language and writing语法重难点讲解

高三英语学法指导与语法难点(一)撰稿：李俊和编审：毕勤责编：隋瑜一高考英语试题的主要特点如果你想在高考中取得好成绩，总复习确有成效，你就必须对高考试题的主要特点有一个清楚的了解。

试题的基本难度不变2005年的英语试题在题型，难度，测试范围，及区分度上都将与前几年一致，因为无论全国试题或地方自命试题都是按考试大纲命制的。

随着新教材的使用和新课标的执行，过三四年后高考肯定会有大的变化，但2005年不会。

这就使高三师生在备考时有了明确的方向。

想了解高考吗？请读读考试大纲和2001年至2004年的高考试题吧。

重视实际使用英语能力的考核。

现在的高考主要考查语言运用，即在实际生活中听说读写的能力。

换句话说，如果你的听力好，阅读强，写作也不错那在2005年的英语高考中就能拿一个高分。

如果你只知道一些语法知识的细枝末节，而听、读、写都没怎么练，那你在高考中肯定是英雄无用武之地，分数上不去。

突出语篇的作用，在活的情景中考查。

所谓突出语篇的作用，即通过语篇考查听、读、写的能力，而不是孤立地、无上下文的单句式的考查。

4.考英语还要考思维能力和综合文化素质英语卷不仅仅在考英语，几乎每一个试题都渗透着对观察、分析、记忆、想象，推理，判断和综合能力的测试，以及对学生全面文化素质的考查。

试卷中主要试题都是在对话和短文中进行考核的，都有具体的语境，都需要分析，推测和概括。

所以，只会死背句型，不善推理判断，记忆不准确，知识面又窄，这样的学生在高考面前就会显得力不从心。

5．阅读理解能力是重点检查的能力高考对英语听说读写诸项能力的测试并非均衡对待，而是按照教学大纲的要求，突出了对阅读能力的测试。

这不仅表现在阅读理解题在试卷中占的比重最大（40分），还表现在阅读能力是决定听力，完形填空、书面表达、单项填空等题型答题效果的最基本的能力。

强调对阅读的检测也符合中国人学习英语的规律。

阅读是目前中国人学习英语的主要方式，阅读又是获取较综合，较复杂，较深刻信息的手段，突出考察阅读能力是完全正确的。

语言学概论》重、难点提示Questions & Answers on Key Points of Linguistics《英语语言学概论》重、难点问与答1.1. What is language?“Language is system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication. It is a system, since linguistic elements are arranged systematically, rather than randomly. Arbitrary, in the sense that there is usually no intrinsic connection between a work (like “book”) and the object it refers to. This explains and is explained by the fact that different languages have different “books”: “book” in English, “livre” in French, in Japanese, in Chinese, “check” in Korean. It is symbolic, because words are associated with objects, actions, ideas etc. by nothing but convention. Namely, people use the sounds or vocal forms to symbolize what they wish to refer to. It is vocal, because sound or speech is the primary medium for all human languages, developed or “new”. Writing systems came much later than the spoken forms. The fact that small children learn and can only learn to speak (and listen) before they write (and read) also indicates that language is primarily vocal, rather than written. The term “human” in the definition is meant to specify that language is human specific.1.2. What are design features of language?“Design features” here refer to the defin ing properties of human language that tell the difference between human language and any system of animal communication. They are arbitrariness, duality, productivity, displacement, cultural transmission and interchangeability1.3. What is arbitrariness?By “arbitrariness”, we mean there is no logical connection between meanings and sounds (see I .1).A dog might be a pig if only the first person or group of persons had used it for a pig. Language is therefore largely arbitrary. But language is not absolutely seem to be some sound-meaning association, if we think of echo words, like “bang”, “crash”, “roar”, which are motivated in a certain sense. Secondly, some compounds (words compounded to be one word) are not entirely arbitrary either. “Type” and “write” are opaque or unmotivated words, while “type-writer” is less so, or more transparent or motivated than the words that make it. So we can say “arbitrariness” is a matter of degree.1.4.What is duality?Linguists refer “duality” (of structure) to the fac t that in all languages so far investigated, one finds two levels of structure or patterning. At the first, higher level, language is analyzed in terms of combinations of meaningful units (such as morphemes, words etc.); at the second, lower level, it is seen as a sequence of segments which lack any meaning in themselves, but which combine to form units of meaning. According to Hu Zhanglin et al. (p.6), language is a system of two sets of structures, one of sounds and the other of meaning. This is important for the workings of language.A small number of semantic units (words), and these units of meaning can be arranged and rearranged into an infinite number of sentences (note that we have dictionaries of words, but no dictionary of sentences!). Duality makes it possible for a person to talk about anything within his knowledge. No animal communication system enjoys this duality, or even approaches this honor.1.5.What is productivity?Productivity refers to the ability to the ability to construct and understand an indefinitely large number of sentences in one‟s native language, including those that has never heard before, but that are appropriate to the speaking situation. No one has ever said or heard “A red-eyed elephant is dancing on the small hotel bed wi th an African gibbon”, but he can say it when necessary, and he can understand it in right register. Different from artistic creativity, though, productivity never goes outside the language, thus also called “rule-bound creativity” (by N.Chomsky).1.6.What is displacement?“Displacement”, as one of the design features of the human language, refers to the fact that one can talk about things that are not present, as easily as he does things present. In other words, one can refer to real and unreal things, things of the past, of the present, of the future. Language itself can be talked about too. When a man, for example, is crying to a woman, about something, it might be something that had occurred, or something that is occurring, or something that is to occur. When a dog is barking, however, you can decide it is barking for something or at someone that exists now and there. It couldn‟t be bow wowing sorrowfully for dome lost love or a bone to be lost. The bee‟s system, nonetheless, has a small share of “displacement”, but it is an unspeakable tiny share.1.7.What is cultural transmission?This means that language is not biologically transmitted from generation to generation, but that the details of the linguistic system must be learned anew by each speaker. It is true that the capacity for language in human beings (N. Chomsky called it “language acquisition device”, or LAD) has a genetic basis, but the particular language a person learns to speak is a cultural one other than a genetic one like the dog‟s barking system. If a human being is brought up in isolation he cannot acquire language. The Wolf Child reared by the pack of wolves turned out to speak the wolf‟s roaring “tongue” when he was saved. He learned thereafter, with no small difficulty, the ABC of a certain human language.1.8.What is interchangeability?(1) Interchangeability means that any human being can be both a producer and a receiver of messages. We can say, and on other occasions can receive and understand, for example, “Please do something to make me happy.” Though some people (including me) suggest that there is sex differentiation in the actual language use, in other words, men and women may say different things, yet in principle there is no sound, or word or sentence that a man can utter and a woman cannot, or vice versa. On the other hand, a person can be the speaker while the other person is the listener and as the turn moves on to the listener, he can be the speaker and the first speaker is to listen. It is turn-taking that makes social communication possible and acceptable.(2) Some male birds, however, utter some calls, which females do not (or cannot?), and certain kinds of fish have similar haps mentionable. When a dog barks, all the neighboring dogs bark. Then people around can h ardly tell which dog (dogs) is (are0 “speaking” and which listening.1.9.Why do linguists say language is human specific?First of all, human language has six “design features” which animal communication systems donot have, at least not in the true sense of them (see I .2-8). Let‟s borrow C. F. Hocket‟s Chart that compares human language with some animals‟ systems, from Wang Gang (1998,p.8). Secondly, linguists have done a lot trying to teach animals such as chimpanzees to speak a human language but have achieved nothing inspiring. Beatnice and Alan Gardner brought up Washoe, a female chimpanzee, like a human child. She was taught “American sign Language”, and learned a little that made the teachers happy but did mot make the linguistics circle happy, for few believed in teaching chimpanzees.Thirdly, a human child reared among animals cannot speak a human language, not even when he is taken back and taught to lo to so (see the “Wolf Child”in I.7)1.10.What functions does language have?Language has at least seven functions: phatic, directive, Informative, interrogative, expressive, evocative and per formative. According to Wang Gang (1988,p.11), language has three main functions: a tool of communication, a tool whereby people learn about the world, and a tool by which people learn about the world, and a tool by which people create art. M .A. K.Halliday, representative of the London school, recognizes three “Macro-Functions”: ideational, interpersonal and textual (see! 11-17;see HU Zhuanglin et al., pp10-13, pp394-396).1. 11What is the phatic function?The “phatic function” refers to language being used for setting up a certain atmosphere or maintaining social contacts (rather than for exchanging information or ideas). Greetings, farewells, and comments on the weather in English and on clothing in Chinese all serve this function. Much of the phatic language (e.g. “How are you?” “Fine, thanks.”) Is insincere if taken literally, but it is important. If you don't say “Hello” to a friend you meet, or if you don‟t answer his “Hi”, you ruin your friendship.1.12. What is the directive function?The “directive function” means that language may be used to get the hearer to do something. Most imperative sentences perform this function, e.g., “Tell me the result when you finish.” Other syntactic structures or sentences of other sorts can, according to J.Austin and J.Searle‟s “indirect speech act theory”(see Hu Zhuanglin et al., pp271-278) at least, serve the purpose of direction too, e.g., “If I were you, I would have blushed to the bottom of my ears!”1.13.What is the informative function?Language serves an “informational function” when used to tell something, characterized by the use of declarative sentences. Informative statements are often labeled as true (truth) or false (falsehood). According to P.Grice‟s “Cooperative Principle”(see Hu Zhuanglin et al., pp282-283), one ought not to violate the “Maxim of Quality”, when he is informing at all.1.14.What is the interrogative function?When language is use d to obtain information, it serves an “interrogative function”. This includes all questions that expect replies, statements, imperatives etc., according to the “indirect speech act theory”, may have this function as well, e.g., “I‟d like to know you better.” This may bring forth a lot of personal information. Note that rhetorical questions make an exception, since they demandno answer, at least not the reader‟s/listener‟s answer.1.15.What is the expressive function?The “expressive function” is the use o f language to reveal something about the feelings or attitudes of the speaker. Subconscious emotional ejaculations are good examples, like “Good heavens!” “My God!” Sentences like “I‟m sorry about the delay” can serve as good examples too, though in a subtle way. While language is used for the informative function to pass judgment on the truth or falsehood of statements, language used for the expressive function evaluates, appraises or asserts the speaker‟s own attitudes.1.16.What is the evocative function?The “evocative function” is the use of language to create certain feelings in the hearer. Its aim is, for example, to amuse, startle, antagonize, soothe, worry or please. Jokes (not practical jokes, though) are supposed to amuse or entertain the listener; advertising to urge customers to purchase certain commodities; propaganda to influence public opinion. Obviously, the expressive and the evocative functions often go together, i.e., you may express, for example, your personal feelings about a political issue but end up by evoking the same feeling in, or imposing it on, your listener. That‟s also the case with the other way round.1.17.What is the per formative function?This means people speak to “do things” or perform actions. On certain occasions the utterance itself as an action is more important than what words or sounds constitute the uttered sentence. When asked if a third Y angtze Bridge ought to be built in Wuhan, the mayor may say, “OK”, which means more than speech, and more than an average social individual may do for the construction. The judge‟s imprisonment sentence, the president‟s war or independence declaration, etc., are per formatives as well (see J.Austin‟s speech Act Theory, Hu Zhuanglin, ecal.pp271-278).1.18.What is linguistics?“Linguistics” is the scientific study of language. It studies not just one language of any one society, but also the language of all human beings. A linguist, though, does not have to know and use a large number of languages, but to investigate how each language is constructed. He is also concerned with how a language varies from dialect to dialect, from class to class, how it changes from century to century, how children acquire their mother tongue, and perhaps how a person learns or should learn a foreign language. In short, linguistics studies the general principles whereupon all human languages are constructed and operate as systems of communication in their societies or communities (see Hu Zhuanglin et al., pp20-22)1.19.What makes linguistics a science?Since linguistics is the scientific study of language, it ought to base itself upon the systematic, investigation of language data, which aims at discovering the true nature of language and its underlying system. To make sense of the data, a linguist usually has conceived some hypotheses about the language structure, to be checked against the observed or observable facts. In order to make his analysis scientific, a linguist is usually guided by four principles: exhaustiveness, consistency, and objectivity. Exhaustiveness means he should gather all the materials relevant tothe study and give them an adequate explanation, in spite of the complicatedness. He is to leave no linguistic “stone” unturned. Consistency means there should be no contradiction between different parts of the total statement. Economy means a linguist should pursue brevity in the analysis when it is possible. Objectivity implies that since some people may be subjective in the study, a linguist should be (or sound at least) objective, matter-of-face, faithful to reality, so that his work constitutes part of the linguistics research.1.20.What are the major branches of linguistics?The study of language as a whole is often called general linguistics (e.g.Hu Zhuanglin et al., 1988;Wang Gang, 1988). But a linguist sometimes is able to deal with only one aspect of language at a time, thus the arise of various branches: phonetics, phonology, morphology, syntax, semantics, sociolinguistics, applied linguistics, pragmatics, psycholinguistics, lexic ology, lexicography, etymology, etc.1.21.What are synchronic and diachronic studies?The des cription of a language at some point of time (as if it stopped developing) is a synchrony study (synchrony). The des cription of a language as it changes through time is a diachronic study (diachronic). An essay entitled “On the Use of THE”, for example, may be synchronic, if the author does not recall the past of THE, and it may also be diachronic if he claims to cover a large range or period of time wherein THE has undergone tremendous alteration (see Hu Zhuanglin et al., pp25-27).1.22.What is speech and what is writing?(1) No one needs the repetition of the general principle of linguistic analysis, namely, the primacy of speech over writing. Speech is primary; because it existed long long before writing systems came into being. Genetically children learn to speak before learning to write. Secondly, written forms just represent in this way or that the speech sounds: individual sounds, as in English and French as in Japanese.(2) In contrast to speech, spoken form of language, writing as written codes, gives language new scope and use that speech does not have. Firstly, messages can be carried through space so that people can write to each other. Secondly, messages can be carried through time thereby, so that people of our time can be carried through time thereby, so that people of our time can read Beowulf, Samuel Johnson, and Edgar A. Poe. Thirdly, oral messages are readily subject to distortion, either intentional or unintentional (causing misunderstanding or malentendu), while written messages allow and encourage repeated unalterable reading.(3) Most modern linguistic analysis is focused on speech, different from grammarians of the last century and theretofore.1.23.What are the differences between the des criptive and the pres criptive approaches?A linguistic study is “des criptive” if it only describes and analyses the facts of language, and “pres criptive” if it tries to lay down rules for “correct” language behavior. Linguistic studies before this century were largely pres criptive because many early grammars were largely pres criptive because many early grammars were based on “high” (literary or religious) written records. Modern linguistics is mostly des criptive, however. It (the latter) believes that whatever occurs innatural speech (hesitation, incomplete utterance, misunderstanding, etc.) should be described in the analysis, and not be marked as incorrect, abnormal, corrupt, or lousy. These, with changes in vocabulary and structures, need to be explained also.1.24.What is the difference between langue and parole?F. De Saussure refers “langue”to the abstract linguistic system shared by all the members of a speech community and refers “parole” to the actual or actualized language, or the realization of langue. Langue is abstract, parole specific to the speaking situation; langue not actually spoken by an individual, parole always a naturally occurring event; langue relatively stable and systematic, parole is a mass of confused facts, thus not suitable for systematic investigation. What a linguist ought to do, according to Saussure, is to abstract langue from instances of parole, I. e. to discover the regularities governing all instances of parole and make than the subject of linguistics. The langue-parole distinction is of great importance, which casts great influence on later linguists.1.25.What is the difference between competence and performance?(1) According to N. Chomsky, “competence” is the ideal language user‟s knowledge of the rules of his language, and “performance” is the actual realization of this knowledge in utterances. The former enables a speaker to produce and understand an indefinite number of sentences and to recognize gr ammatical mistakes and ambiguities. A speaker‟s competence is stable while his performance is often influenced by psychological and social factors. So a speaker‟s performance does not always match or equal his supposed competence.(2) Chomsky believes that linguists ought to study competence, rather than performance. In other words, they should discover what an ideal speaker knows of his native language.(3) Chomsky‟s competence-performance distinction is not exactly the same as, though similar to, F. de Saussure‟s langue-parole distinction. Langue is a social product, and a set of conventions for a community, while competence is deemed as a property of the mind of each individual. Sussure looks at language more from a sociological or sociolinguistic point of view than N. Chomsky since the latter deals with his issues psychologically or psycholinguistically.1.26.What is linguistic potential? What is actual linguistic behavior?M. A. K. Halliday made these two terms, or the potential-behavior distinction, in the 1960s, from a functional point of view. There is a wide range of things a speaker can do in his culture, and similarly there are many things he can say, for example, to many people, on many topics. What he actually says (i.e. his “actual linguistic behavior”) on a certain occasion to a certain person is what he has chosen from many possible injustice items, each of which he could have said (linguistic potential).1.27.In what way do language, competence and linguistic potential agree? In what way do they differ? And their counterparts?Langue, competence and linguistic potential have some similar features, but they are innately different (see 1.25). Langue is a social product, and a set of speaking conventions; competence is a property or attribu te of each ideal speaker‟s mind; linguistic potential is all the linguistic corpus or repertoire available from which the speaker chooses items for the actual utterance situation. In other words, langue is invisible but reliable abstract system. Competence means “knowing”, andlinguistic potential a set of possibilities for “doing” or “performing actions”. They are similar in that they all refer to the constant underlying the utterances that constitute what Saussure, Chomsky and Halliday respectively called parole, performance and actual linguistic behavior. Paole, performance and actual linguistic behavior enjoy more similarities than differences.1.28.What is phonetics?“Phonetics” is the science which studies the characteristics of human sound-making, especially those sounds used in speech, and provides methods for their des cription, classification and trans cription (see Hu Zhuanglin et al., pp39-40), speech sounds may be studied in different ways, thus by three different branches of phonetics. (1) Articulatory phonetics; the branch of phonetics that examines the way in which a speech sound is produced to discover which vocal organs are involved and how they coordinate in the process. (2) Auditory phonetics, the branch of phonetic research from the heare r‟s point of view, looking into the impression which a speech sound makes on the hearer as mediated by the ear, the auditory nerve and the brain. (3) Acoustic phonetics: the study of the physical properties of speech sounds, as transmitted between mouth and ear.Most phoneticians, however, are interested in articulator phonetics.1.29.How are the vocal organs formed?The vocal organs (see Figure1, Hu Zhuanglin et al., p41), or speech organs, are organs of the human body whose secondary use is in the production of speech sounds. The vocal organs can be considered as consisting of three parts; the initiator of the air-stream, the producer of voice and the resonating cavities.1.30.What is place of articulation?It refers to the place in the mouth where, for example, the obstruction occurs, resulting in the utterance of a consonant. Whatever sound is pronounced, at least some vocal organs will get involved. g. Lips, hard palate etc., so a consonant may be one of the following (1) bilabial: [p, b, m]; (2) labiodental: [f, v]; (3) dental: [,]; (4) alveolar: [t, d, l, n.s, z]; (5) retroflex; (6) palato-alveolar: [,]; (7) palatal: [j]; (8) velar [k, g,]; (9) uvular; (10) glottal: [h].Some sounds involve the simultaneous use of two places of articulation. For example, the English [w] has both an approximation of the two lips and those two lips and that of the tongue and the soft palate, and may be termed “labial-velar”.1.31.What is the manner of articulation?The “manner of articulation” literally means the way a sound is articulated. At a given place of articulation, the airstreams may be obstructed in various ways, resulting in various manners of articulation, are the following: (1) plosive: [p, b, t, d, k, g]; (2) nasal: [m, n,]; (3) trill; (4) tap or flap; (5) lateral: [l]; (6) fricative: [f, v, s, z]; (7) approximant: [w, j]; (8) affricate: [].1.32.How do phoneticians classify vowels?Phoneticians, in spite of the difficulty, group vowels in 5 types: (1) long and short vowels, e.g.,[i:,];(4) rounded and unround vowels,e.g.[,i]; (5) pure and gliding vowels, e.g.[I,].1.33.What is IPA? When did it come into being ?The IPA, abbreviation of “International Phonetic Alphabet”, is a compromise system making use of symbols of all sources, including diacritics indicating length, stress and intonation, indicating phonetic variation. Ever since it was developed in 1888, IPA has undergone a number of revisions.1.34.What is narrow trans cription and what is broad trans cription?In handbook of phonetics, Henry Sweet m ade a distinction between “narrow” and “broad” trans criptions, which he called “Narrow Romic”. The former was meant to symbolize all the possible speech sounds, including even the most minute shades of pronunciation while Broad Romic or trans cription was intended to indicate only those sounds capable of distinguishing one word from another in a given language.1.35.What is phonology? What is difference between phonetics and phonology?(1) “Phonology” is the study of sound systems- the invention of distinctive speech sounds that occur in a language and the patterns wherein they fall. Minimal pair, phonemes, allophones, free variation, complementary distribution, etc., are all to be investigated by a phonologist.(2) Phonetics, as discussed in I.28, is the branch of linguistics studying the characteristics of speech sounds and provides methods for their des cription, classification and trans cription. A phonetist is mainly interested in the physical properties of the speech sounds, whereas a phonologist studies what he believes are meaningful sounds related with their semantic features, morphological features, and the way they are conceived and printed in the depth of the mind phonological knowledge permits a speaker to produce sounds which from meaningful utterances, to recognize a foreign “accent”, to make up new words, to add the appropriate phonetic segments to from plurals and past tenses, to know what is and what is not a sound in one‟s language.1.36.What is a phone? What is a phoneme? What is an allophone?(1) A “phone” is a phonetic unit or segment. The speech sounds we hear and produce during linguistic communication are all phones. When we hear the following words pronounced:[pit], [tip], [spit], etc., the similar phones we have heard are [p] for one thing, and three different[p]‟s, readily making possible the “narrow trans cription or diacritics”. Phones may and may not distinguish meaning. A “phoneme” is a phonological unit; it is a unit that is of distinctive value. As an abstract unit, a phoneme is not any particular sound, but rather it is represented or realized by a certain phone in a certain phonetic context. For example, the phoneme[p] is represented differently in [pit], [tip] and [spit].(2) The phones representing a phoneme ar e called its “allophones”, i. e., the different (i.e., phones) but do not make one word so phonetically different as to create a new word or a new meaning thereof. So the different[p]‟s in the above words are the allophones of the same phoneme[p]. How a phoneme is represented by a phone, or which allophone is to be used, is determined by the phonetic context in which it occurs. But the choice of an allophone is not random. In most cases it is rule-governed; these rules are to be found out by a phonologist.1.37.What are minimal pairs?When two different phonetic forms are identical in every way except for one sound segment which occurs in the same place in the string , the two forms(i. e., word) are supposed to form a “minimal pair”, e.g., “pill” and “bill”, “pill” and “till”, “till” and “dill”, “till” and “kill”, etc. All these wordstogether constitute a minimal set. They are identical in form except for the initial consonants. There are many minimal pairs in English, which makes it relatively easy to know what are English phonemes. It is of great importance to find the minimal pairs when a phonologist is dealing with the sound system of an unknown language(see Hu Zhuanglin et al., pp65-66).1.38.What is free variation?If two sounds occurring in the same environment do not contrast; namely, if the substitution of one for the other does not generate a new word form but merely a different pronunciation of the same word, the two sounds then are said to be in “free variation”. The plosives, for example, may no t be exploded when they occur before another plosive or a nasal (e. g., act, apt, good morning). The minute distinctions may, if necessary, be transcribed in diacritics. These unexploded and exploded plosives are in free variation. Sounds in free variation should be assigned to the same phoneme.1.39.What is complementary distribution?When two sounds never occur in the same environment, they are in “complementary distribution”. For example, the aspirated English plosives never occur after[s], and the unsaturated ones never occur initially. Sounds in complementary distribution may be assigned to the same phoneme. The allophones of[l], for example, are also in complementary distribution. The clear[l] occurs only before a vowel, the voiceless equivalent of[l] occurs only after a voiceless consonant, such as in the words “please”, “butler”, “clear”, etc., and the dark[l] occurs only after a vowel or as a syllabic sound after a consonant, such as in the words “feel”, “help”, “middle”, etc.1.40.What is the assimilation rule? What is the deletion rule?(1) The “assimilation rule” assimilates one segment to another by “copying” a feature of a sequential phoneme, thus making the two phones more similar. This rule accounts for the raring pronunciation of the nasal[n] that occurs within a word. The rule is that within a word the nasal consonant[n] assumes the same place of articulation as the following consonant. The negative prefix “in-“ serves as a good example. It may be pronounced as [in], or [im] when occurring i n different phonetic contexts: e. g., indiscrete-[ ](alveolar)inconceivable-[ ](velar)input-[…imput](bilabial)The “deletion rule” tells us when a sound is to be deleted although is orthographically represented. While the letter “g” is mute in “sign”, “design” and “paradigm”, it is pronounced in their corresponding derivatives: “signature”, “designation” and “paradigmatic”. The rule then can be stated as: delete a [g] when it occurs before a final nasal consonant. This accounts for some of the seeming irregularities of the English spelling (see Dai Weidong ,pp22-23).1.41.What is suprasegmental phonology? What are suprasegmental features? “Suprasegmental phonology” refers to the study of phonological properties of linguistic units larger than the segment called phoneme, such as syllable, word and sentence.Hu Zhuanglin et al.,(p,73) includes stress, length and pitch as what they suppose to be “principal suprasegmental features”, calling the concurrent patterning of three “intonation”. Dai Weidong(pp23-25) lists three also, but they are stress, tone and intonation.。

听、说、读、写的常规教学模式及其注意问题一、听（Listening）（一）听前（Pre-listening）能让学生听懂和理解听力材料，要的一点是在听力训练前的导入上。

导入得法，不但能激发学生的学习兴趣和动机，而且降低了听力理解的难度。

导入旨在帮忙学生对所要听的材料有个粗浅的，给学生出有形的想象或猜想的空间，让学生在不知不觉入耳的状态。

导入要尽可能多样、有趣、让学生身临其境，动学生兴趣，把背景知识很自然的呈现给学生，这样以后再做听力，就会使学生更感兴趣。

（二）听中（While-listening）听中阶段让学生了解听力材料，再给学生设置不同的听力任务，如：指出文章的类型；总结中心思想；表格；回答问题；选择细节信息；论述结构等。

听力任务，不仅要让学生找出答案，更要让学生在练习中提高听力技能，还要培育学生解决听力问题的能力。

（三）听后（Post-listening）听后阶段是帮忙学习者把听力能力和语言能力综合运用的进程。

可以不同的听力材料和学生的英语水平设置不同的听后活动，例如：或辩论文中的问题；表达的观点；用的话来复述故事；写类似的一段文字等。

听后任务，来检查学生真正理解了听力原文，也能从中看出学生的语言综合运用能力。

（四）师生互动现代的教学中强调“学生为主体，教师为主导”的教学原则。

在多媒体网络环境下的英语听力课堂中，教师应角色，由传统课堂教学中的机械播音师或是答案的讲解者，转变成学习者的帮忙者。

听力教学中应把听说有机结合，以说促听，培育学生的交际能力。

交际入耳说是不可分的，相辅相成。

在听力课中，听说，可以改辩学生被悦耳的状况，使学生参加到听力课的教学中，激发学生的兴趣。

声音与形象，使语言信息与特定的情景相结合。

更有助于增进师生互动，更易激发学生的学习兴趣，有时一张幻灯片，就可以使课堂气氛大大改观，有利于学生感知教学内容，培育语言能力。

教师要多采用视听、听说的多维交互教学方式施教。

（五）听力材料1.教材选择此刻听力教材，真正能够使学生听懂的教材并非多，而且听力教材的选择不该只注重听力材料，还要使说融入，最近几年出版的视听说教材与单一的听力教材相较更受学生的欢迎。

名词解释Syntactic function/ predicate/ performance/ tone/ semi-vowels/ minimal pairs/ intonation/ competence/ proposition/ cognitionMinimal pair, semi vowels, tone, intonation, competence, performance, predicate, syntactic function, proposition, cognition, conceptual metaphors, image schemas, hyponymy, endocentric construction, inflection Minimal pair refers to a pair of words, as pin and bin, or sheep and ship, differing only by one sound in the same position in each wordSemi-vowels The segments are neither vowels nor consonants but midway between the two categories.Intonation the occurrence of recurring fall-rise patterns, each of which is used with a set of relatively consistent meanings, either on single words or on groups of words of varying length. Tone a set of fall-rise patterns affecting the meanings of individual words.Predicate refers to a major constituent of sentence structure in binary analysis in which all obligatory constituents other than the subject were considered together.A language user’s underlying knowledge about the system ofrules is called his linguistic competence.Performance refers to the actual use of language in concrete situation.Syntactic function shows the relationship between a linguistic form and other parts of the linguistic pattern in which it is used. Cognition In psychology it is used to refer to the mental processes of an individual, with particular relation to a view that argues that the mind has internal mental states and can be understood in terms of information processing, especially when a lot of abstraction or concretization is involved, or processes such as involving knowledge, expertise or learning for example are at work. In cognitive linguistics, cognition refers to the conceptualization of linguistic structures and patterns.A proposition is what is expressed by a declarative sentence when that sentence is uttered to make a statement.Chapter 1Design feature of languageArbitrariness1.bowwow 汪汪2.Syntactic level 有句法顺序3.Convention 约定俗成为什么树叫树而不是别的Duality1.底层构建上层Creativity/productivity1.duality 不同地层结构可以组成很多上层结构2.Recursiveness 句子可以无限长Displacement1.不受限制，可以谈论过去/未来，真的/假的Functions of languageHalliday —— ideational，interpersonal，textual◆Informative function 语言用于表达一个概念或内容◆Interpersonal function◆Performative function （change social status如结婚词，定罪词，表达动作，我让你去关门）◆Emotive function 感叹词（damn it）◆Phatic communion 寒暄功能（问你吃了吗，并不真的问吃了没）◆Recreational function 写诗陶冶情操◆Metalingual function 用语言解释语言（词典中，一个词下很多释义）Important distinctions in linguistics◆Descriptive VS prescriptive尊重语言事实，客观描述约定俗成的现在更关注descriptive◆Langue & Parole （更倾向于parole）Saussure 提出（社会角度）Langue 语言（抽象）parole 从小生活在某个社区影响的语言◆Competence & performance （心理角度）Chomsky提出天生具备的语言能力依据参数规则转化出所说所写A knowledge of grammar, to incorporate the pragmatic communicative competence --communicative competenceChapter 2Gesture -- movements of the tongue and the lipsVoiceless consonants-- air can pass through easilyvoiced consonants -- airstream causes them to vibrate against each otherConsonants and vowels 区别（obstruction of airstream）元音不受阻P32, 33 图（⚠）例如：voiceless bilabial stopVoiced bilabial stopVoiceless alveolar fricativeVoiceless velar stopGlottal, palatal, lateral, affricative, approximant例如：high front tense unrounded vowelHigh back lax rounded vowelPhonemes: refers to a unit of explicit sound contrast; the existence of a minimal pair automatically grants phonemic status to the sounds responsible for the contrasts.Allophones 音位变体「p」「ph」都是/p/的音位变体，且二者为互补分配（complementary distribution）Assimilation 同化（受周边影响）Nasalization （cap-can）Dentalization （tent-tenth）Velarization （since-sink）Regressive Assimilation （逆同化，后者受前者影响）progressive Assimilation （相反）Rule ordering冠词规则：The elsewhere conditionThe more specific rule supplies first （最特殊的规则最先用）SyllableNucleus 一般为元音Maximal onset principle (MOP) 最大节首原则如：telling /l/ 划分到节首(ling 的节首)Intonation and toneIntonation-- fall-rise tonesChinese is tone language.Tone sandhi 连续变调你好（你变三声）Obligatory contour principle (OCP) {identical adjacent elements are not allowed}Chapter3Morpheme◆Free Morpheme 可以独立存在◆Bound Morpheme 不可以Stem=root+（Bound Morpheme）如：cat 的stem和root都是catRoot：nature stem：naturalAffix - prefix，suffix，infix（-um-），circumfix（gr--t）Allomorphs同位异形体in-，ir-，im-都有表示否定，但因为phonological requirement 而区别开Lexeme 词位Walk - lexeme；walked，walking - word formContent words（open class words）and function words（closed class words）◆Derivation （lexeme+affix）◆Compounding （lexeme+lexeme）Attributive compound（windmill）wind修饰millCoordinative compound （teacher-student）并列Subordinative compound （truck-driver）左名词，右动词变形存在（drive变driver）即synthetic compound；不存在即root compoundInflection 曲折构词曲折词缀主要是表达不同的语法关系或语法范畴，如数、时、格等。

语言学考试复习重难点Chapter one Introduction一、定义1.语言学LinguisticsLinguistics is generally defined as the scientific study of language.2.普通语言学General LinguisticsThe study of language as a whole is often called General linguistics.3.语言languageLanguage is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication.语言是人类用来交际的任意性的有声符号体系。

4.识别特征Design FeaturesIt refers to the defining properties of human language that distinguish it from any animal system of communication.语言识别特征是指人类语言区别与其他任何动物的交际体系的限定性特征。

Arbitrariness任意性Productivity多产性Duality双重性Displacement移位性Cultural transmission文化传递⑴arbitrarinessThere is no logical connection between meanings and sounds.P.S the arbitrary nature of language is a sign of sophistication and it makes it possible for language to have an unlimited source of expressions⑵ProductivityAnimals are quite limited in the messages they are able to send.⑶DualityLanguage is a system, which consists of two sets of structures ,or two levels.⑷DisplacementLanguage can be used to refer to contexts removed from the immediate situations of the speaker.⑸Cultural transmissionHuman capacity for language has a genetic basis, but we have to be taught and learned the details of any language system. this showed that language is culturally transmitted. not by instinct. animals are born with the capacity to produce the set of calls peculiar to their species.5.语言能力CompetenceCompetence is the ideal user’s knowledge of the rules of his language.6.语言运用performancePerformance is the actual realization of this knowledge in linguistic communication.语言运用是所掌握的规则在语言交际中的体现。

语法重难点详解与应用语法是语言学习的重点和难点，良好的语法掌握能力对于语言表达的准确性和流畅性起到至关重要的作用。

本文将围绕语法学习中的重难点展开详细的解析，并提供相应的应用示例。

一、主谓一致规则主谓一致是指主语和谓语在人称、数和时态上保持一致。

这是语法学习中的一个常见难点。

当主语为单数形式时，谓语动词需要使用单数形式；当主语为复数形式时，谓语动词需要使用复数形式。

下面是一些常见的主谓一致规则示例：1.当主语是第三人称单数时，谓语动词需用单数形式。

例：She plays the piano every day.（她每天弹钢琴。

）2.当主语是由each，every，no，neither，either等修饰时，谓语动词需用单数形式。

例：Each student has a pen.（每个学生都有一支钢笔。

）3.当主语由and连接时，谓语动词需用复数形式。

例：Tom and Jerry are good friends.（汤姆和杰瑞是好朋友。

）二、时态的正确运用正确使用时态是语法学习中另一个重要的难点。

时态的正确使用可以使语言表达更加准确和清晰。

下面是一些常见的时态使用规则示例：1.一般现在时用于经常性和客观事实的陈述。

例：Water boils at 100 degrees Celsius.（水在100摄氏度时沸腾。

）2.一般过去时用于过去发生的动作或状态。

例：I visited my grandparents last weekend.（我上周末去拜访了我的祖父母。

）3.将来时用于表示将来发生的动作或状态。

例：We will have a meeting tomorrow.（我们明天要开会。

）三、动词时态和语态的转换动词时态和语态的转换是语法学习中的难点之一。

正确的转换可以使语言表达更加丰富和准确。

下面是一些常见的动词时态和语态的转换示例：1.将一般现在时转换为一般过去时，需将动词原形变为过去式。

英语语言学概论重难点第一章语言的性质语言的定义：语言的基本特征（任意性、二重性、多产性、移位、文化传递和互换性）；语言的功能（寒暄、指令、提供信息、询问、表达主观感情、唤起对方的感情和言语行为）；语言的起源（神授说，人造说，进化说）等。

第二章语言学语言学定义；研究语言的四大原则（穷尽、一致、简洁、客观）；语言学的基本概念（口语与书面语、共时与历时、语言与言学、语言能力与言行运用、语言潜势与语言行为）；普通语言学的分支（语音、音位、语法、句法、语义）；；语言学的应用（语言学与语言教学、语言与社会、语言与文字、语言与心理学、人类语言学、神经语言学、数理语言学、计算语言学）等。

第三章语音学发音器官的英文名称；英语辅音的发音部位和发音方法；语音学的定义；发音语音学；听觉语音学；声学语音学；元音及辅音的分类；严式与宽式标音等。

第四章音位学音位理论；最小对立体；自由变异；互补分布；语音的相似性；区别性特征；超语段音位学；音节；重音（词重音、句子重音、音高和语调）等。

第五章词法学词法的定义；曲折词与派生词；构词法（合成与派生）；词素的定义；词素变体；自由词素；粘着词素（词根，词缀和词干）等。

第六章词汇学词的定义；语法词与词汇词；变词与不变词；封闭词与开放词；词的辨认；习语与搭配。

第七章句法句法的定义；句法关系；结构；成分；直接成分分析法；并列结构与从属结构；句子成分；范畴（性，数，格）；一致；短语，从句，句子扩展等。

第八章语义学语义的定义；语义的有关理论；意义种类（传统、功能、语用）；里奇的语义分类；词汇意义关系（同义、反义、下义）；句子语义关系。

第九章语言变化语言的发展变化（词汇变化、语音书写文字、语法变化、语义变化）；第十章语言、思维与文化语言与文化的定义；萨丕尔-沃夫假说；语言与思维的关系；语言与文化的关系；中西文化的异同。

第十一章语用学语用学的定义；语义学与语用学的区别；语境与意义；言语行为理论（言内行为、言外行为和言后行为）；合作原则。