Commitment – economic value of staying with an org (e.g. high salary)Normative -moral or ethical obligations with employers (e.g. personal promise) There appears to be a positive relationship between organizational commitment andjob productivity.---has strong relation to performance, especially for new employees.---In general, affective commitment is most likely to relate to organizational outcomes such as performance and turnover.➢Perceived Organizational Support (POS)a.Degree to which employees believe the organization values their contributionand cares about their well-being.b.People perceive OS is higher when rewards are fair, employees are involved indecision-making, and supervisors are seen as supportive.c.High POS is related to higher OB outcomes (performance).➢Employee Engagementa. The degree of an individual’s involvement with, satisfaction with, and enthusiasm for the job.b. Engaged employees are passionate about their work and company.c. According to researches, they contribute high customer satisfaction, highprofits, and lower level turnover and accidents.✓Is there cognitive dissonance?--Your friends or relatives won’t disagree with you because of the close relation.--People do seek consistency among their attitudes and between their attitudes and their behavior. (E.g. I don’t marry her because love her.)✓The relationship between attitudes and behavior:a.Important attitudes reflect our fundamental values, self-interest, or identification withindividuals or groups we value. These attitudes tend to show a strong relationship to our behavior.b.The more you talk about your attitude on a subject, the more likely you are toremember it, and the more likely it to shape your behavior. (e.g. changing a job)c.Discrepancies between attitudes and behavior tend to occur when social pressures tobehave in certain ways hold exceptional power.d.The attitude-behavior relationship is likely to be much stronger if an attitude refers tosomething with which we have direct personal experience.✓the closer the match between attitude and behavior, the stronger the relationship Chapter3 Moods, Emotions and Organizational Behavior✓Why Were Emotions Excluded from OB Study?➢Myth of rationality – emotions were the antithesis of rationality and should not be seen in the workplace➢Belief that emotions of any kind are disruptive in the workplace✓Emotional Terminology:➢affect: A generic term that encompasses a broad range of feelings that people experience➢emotion: Intense feelings that are directed at someone or somethingShort termed and action-oriented.➢Mood: Feelings that tend to be less intense and longer-lasting than emotions and often lack a contextual stimulusP27 3.1✓The Basic Emotions:➢positive emotions→positive affect: The mood dimension consisting of positive emotions such as excitement, self-assurance, and cheerfulness at the high end with boredom,sluggishness, and tiredness at the low end.→negative affect: At zero input, when no stimulus is provided, most people experience a mildly positive mood. In fact, positive moods tend to be morecommon than negative ones.➢negative emotions➢negative affect: The mood dimension consisting of nervousness, stress, and anxiety at the high end with relaxation, tranquility, and poise at the low end.✓The Functions of Emotions:➢Emotions and Rationality: Emotions are critical to rational thought: they help in understanding the world around us.➢Evolutionary Psychology : Theory that emotions serve an evolutionary purpose: helps in survival of the gene pool. The theory is not universally accepted✓Sources of Emotions and Moods:➢Personality➢Day of the week and time of the day: More positive interactions will likely occur mid-day and later in the week➢Weather: no impact according to the research➢Stress: Increased stress worsens moods➢Social Activities: Physical, informal, and epicurean activities increase positive mood ➢Sleep: Lack of sleep increases negative emotions and impairs decision making➢Exercise: Mildly enhances positive mood➢Age: Older people experience negative emotions less frequently➢Gender: Women show greater emotional expression, experience emotions more intensely and display more frequent expressions of emotions. Could be due tosocialization✓Emotional Labor: An employee’s expression of organizationally desired emotions during interpersonal transactions at workEmotional dissonance is when an employee has to project one emotion while simultaneously feeling anotherFelt vs. Displayed Emotions:➢Felt Emotions: the individual’s actual emotions➢Displayed Emotions: the learned emotions that the organization requires workers to show and considers appropriate in a given job→Surface Acting is hiding one’s true emotions→Deep Acting is trying to change one’s feelings based on display rules ✓Emotional Intelligence:A person’s ability to:1)Be self-aware (to recognize his or her own emotions as experienced), 2)Detectemotions in others, and 3)Manage emotional cues and information.Moderately associated with high job performanceEmotional Intelligence on Trial➢The case for: a. Intuitive appeal – it makes sense b. EI predicts criteria that matter –positively correlated to high job performance c. Study suggests that EI isneurologically based➢The case against: a. EI is too vague a concept b. EI can’t be measured c. EI is so closely related to intelligence and personality that it is not unique when thosefactors are controlled✓OB Applications of Emotions and Moods➢Selection – Employers should consider EI a factor in hiring for jobs that demand a high degree of social interaction➢Decision Making – Positive emotions can increase problem-solving skills and help us understand and analyze new information➢Creativity – Positive moods and feedback may increase creativity✓More OB Applications of Emotions and Moods➢Motivation – Promoting positive moods may give a more motivated workforce➢Leadership – Emotions help convey messages more effectively➢Negotiation – Emotions may impair negotiator performance➢Customer Service – Customers “catch” emotions from employees, called emotional contagion✓Even More OB Applications of Emotions and Moods➢Job Attitudes – Emotions at work get carried home but rarely carry over to the next day ➢Deviant Workplace Behaviors – Those who feel negative emotions are more likely to engage in deviant behavior at work✓How Can Managers Influence Moods?➢Use humor to lighten the moment➢Give small tokens of appreciation➢Stay in a good mood themselves – lead by example➢Hire positive people✓Does the degree to which people experience emotions vary across cultures?Do people’s interpretations of emotions vary across cultures?Do the norms for the expressions of emotions differ across cultures?“YES” to all of the above!Chapter 5 Perception and Decision-making✓Perception：The process by which individuals organize and interpret their sensory impressions in order to give meaning to their environment✓Factors influencing perception：➢The perceiver：Attitudes，Motives，Interests，Experience，expectations➢The target：Novelty，Motion，Sound，Size，Background，proximity➢The Situation：Time，Work setting，Social setting✓Attribution Theory：trying to explain the ways in which we judge people differently, depending on the meaning we attribute to a given behavior.✓The three determining factors of attribution theory：➢Distinctiveness➢Consensus➢Consistency→Fundamental attribution error:1. When making judgments about the behavior of other people, we tend tounderestimate the influence of external factors and overestimate the influence ofinternal or personal factors2.Individuals and organizations tend to attribute their own successes to internal factors such as ability or effort, while putting the blame for failure on external factors such as bad luck or unproductive workers.3. Individuals whose intellectural and interpersonal abilieties are weakest are mostlikely to overestimate their performance and abilty.✓The Link Between Perception and Individual Decision making：Who makes decisions? What decisions to make?All the decisions are closed related to perceptions. (data collection and analysis)✓The Six Steps of Rational Decision-making model：➢Define the problem➢Identify the decision criterria➢Allocate weithgts to teh criteria➢Develop the alternatives➢Evaluate teh alternatives➢Select the best alternative➢Example:bicycle parking problem➢Bounded Rationality➢Intuitive decision making✓Common Biases and Erorrs in Decision Making：anchoring bias, confirmation bias, availabe bias, escalation of commitment, risk aversion, hindsight bias✓Organizatioal Constraints on Decision making: performance evaluation, reward systems, formal regulations, system-imposed time constraints, historical precdidents✓Three Ethical Decision Criteria:➢Utilitarianism（providing the greatest benefits for the greatest number功利主义，实用主义）➢Rights(respecting and protecting the basic rights of individuals,eg.right to privacy, free speech ,and due process)➢Justice(imposing and enforceing rules afaily and impartially to ensure justice or an equitalbe distribution of benefits and costs.) Comment on the three choices.✓Three-component Model of Creativity:➢Expertise(abilities, knowledge, proficiencies, and similar expertise )➢Creative thinking skills(personality ——creativity, the ability to use analogies, and the talent ot see the familiar in a different light)➢Intrinsic task motivation (interesting , involving , exciting, satisfying,persionally challengfing jobs, etc.)Chapter8 Groups✓Group: Two or more individuals, interacting and interdependent, who come together to achieve particular objectives. Groups can be either formal or informal, and further subclassified into command, task, interest, or friendship categories.✓Four Types of Groups:Command group, Task group, Interest group, Friendship group✓Why People Join Groups: (benefits)➢Security Reduce the insecurity of “standing alone”; feel stronger, fewer self-doubts, and more resistant to threats➢Status Inclusion in a group viewed by outsiders as important; provides recognition and status➢Self-esteem Provides feelings of self-worth to group members, in addition to conveying status to outsiders➢Affiliation Fulfills social needs. Enjoys regular interaction; can be primary source for fulfilling need for affiliation➢Power What cannot be achieved individually often becomes possible; power in numbers➢Goal achievement Some tasks require more than one person; need to pool talents, knowledge, or power to complete the job. In such instances, management may rely onthe use of a formal group✓Basic Group Concepts:➢Roles→Role research conclusions: a.People play multiple roles b.People learn roles from stimuli around them c.People can shift roles rapidly when the situation demandsd.People experience major role conflict between roles➢Norms: Acceptable standards of behavior within a group that are adopted and shared by the group’s members→The Hawthorne Studies→Conformity and the Asch Studies➢Cohesiveness: The degree to which members of the group are attracted to each other and motivated to stay in the group→Relationship of Cohesiveness to Productivity→Managers Can Encourage Cohesiveness: a.Make the group smaller b.Encourage agreement on group goals c.Increase the time spent together d.Increase thestatus and perceived difficulty of group membership→More Ways Managers Can Encourage Cohesiveness: a.Stimulate competition with other groups b.Give rewards to the group rather than members c.Physicallyisolate the group➢Size→How Size Effects a Group: a.Smaller groups are faster at completing tasks rge groups are consistently better at problem solving c.Social loafing - tendency toexpend less effort in a group than as an individual d.Increases in group size areinversely related to individual performance➢Composition: Diversity increases effectiveness due to the variety of viewpoints.Diversity promotes conflict, which stimulates creativity, which leads to improveddecision making. May take more time to work smoothly. May lead to turnover ➢Status: A prestige grading, position, or rank within the group. It may be formally imposed by the group, or informally acquired through characteristics such aseducation, age, gender, skill, or experience→Effects of High Status: a.Resist conformity or receive more freedom b.Do not need or care about social rewards c.Members must believe status hierarchy isequitable d.Inequities produce corrective behaviors and conflict✓Individual versus Group Decision Making:➢Individual: More efficient, Speed, No meetings, No discussion, Clear accountability, Consistent values➢Group: More effective, More information and knowledge, Diversity of views, Higher-quality decisions, Increased acceptance✓Symptoms of Group Think: a.Group members rationalize any resistance to their assumptionsb.Members pressure any doubters to support the alternative favored by the majorityc.Doubters keep silent about misgivings(doubts) and minimize their importanced.Groupinterprets members’ silence as a “yes” vote for the majorityVariables Influencing Group Think: Group’s cohesiveness, Leader’s behavior, Insulation from outsiders, Time pressures, Failure to follow methodical decision-making procedures✓GroupShift: A special case of groupthink. The decision of the group reflects the dominant decision-making norm that develops during the group discussion, whether shift is toward greater caution or more risk depends on the dominant prediscussion norm.✓Selecting the Best Decision-Making Technique:➢Brainstorming➢Nominal group technique➢Electronic meetingsChapter9 Teams✓Reasons for Team Popularity: a.Outperform on tasks requiring multiple skills, judgment, and experience b.Better utilization of employee talents c.More flexible and responsive to changing events d.Facilitate employee participation in operating decisions e.Effective in democratizing the organization and increasing employee motivation✓Work Group: A group who interacts primarily to share information and to make decisions to help one another perform within each member’s area of responsibility. Individuals work alone, not collectively, on a task. Performance is the summation of all of the group member’s individual contributions.✓Work Team:Generates positive synergy through coordinated effort. Their individual efforts result in a level of performance that is greater than the sum of those individual inputs.✓Comparing Work Groups and Work Teams P123 9.1✓Four Types of Teams P124 9.2➢Problem-Solving Teams: a.Share ideas or offer suggestions on how work processes and methods can be improved. b.Rarely given authority to unilaterally implement any oftheir suggested actions c.Typically composed of 5-12 hourly employees from thesame departmentExample: Quality Circles➢Self-Managed Work Teams: a.Collectively control pace of work b.Determine work assignments anize breaks d.Collectively choose inspection procedurese.Select their own members and evaluate each other’s performancef.Generallycomposed of 10-15 people➢Cross-Functional Teams: a.Members from diverse areas within and between organizations b.Exchange information c.Develop new ideas and solve problemsd.Coordinate complex projects f.Development is time-consuming due to complexity anddiversityExamples: Task Force and Committees➢Virtual Teams: Computer technology ties physically dispersed members together to achieve a common goal→Differentiating factors from other teams: Absence of para-verbal and non-verbal cues, Limited social context, Ability to overcome time and space constraints✓Creating Effective Teams:Effectiveness of teams is defined by:➢Objective measures of the team’s productivity➢Manager’s ratings of team performance➢Aggregate measures of member satisfactionA Team Effectiveness Model P126 9.3✓Turning Individuals into Team Players: To perform well as team members, individuals must be able to 1)Communicate openly and honestly 2)Confront differences and resolve conflicts 3)Sublimate personal goals for the good of the team✓The Challenge in Shaping Team Players:➢Greatest where... a.The national culture is highly individualistic b.Introduced into organizations that historically value c.individual achievement➢Less demanding... a.Where employees have strong collectivist values, such as Japan or Mexico b.In new organizations that use teams as their initial form for structuringwork✓Shaping Team Players:➢Selection: Ensure that candidates can fulfill their team roles in addition to having the technical skills required for the job➢Training: Provide workshops in problem-solving, communication, negotiation, conflict-management, coaching, and group-development skills➢Rewards: Rework reward systems to encourage cooperative efforts rather than competitive onesChapter 10 Communication✓Functions of Communication➢Control - both formal and informal➢Motivation - clarification and feedback➢Emotional expression - fulfillment of social needs➢Information - facilitating decision making✓The Communication ProcessSource, Encoding, Channel, decoding, Receiver✓Downward Communication：Assign goals，Provide job instructions，Inform employees of policies and procedures，Point out problems that need attention，Offer feedback about performance，Letters and email from leaders to members of the team✓Upward Communication：Provide feedback to higher-ups，Inform them of progress toward goals，Relay current problems，Keep managers aware of how employees feel，Ideas on how things can be improved✓Lateral Communication：Save time and facilitate coordination，Formally sanctioned or informally created，Enhance efficient and accurate transfer of information，Can create dysfunctional conflicts when formal vertical channels are breached✓Oral Communication：➢Advantage: Speed , Feedback➢Disadvantage: Potential for distorted message, Content at destination is different from the original✓Written Communication:➢Advantage: Provide a tangible and verifiable record, Can be stored for an indefinite period of time, Physically available for later reference, Well thought-out, logical, andclear➢Disadvantage: Time consuming, Lack of feedback, No guarantee how reader will interpret it✓Non-verbal Communication:➢Kinesics - Gestures, facial configurations, and other movements of the body➢Body movement -Body language adds to, and often complicates, verbal communication➢Intonations - Change the meaning of the message➢Facial expression -Characteristics that would never be communicated if you read a transcript of what is said➢Physical distance - Proper spacing is largely dependent cultural norms✓Formal Small-Group Networks P140 10.3✓Small-Group Networks and Effectiveness Criteria p140 10.4✓The Grapevine:Not controlled by management, Perceived as being more believable and reliable, Largely used to serve self-interest, Appear in response to situations: Important to us, Where there is ambiguity, Under conditions that arouse anxiety✓Computer-Aided Communication: Electronic mail (e-mail), Intranet and Extranet links, Videoconferencing✓Barriers to Effective Communication: Filtering, Selective Perception, Information Overload, Gender Styles, Emotions, Language✓ A Cultural Guide: Assume differences until similarity is proved, Emphasize description rather than interpretation or evaluation, Practice empathy, Treat your interpretation as a working hypothesis✓Improving Feedback Skills: 1. Focus on specific behaviors 2. Keep feedback impersonal 3.Keep feedback goal oriented 4. Make feedback well timed 5. Ensure understanding 6. Direct negative feedback toward behavior that is controllable by the recipient✓Improving Active Listening Skills: 1. Make eye contact 2. Exhibit affirmative head nods and appropriate facial expressions 3. Avoid distracting actions or gestures 4. Ask questions 5.Paraphrase 6. Avoid interrupting the speaker 7. Do not over talkChspter11 Leadership✓Leadership: Ability to influence a group toward the achievement of goals. The source of influence may be formal, provided by managerial rank in an organization. Non-sanctioned leadership(不具制裁力的领导) is the ability to influence that arises from outside of the formal structure of the organization.✓Trait Theories: Assumes that leaders are born, Characteristics that differentiate leaders from non-leaders, Personality traits in leaders that non-leaders do not possess, Characteristics of individuals who meet the definition of leader, Provides the basis of selecting the right person for leadership✓Traits Consistently Associated with Leadership:Drive and ambition, Desire to lead and influence others, Honesty and integrity, Self-confidence, Intelligence, In-depth technical knowledge✓Traits Alone Do Not Explain Leadership: Ignore situational factors. Leaders must take “the right actions”“The right actions” differ by situation✓Behavioral Theories: Assumes people can be trained to lead Researched the behaviors of specific leaders. Critical behavioral determinants of leadership. Specific behaviors identify leaders. Provides the basis of design for training programs✓Ohio State Studies:Sought to identify independent dimensions of leader behavior.Developed two categories of leadership behavior.:→Initiating structure - attempts to organize work, work relationships, and goals.→Consideration - concern for followers’ comfort, well-being, status, and satisfaction ✓University of Michigan Studies: Locate behavioral characteristics of leaders that appear related to measures of performance effectivenessTwo dimensions:→Employee-oriented - emphasize interpersonal relations→Production-oriented - emphasize the technical or task aspects of the job✓Limitations of Behavioral Theories:Did not identify consistent relationships between leadership behavior and group performance. Missing consideration of the situational factors that influence success and failure. Could not clarify situational factors✓Contingency Theories:➢Fiedler Leadership Model -Proper match of leader’s style of interacting with subordinates➢Path-Goal Model -Leader assists followers in attaining goals and ensures goals are compatible with overall objectives➢Leader-Participation Model - Leader behavior must adjust to reflect the task structure ✓Least-Preferred Co-Worker (LPC) Questionnaire: Individual’s basic leadership style is a key factor in leadership success. Assumed that individual leadership style is fixed,。

GUIDE FOR PREVENTING CORRUPTIONAND INFLUENCE PEDDLINGGROUPE RENAULTCONTENTS01 CHAIRMAN’S FOREWORD03 INTRODUCTION04 PREVENTING CORRU PTIONAND INFLUENCE PEDDLINGPatronageSponsorshipConflict of interestFacilitation paymentsBenefits, gifts and invitationsInfluence peddlingEvaluation of third partiesReporting breaches13 IMPLEMENTATIONWhistleblowing systemIntranet siteTrainingRisk mapping15 SEEKING ADVICE15 WHISTLEBLOWER EMPLOYEEPROTECTION16 RISKS A ND PENALTIESGROUPE RENAULTGROUPE RENAULTG U I D E F O R P R E V E N T I N G C O R R U P T I O N01We rely on each of you to uphold, implement and disseminate this policyChairman’s ForewordIn its Code of Ethics, Groupe Renault has solemnly reaffirmed its commitment and determination to deploy a proactive policy to prevent acts of corruption by members of the Group.We rely on each of you to uphold, implement and disseminate this policy.Each of us must be responsible for this policy and lead by example when implementing it. You can be assured of my support regarding the implementation and deployment of the rules and principles outlined in this guide.This Guide for Preventing Corruption and Influence Peddling was approved by the Executive Committee and shared with the Renault Board of Directors. Naturally, it will be supplemented whenever necessary, in order to continue to improve our anti-corruption measures, in the service of the Group’s sustainable performance.Carlos GhosnChairman and Chief Executive OfficerGROUPE RENAULT02G U I D E F O R P R E V E N T I N G C O R R U P T I O NTHE MEMBERS OF THE EXECUTIVE COMMITTEE DECLARETHEIR COMMITMENT:CARLOS GHOSNChairman and Chief Executive OfficerBRUNO ANCELINEVP, Group Product Planning and ProgramsTHIERRY BOLLORÉChief CompetitivenessOfficerMARIE-FRANÇOISE DAMESINEVP, Group and Alliance Human RessourcesCLOTILDE DELBOSGroup CFO ,Chairman of RCI BanqueGASPAR GASCON ABELLANEVP, EngineeringTHIERRY KOSKASEVP, Group Sales and MarketingJEAN-CHRISTOPHE KUGLEREVP, Europe RegionJOSE-VICENTE DE LOS MOZOSEVP, Group Manufacturing& LogisticsSTEFAN MUELLEREVP, Chief Performance OfficerMOUNA SEPEHRIEVP, Office of the Renault CEOCHRISTIAN VANDENHENDEEVP, Quality and T otal Customer SatisfactionGROUPE RENAULTG U I D E F O R P R E V E N T I N G C O R R U P T I O N03Groupe Renault expressly bans all forms of corruption and is a signatory to the United Nations Global Compact which calls upon companies to “work against corruption in all its forms, including extortion and bribery”.In its Code of Ethics, Groupe Renault has solemnly reaffirmed this firm, sustainable commitment shared by all its staff and officers.This guide sets out the comprehensive, proactive approach defined by Groupe Renault for preventing and combating corruption and influence peddling.This approach forms part of the Group’s effort to achieve the sustainability of its performance.This guide applies to all employees of Renault and its subsidiaries, and for the corporate officers, all of whom are hereafter referred to as the “Employee(s)”.Employees may seek the assistance of the Ethics department with any questions in case of doubt on the proper conduct.IntroductionGROUPE RENAULT04G U I D E F O R P R E V E N T I N G C O R R U P T I O NPreventing Corruption and Influence PeddlingThe Groupe Renault companies and Employees each reaffirm their commitment to complying with the anti-corruption legislation and regulations applicable to them.Each Groupe Renault Employee organising or taking part in exchanges or activities committing the Group must act in an ethically irreproachable manner.1Groupe Renault has established formal decision-making rules in the DOA (Delegation of Authority) manual for the handling of charitable requests from volunteers, associations or non-governmental organisations. These rules must be strictly observed.On the basis of pre-determined criteria, the selection committees meet several times each year to choose charitable projects consistent with the Group’s strategic guidelines for CSR (Corporate Social Responsibility). The selected projects will receive financial support.PATRONAGEGROUPE RENAULTG U I D E F O R P R E V E N T I N G C O R R U P T I O N052To ensure compliance by sponsoring organizations with the ethical values of Groupe Renault and its Brands in all the countries in which it is present, Groupe Renault has defined and deployed guidelines to enable the communication and marketing functions to select key partners.Clearly-defined rules govern the selection of these partners, in conformity with the principles set out in the Renault Code of Ethics. These rules are documented in the DOA (Delegation of Authority) manual. They must also be strictly observed.SPONSORSHIP3Each Employee shall refrain, within the scope of his or her duties, from making a decision which could appear to conflict or could conflict with the interests of the Group company that employs him or her, where such decision directly or indirectly benefits a natural person or legal entity with whom or with which that Employee maintains financial, family or friendly relations.An Employee’s decision could be influenced by having direct or indirect family, financial or business relationships with customers, suppliers or competitors of Groupe Renault.In any event, even if such a decision, however, were in accordance with the interests of the Group company employing him or her, the Employee must formally notify his or her line management of the situation beforehand.CONFLICT OFINTERESTAn example of prohibitedbehaviourGROUPE RENAULT06G U I D E F O R P R E V E N T I N G C O R R U P T I O N4Undue, unofficial payments, even of a moderate amount, in favour of a public official to secure or accelerate administrative procedures within his or her scope of responsibilities (customs clearance of goods, obtaining a visa, the issue of a licence, etc.) are prohibited.FACILITATIONPAYMENTSAn example of prohibitedbehaviourGROUPE RENAULTG U I D E F O R P R E V E N T I N G C O R R U P T I O N075In dealings with third parties:W do not give, promise or offer to give;W do not receive, or request any benefit whatsoever (money,gift, invitation, travel, preferential treatment, etc.) with the intention of influencing the behaviour of a person, company or organisation, in order to obtain or retain an undue economic or commercial benefit whether for oneself or for someone else.BENEFITS, GIFTS ANDINVITATIONSAIn dealings with public officialsGROUPE RENAULT08G U I D E F O R P R E V E N T I N G C O R R U P T I ONSome examples of prohibitedbehaviourBIn dealings with private persons (whether natural persons or legalentities)GROUPE RENAULTG U I D E F O R P R E V E N T I N G C O R R U P T I O N09Some examples of prohibitedbehaviourGROUPE RENAULT10G U I D E F O R P R E V E N T I N G C O R R U P T I ON6INFLUENCEPEDDLINGAn example of prohibitedbehaviourGROUPE RENAULTG U I D E F O R P R E V E N T I N G C O R R U P T I O N117All payments made by Groupe Renault companies must be documented, justified and entered in the accounts.Any remuneration granted to a representative, agent or other intermediary must be transparent and must be made in return for a service legitimately and actually rendered to Groupe Renault.The Company closely monitors developments in the business environment, its suppliers, subcontractors, customers and intermediaries but also, more generally, monitors its commercial partners regardless of the country where the business is carried out.For purposes of any contract with partners, suppliers, distributors, consultants, customers and any natural person or legal entity, each Groupe Renault company concerned shall request an undertaking from its co-contractors not to engage in corrupt practices and/or influence peddling and shall reserve the right to terminate agreements if these obligations are not fulfilled.Before engaging in or renewing a business relationship, a risk analysis shall be performed in accordance with the third-party integrity management process, under the control of the Group Prevention and Protection department (Third Party Integrity Management process: “TIM process”).On completion of this evaluation, if doubt persists, a closer review shall be performed as a precaution to check the integrity of the third party, focusing on its compliance with anti-corruption legislation and the Groupe Renault anti-corruption policy.Depending upon the information obtained, it may be decided not to enter into relations with that third party.EVALUATION OF THIRDPARTIESAn example of prohibitedbehaviourGROUPE RENAULT12G U I D E F O R P R E V E N T I N G C O R R U P T I O N8An Employee who has personal knowledge of any behaviour likely to breach the principles laid down in this guide must report it to the Ethics department or its representatives (Country Ethics Officers), particularly using the whistleblowing system (see the chapter entitled “Implementation”).REPORTINGBREACHESGROUPE RENAULTG U I D E F O R P R E V E N T I N G C O R R U P T I O N13Implementation1A whistleblowing system is available to Groupe Renault Employees on the intranet for reporting breaches, in addition to the regular internal alert-reporting channels namely, the line management, Human Resources, employee representatives, the Ethics department, and the Group Prevention and Protection department.http://collaboration2010.sharepoint.renault.fr/grm/shp-ethics-en/Pages/Home.aspxWHISTLE-BLOWING SYSTEM2Groupe Renault makes available to Employees on the ethics intranet site a guide entitled “Ethics in practice”, which sets out a series of questions concerning potential or actual corruption situations with which Employees may be faced. This guide provides answers to questions on the attitude to adopt in such circumstances.http://collaboration2010.sharepoint.renault.fr/grm/shp-ethics-en/Pages/Home.aspxINTRANETSITEGROUPE RENAULT14G U I D E F O R P R E V E N T I N G C O R R U P T I O N3Training in business ethics are given worldwide to Employees.The training focuses on the extremely serious impacts of corruption and influence peddling on Groupe Renault, including on its performance and reputation. It describes as well the resources deployed to prevent this type of behaviour.Managers and the most exposed employees will regularly receive appropriate training. New employees must be trained within the year of their arrival. The Ethics department shall ensure that such training is provided.TRAINING4The risks of corruption have been mapped. The mapping of those risks is regularly updated.RISKMAPPINGGROUPE RENAULTG U I D E F O R P R E V E N T I N G C O R R U P T I O N15Seeking AdviceWhen an Employee seeks an opinion, advice or wishes to report any difficulty in implementing the Guide for preventing corruption and influence peddling, he or she may seek the help of the Ethics Director or the Country Ethics Officers.Whistleblower Employee ProtectionEach Groupe Renault company affirms that no Employee shall be penalised, dismissed or targeted by any discriminatory measure whether directly or indirectly, particularly affecting remuneration, for having reported or witnessed in good faith and in a disinterested manner, firstly to his or her employer and, as the case may be, to the judicial or government authorities, acts of corruption and/or influence peddling of which such Employee may become aware in the exercise of his or her duties.GROUPE RENAULT16G U I D E F O R P R E V E N T I N G C O R R U P T I O NRisksa nd Penalties Breaching of the provisions in this guide will subject the Employee to disciplinary measures, without prejudice to any civil sanctions and penal measures (fines, imprisonment, etc.). The reputation and the business of the Group may be severely impacted by such unlawful acts.In no circumstances shall any act of corruption or influence peddling committed by an Employee be regarded as having been committed in theinterest and/or on behalf of any of the Groupe Renault companies.© Photo credits: Arnaud TAQUET, Augustin DETIENNE / CAPA Pictures, Yannick BROSSARD, Renault Marketing 3D-Commerce, iStock.ENGREFERENCE DOCUMENTSW Groupe Renault Code of EthicsW The dedicated codesCONTACTSFor any information concerning this guide, enquiries should be made to:W the Groupe Renault VP, Ethics;W the Groupe Renault VP, Group General Counsel.This guide may not be amended or updated without the agreement of the Groupe Renault VP, Ethics.。

工商管理（国际商务与管理）2+2本科双学位培养方案（2013级）Business Administration（International Business and Management）2+2 Bachelor Double Degree Education Syllabus一、能力框架Framework Competencies核心能力Core Competencies●国际战略眼光International Strategic Vision●国际政策和商务规则意识International policy and business rule awareness●国际商务管理能力International business management●组织政策开发能力Organizational Policy Development●企业管理能力Entrepreneurial Management●跨文化适应能力Intercultural adaptability职业前景Career Prospects能在涉外经济贸易部门、外资企业及政府机构从事实际商贸业务、管理、调研和宣传策划工作Be able to work in international commercial trade departments, full foreign-owned enterprise and government organizations as professionals of commerce, management, marketing planning and research二、培养基本规格要求Learning Outcomes学习国际经济、国际商务的基本理论和基础知识；接受经济学、管理学的基本训练，具有理论分析和实务操作的基本能力By learning fundamental theories and knowledge of international economics & business and completing the study, students will have strong ability of theoretical analysis and practice-related competencies.1.掌握经济学、国际商务与管理的理论和方法；Demonstrate a clear understanding of theories and methods of Economic, international business and management2.能运用统计方法进行分析和研究；Analyze and research by utilizing statistics method3.了解主要国家和地区的经济发展状况及其商务政策；Understand current economic situation and business policies of major countries and regional areas4.了解中国的经济政策和法规；Illustrate Chinese economic policies and regulations5.了解国际经济学、国际商务与管理理论发展的动态；Identify the development trend of international economy and international business & management6.能够熟练地掌握一门外语，具有听、说、读、写、译的基本能力，能利用计算机从事涉外经济工作。

PROJECT RISK MANAGEMENT : FUTURE DEVELOPMENTSDr David HillsonManager of Consultancy, PMP Services Limited7 Amersham Hill, High Wycombe, Bucks HP13 6NS, UK ABSTRACTProject risk management has been recognised for some time as a formal discipline in its own right, and there is growing consensus on the elements which comprise best practice. However the project risk management field has not fully matured and there are a number of areas requiring further development. This paper presents the author’s perceptions on the directions in which project risk management might develop in the short to medium term, comprising five key areas. These are : organisational bench-marking using maturity model concepts; integration of risk management with overall project management and corporate culture; increased depth of analysis and breadth of application; inclusion of behavioural aspects in the risk process; and development of a body of evidence to justify and support use of risk management. INTRODUCTIONRisk management within projects has developed in recent years into an accepted discipline, with its own language, techniques and tools. Most textbooks in project management now include sections on risk management, and there is a growing library of reference texts specifically devoted to the subject in its own right. The value of a proactive formal structured approach to managing uncertainty has been widely recognised, and many organisations are seeking to introduce risk processes in order to gain the promised benefits.It appears that project risk management is a mature discipline, yet it is still developing. Many risk practitioners would agree that risk management has not yet peaked, and that there is some way to go before its full potential as a management support tool is realised. A number of initiatives are under way to extend the boundaries of the subject, and there is a danger that risk management could dissipate and lose coherence if some sense of overall direction is not maintained. This paper presents five areas where the author perceives a need for active development, and which are proposed as an agenda for change in the short to medium term, covering the next three to five years.THE CURRENT SITUATIONBefore detailing areas for possible development, it is helpful to survey the current position of project risk management. This draws on the author’s experience as Chairman of the Risk Specific Interest Group (SIG) for the UK Association for Project Management (APM), his involvement with the Risk SIG of the US Project Management Institute (PMI), his position as a risk practitioner in the UK and Europe, and his view of current developments in the field as Editor of this journal.Use of formal risk management techniques to manage uncertainty in projects is widespread across many industries, and there are few sectors where it is completely absent. In many areas its use is mandatory or required by client organisations, including defence, construction, IT, offshore and nuclear industries. Other sectors are recognising the potential of risk management as a management support tool and are beginning to implement risk processes within their own projects. In the UK, various government departments are implementing risk management on projects, notably the Ministry of Defence (MoD)1, and departments with IT projects which use PRINCE2 or PRINCE2 3 guidelines developed by the CCTA.Risk processes have been applied to all stages of the project lifecycle, from conception, feasibility and design, through development into implementation, operations and disposal. The contribution which risk management can make at each lifecycle stage is different, but is nevertheless recognised as important.Despite this apparent widespread take up of project risk management across business at large, the extent to which risk processes are actually applied is somewhat variable. Many organisations adopt a minimalist approach, doing only what is necessary to meet mandatory requirements, or going through the motions of a risk process with no commitment to use the results to influence current or future strategy.A significant aspect of the project risk management field is the extent of current infrastructure support available. There is a growing academic base for the subject, and risk management is included in a variety of undergraduate courses. In addition, several MSc degrees in risk management exist, and the body of research in the topic is growing. This has led to a broad risk literature, including both textbooks and journals.A number of standards and guidelines have also been published which include aspects of project risk management to varying degrees4-12, although there is no internationally accepted risk standard at the time of writing. The discipline is supported by several professional bodies, including the UK Institute of Risk Management13 (whose remit is broader than just the project risk field), and project management bodies such as the UK APM14 and the US PMI15 (both with dedicated SIGs for project risk management). Software vendors have also provided a range of tools to support the risk process, and a growing number of consultancies offer project risk management support to clients.One important feature is the consensus on current best practice within project risk management. The APM Risk SIG is recognised within the UK as representing the centre of excellence for the subject within the UK, and internationally the leading position of the UK in project risk management is also widely accepted. A recent publication from the APM (the “Project Risk Analysis & Management (PRAM) Guide”16) has captured the elements of current best practice as perceived by the Risk SIG, and this has been expanded and expounded elsewhere17. This covers high level principles in the form of a prototype standard for risk management, and presents a generic process. The PRAM Guide also deals with organisational issues (roles and responsibilities), psychological aspects (attitudes and behaviour), benefits and shortfalls, techniques, and implementation issues, presenting a comprehensive compilation of current practice. Other best practice documents also exist, although not with such broad coverage18,19.AREAS FOR FUTURE DEVELOPMENTThe current situation in project risk management outlined above represents a position where there is broad consensus on the fundamentals, with a mature and agreed process, supported by a comprehensive infrastructure. The core elements of project risk management are in place, and many organisations are reaping the benefits of implementing risk processes within their projects and wider business, despite the variable depth of application. There are however a number of areas where the discipline needs to develop in order to build on the foundation which currently exists. It is this author’s belief that development of the following five areas would greatly enhance the effectiveness of project risk management :• organisational bench-marking using maturity model concepts• integration of risk management with overall project management and corporate culture• increased depth of analysis and breadth of application• inclusion of behavioural aspects in the risk process• development of a body of evidence to justify and support use of risk management Each of these areas is discussed in turn below, outlining how project risk management might benefit from their inclusion.ORGANISATIONAL BENCHMARKINGAn increasing number of organisations wish to reap the benefits of proactive management of uncertainty in their projects by developing or improving in-house project risk management processes. It is however important for the organisation to be able to determine whether its risk processes are adequate, using agreed measures to compare its management of risk with best practice or against its competitors. As with any change programme, benchmarks and maturity models can play an important part in the process by defining a structured route to improvement.The Risk Maturity Model (RMM)20,21 was developed as a benchmark for organisational risk capability, describing four increasing levels, with recognisable stages along the way against which organisations can benchmark themselves. The various levels can be summarised as follows :• The Naïve risk organisation (RMM Level 1) is unaware of the need for management of risk, and has no structured approach to dealing with uncertainty.Management processes are repetitive and reactive, with little or no attempt to learn from the past or to prepare for future threats or uncertainties.• At RMM Level 2, the Novice risk organisation has begun to experiment with risk management, usually through a small number of nominated individuals, but has no formal or structured generic processes in place. Although aware of the potential benefits of managing risk, the Novice organisation has not effectively implemented risk processes and is not gaining the full benefits.• The level to which most organisations aspire when setting targets for management of risk is captured in RMM Level 3, the Normalised risk organisation. At this level, management of risk is built into routine business processes and riskmanagement is implemented on most or all projects. Generic risk processes are formalised and widespread, and the benefits are understood at all levels of the organisation, although they may not be fully achieved in all cases.• Many organisations would probably be happy to remain at Level 3, but the RMM defines a further level of maturity in risk processes, termed the Natural risk organisation (Level 4). Here the organisation has a risk-aware culture, with a proactive approach to risk management in all aspects of the business. Risk information is actively used to improve business processes and gain competitive advantage. Risk processes are used to manage opportunities as well as potential negative impacts.Each RMM level is further defined in terms of four attributes, namely culture, process, experience and application. These allow an organisation to assess its current risk processes against agreed criteria, set realistic targets for improvement, and measure progress towards enhanced risk capability.Since its original publication20, the RMM has been used by several major organisations to benchmark their risk processes, and there has been considerable interest in it as a means of assisting organisations to introduce effective project risk management. Other professional bodies are expressing interest in development of benchmarks for risk management based on the principles of maturity models22,23, and this seems likely to become an important area for future development.INTEGRATION OF RISK MANAGEMENTProject risk management is often perceived as a specialist activity undertaken by experts using dedicated tools and techniques. In order to allow project teams and the overall organisation to gain the full benefits from implementing the risk process, it is important that risk management should become fully integrated into both the management of projects and into the organisational culture. Without such integration, there is a danger that the results of risk management may not be used appropriately (or at all), and that project and business strategy may not take proper account of any risk assessment.At the project level, integration of risk management is required at three points.• The first and arguably most important is a cultural issue. The project culture must recognise the existence of uncertainty as an inherent part of undertaking projects.The nature of projects is to introduce change in order to deliver business benefits.Any endeavour involving change necessarily faces risk, as the future state to be delivered by the project differs from the status quo, and the route between the two is bound to be uncertain. Indeed there may be a direct relationship between the degree of risk taken during a project and the value of the benefits which it can deliver to the business (the “risk-reward” ratio). It is therefore important for the project culture to accept uncertainty and to take account of risk at every stage. The existence of risk and the need to manage it proactively within projects should not be a surprise.• Secondly, risk management must become fully integrated into the processes of project management. Techniques for project definition, planning, resourcing, estimating, team-building, motivation, cost control, progress monitoring,reporting, change management and close-out should all take explicit account of risk management. It is often the case that risk management is seen as an optional additional activity, to be fitted into the project process if possible. The future of effective risk management depends on developing project processes which naturally include dealing with risk.• Thirdly, risk tools must integrate seamlessly with tools used to support project processes. Too often differing data formats result in a discontinuity between the two, leading to difficulty in using risk outputs directly within project tools. It should not be necessary to use a specialist toolset for risk management, with import/export routines required to translate risk data into project management tools. At the practical level this would go a long way towards improving the acceptability and usefulness of risk management to project teams.In addition to these tactical-level integration issues, there is a broader need to develop strategic risk-based thinking within organisational culture. The denial of risk at senior management levels is a common experience for many project managers, and this can dilute or negate much of the value of implementing risk management in projects, if decision-makers at a higher level do not properly take account of risk. This author contends that there is a need for a cultural revolution similar to the Total Quality Management (TQM) phenomenon, if the required degree of organisational culture change is to be achieved. As with quality, risk management must be seen as an integral part of doing business, and must become “built-in not bolt-on”, a natural feature of all project and business processes, rather than being conducted as an optional additional activity.Such a development might be termed Total Risk Management (TRM), requiring a change in attitudes to “think risk”, accepting the existence of uncertainty in all human endeavours, adopting a proactive approach to its management, using a structured process to deal with risk (for example identify, assess, plan, manage), with individuals taking responsibility for identifying and managing risks within their own areas of influence. Clearly the implications of a TRM movement could be far-reaching, and further work is required in this area to define and promulgate the principles and practice of TRM, drawing on the previous experiences of TQM practitioners.INCREASED DEPTH AND BREADTHThere is general consensus about the risk management process as it is currently applied within projects, covering the techniques available for the various stages and the way in which risk data is used. Further development is however required to improve the effectiveness of risk techniques, both in their degree of operation and functionality, and in the scope of the situations where they are applied. These two dimensions of improvement are termed depth of analysis and breadth of application. The current level of risk analysis is often shallow, largely driven by the capabilities of the available tools and techniques. Qualitative assessments concentrate on probabilities and impacts, with descriptions of various parameters to allow risks to be understood in sufficient detail that they can be managed effectively. Quantitative analysis focuses on project time and cost, with a few techniques (such as Monte Carlo simulation or decision trees) being used almost exclusively. There are a number ofways in which this situation could be improved, leading to an increased depth of analysis :• Development of better tools and techniques, with improved functionality, better attention to the user interface, and addressing issues of integration with other parts of the project toolset.• Use of advanced information technology capabilities to enable effective knowledge management and learning from experience. For example it may prove possible to utilise existing or imminent developments in artificial intelligence, expert systems or knowledge-based systems to permit new types of analysis of risk data, exposing hitherto unavailable information from the existing data set (see for example references 24 and 25).• Development of existing techniques from other disciplines for application within the risk arena. Risk analysis for projects could be undertaken via methods currently used within such diverse areas as system dynamics, safety and hazard analysis, integrated logistic support (ILS), financial trading etc. Tailoring of such methods for risk analysis may be a cost-effective means of developing new approaches without the need for significant new work.The scope of project risk management as currently practised is fairly limited, tending to concentrate on risks with potential impact on project timescales and cost targets. While time and cost within projects are undeniably important, there are a number of other areas of interest which should be covered by the risk process. The breadth of application could be enhanced in the following ways :• Risk impacts should be considered using other measures than project time and cost, and should include all elements of project objectives such as performance, quality, compliance, environmental or regulatory etc. The inclusion of “soft”objectives such as human factors issues might also be incorporated, as it is often the people aspects which are most important in determining project success or failure. In addition, the impact of risks should be assessed against the business benefits which the project is intended to deliver.• The scope of risk processes should be expanded beyond projects into both programme risk management (addressing threats to portfolios of projects, considering inter-project issues) and business risk assessment (taking account of business drivers). While there are existing initiatives in both of these areas26,27, there is value in moving out from project risk assessment into these areas in a bottom-up manner, to ensure consistency and coherence.BEHAVIOURAL ASPECTSThere is general agreement on the importance of human behaviour in determining project performance28. This however is not usually translated into any formal mechanism for addressing human factors in project processes, including risk management. Future developments of project risk management must take more account of these issues, both in generating input data for the risk process, and in interpreting outputs.Considerable work has been done on the area of heuristics29, to identify the unconscious rules used when making judgements under conditions of uncertainty. There is however less insight into risk attitudes and their effect on the validity of the risk process. If risk management is to retain any credibility, this aspect must be addressed and made a routine part of the risk process. A reliable means of measuring risk attitudes needs to be developed, which can be administered routinely as part of a risk assessment in order to identify potential bias among participants. Accepted norms for risk attitudes could be defined, allowing individuals to be assessed and placed on a spectrum of risk attitude, perhaps ranging from risk-averse through risk-neutral to risk-tolerant and risk-seeking. Once potential systematic bias has been identified it can then be countered, leading to more reliable results and safe conclusions. The impact of risk attitude on perception of uncertainty should be explored to allow the effects to be eliminated.A further result of the inclusion of a formal assessment of behavioural characteristics in the risk process would be the ability to build risk-balanced teams. This would permit intelligent inclusion of people with a range of risk attitudes in order to meet the varying demands of a project environment. For example, it is clearly important for a project team to include people who are comfortable with taking risks, since projects are inherently concerned with uncertainty. It is however also important that these people are recognised and that their risk-taking tendency should be balanced by others who are more conservative and safety-conscious, in order to ensure that risks are only taken where appropriate.Work is in progress in this area30,31, but it is important that this should be fully integrated into mainstream project risk management, rather than remaining a specialist interest of psychologists and behavioural scientists. The standard risk process must take full account of all aspects of human behaviour if it is to command any respect and credibility.SUPPORTING EVIDENCEA number of studies have been undertaken to identify the benefits that can be expected by those implementing a structured approach to risk management32. These include both “hard” and “soft” issues.“Hard” measurable benefits include :• Better informed and achievable project plans, schedules and budgets• Increased likelihood of project meeting targets• Proper allocation of risk through the contract• Better allocation of contingency to reflect risk• Ability to avoid taking on unsound projects• Recording metrics to improve future projects• Objective comparison of risk exposure of alternatives• Identification of best risk owner“Soft” intangible benefits from the risk process include :• Improved communication• Development of a common understanding of project objectives• Enhancement of team spirit• Focused management attention on genuine threats• Facilitates appropriate risk-taking• Demonstrates professional approach to customersThe widespread use of project risk management suggests that people are implicitly convinced that it must deliver benefits. It is however difficult to prove unambiguously that benefits are being achieved. There is therefore a genuine need for a body of evidence to demonstrate the expected benefits of the risk process. Problems currently arise from the fact that existing evidence is either anecdotal (instead of providing hard measurable data) and confidential (accessible data is required, including both good news and bad). Also projects are unique (data requires normalising), and different between industries (evidence should be both generic and specific).In the absence of a coherent body of irrefutable evidence, the undoubted benefits that can accrue from effective management of risk must currently be taken on trust. Overcoming this will require generation of a body of evidence to support the use of formal project risk management, providing evidence that benefits can be expected and achieved, and convincing the sceptical or inexperienced that they should use project risk management.The intended audience of such a body of evidence would fall into several groups, each of which might seek different evidence, depending on their perspective on project success. Possible groups include the client/sponsor, project manager, project team and end user. For each group, the body of evidence should first define a “successful project” from their perspective, then consider whether/how risk management might promote “success” in these terms, then present evidence demonstrating the effect of risk management on the chosen parameters.CONCLUSIONThe short history of project risk management has been a success story to date, with widespread application across many industries, and development of a core best practice with a strong supporting infrastructure. Although project risk management has matured into a recognised discipline, it has not yet reached its peak and could still develop further.This paper has outlined several areas where the author believes that progress is required. In summary, adoption of the proposed agenda for development of project risk management will result in the following :• An accepted framework within which each organisation understands its current risk management capability and which defines a structured path for progression towards enhanced maturity of risk processes (via organisational benchmarking). • A set of risk management tools and techniques which are fully integrated with project and business processes, with the existence of uncertainty being recognised and accepted at all levels (via integration of risk management).• Improved analysis of the effects of risk on project and business performance, addressing its impact on issues wider than project time and cost (via increased depth of analysis and breadth of application).• Proper account being taken of human factors in the risk process, using assessment of risk attitudes to counter systematic bias and build risk-balanced teams (via behavioural aspects).• Agreement on the benefits that can be expected from implementation of a formal approach to project risk management, based on an objective and accessible body of evidence which justifies those benefits (via supporting evidence).It is argued that attention to these areas will ensure that project risk management continues to develop beyond the current situation. Project risk management must not remain static if it is to fulfil its potential as a significant contributor to project and business success. The areas outlined in this paper are therefore proposed as an agenda for development of project risk management in the short to medium term, producing an indispensable and effective management tool for the new millennium.REFERENCES1. UK MoD Risk Guidelines comprise the following :MOD(PE) - DPP(PM) (October 1992) Statement by CDP & CSA on RiskManagement in Defence Procurement (Ref. D/DPP(PM)/2/1/12)MOD(PE) - DPP(PM) (January 1992) Risk Management in DefenceProcurement (Ref. D/DPP(PM)/2/1/12)MOD(PE) - DPP(PM) (October 1992) Risk Identification Prompt List forDefence Procurement (Ref. D/DPP(PM)/2/1/12)MOD(PE) - DPP(PM) (June 1993) Risk Questionnaires for DefenceProcurement (Ref. D/DPP(PM)/2/1/12)Defence Committee Fifth Report (June 1988) The Procurement of MajorDefence Equipment (HMSO)2. CCTA,“PRINCE Project Evaluation”, HMSO, London, 1994, ISBN 0-11-330597-4.3. CCTA, “PRINCE2 : Project Management for Business”, HMSO, London,1996, ISBN 0-11-330685-7.4. British Standard BS6079 : 1996 “Guide to project management”, BritishStandards Institute, ISBN 0-580-25594-8, 19965. British Standard BS8444 : Part 3 : 1996 (IEC 300-3-9 : 1995) “RiskManagement : Part 3 – Guide to risk analysis of technological systems”,British Standards Institute, ISBN 0-580-26110-7, 19966. Norsk Standard NS 5814 “Krav til risikoanalyser”, NorgesStandardiseringsforbund (NSF), 1991.7. Australian/New Zealand Standard AS/NZS 4360:1995 “Risk management”,Standards Australia/Standards New Zealand, ISBN 0-7337-0147-7, 19958. National Standard of Canada CAN/CSA-Q850-97 “Risk management :Guideline for decision-makers”, Canadian Standards Association, ISSN 0317-5669, 19979. “Guidelines on risk issues”, The Engineering Council, London, ISBN 0-9516611-7-5, 199510. HM Treasury “Risk Guidance Note”, HMSO, London, June 1994.11. HM Treasury Central Unit on Procurement – CUP Guidance Number 41“Managing risk and contingency for works projects”, HMSO, London, 1993 12. Godfrey P.S. “Control of risk – A guide to the systematic management of riskfrom construction”, CIRIA, London, ISBN 0-86017-441-7, 199613. Institute of Risk Management, Lloyd’s Avenue House, 6 Lloyd’s Avenue,London EC3N 3AX, UK, tel +44(0)171.709.980814. Association for Project Management, 150 West Wycombe Road, HighWycombe, Bucks HP12 3AE, UK, tel +44(0)1494.44009015. Project Management Institute, 130 South State Road, Upper Darby, PA 19082,USA, tel +001.610.734.333016. Simon P.W., Hillson D.A. & Newland K.E. (eds.) “Project Risk Analysis &Management Guide”, APM Group, High Wycombe, Bucks UK, ISBN 0-9531590-0-0, 199717. Chapman C.B. & Ward S.C. “Project risk management : processes, techniquesand insights”, John Wiley, Chichester, Sussex UK, ISBN 0-471-95804-2,199718. “A Guide to the Project Management Body of Knowledge”, ProjectManagement Institute, Upper Darby USA, ISBN 1-880410-12-5, 199619. “Continuous Risk Management Guidebook”, Software Engineering Institute,Carnegie Mellon University, USA, 199620. Hillson D.A. (1997) “Towards a Risk Maturity Model”, Int J Project &Business Risk Mgt, 1 (1), 35-4521. “The Risk Maturity Model was a concept of, and was originally developed by,HVR Consulting Services Limited in 1997. All rights in the Risk MaturityModel belong to HVR Consulting Services Limited.”22. “Project Management Capability Maturity Model” project, PMI StandardsCommittee, Project Management Institute, 130 South State Road, UpperDarby, PA 19082, USA. Details from Marge Combe,be@.23. 11th Software Engineering Process Group Conference : SEPG99, Atlanta, 8-11March 1999 (themes include risk capability maturity models)24. Stader J. (1997) “An intelligent system for bid management”, Int J Project &Business Risk Mgt, 1 (3), 299-31425. Brander J. & Dawe M. (1997) “Use of constraint reasoning to integrate riskanalysis with project planning”, Int J Project & Business Risk Mgt, 1 (4),417-43226. CCTA, “Management of Programme Risk”, HMSO, London, ISBN 0-11-330672-5, 199527. “Financial Reporting of Risk – Proposals for a statement of business risk”,The Institute of Chartered Accountants in England & Wales, 199828. Oldfield A. & Ocock M. (1997) “Managing project risks : the relevance ofhuman factors”, Int J Project & Business Risk Mgt, 1 (2), 99-10929. Kahneman D., Slovic P. & Tversky A. (eds.) “Judgement under uncertainty :Heuristics and biases”, CUP, Cambridge, 198230. Research by M Greenwood (personal communication, 1997), BurroughsHouse Associates, Middlezoy, Somerset, UK.。

英文作文如何组织思想英文，Organizing thoughts for an English essay can seem daunting at first, but with a few simple steps, it can become much easier. Firstly, it is important to have aclear understanding of the prompt or topic. This will helpto guide your thoughts and ensure that your essay stays on track. Next, brainstorming is a great way to generate ideas. This can be done by creating a mind map, writing a list, or even just talking out loud. Once you have a list of ideas,it is important to prioritize them and decide which onesare most relevant to your topic.After prioritizing your ideas, it is time to create an outline. An outline is a roadmap for your essay and helpsto organize your thoughts into a logical structure. It should include an introduction, body paragraphs, and a conclusion. Each paragraph should have a clear topic sentence, supporting evidence, and a transition to the next paragraph.When it comes to writing the essay, it is important to remember to stay focused on the topic. Avoid going off on tangents or including irrelevant information. Use clear and concise language and avoid using overly complex vocabulary. Finally, proofread your essay to ensure that it is freefrom errors and flows smoothly.中文，为英文作文组织思路可能一开始会感到很困难，但是通过几个简单的步骤，它可以变得更容易。