管理沟通以案例分析为视角英文版第5版教辅文件Hershey Foods Teaching Note

P ERSUASIONC HAPTER 6Virtually all organizational communication includes some element of persuasion.I. The Human Belief System: Two Schools of ThoughtA. Behaviorism1. Contends that human behavior will most clearly reveal what a person isthinking, and that persuasion is most effectively exercised at thebehavioral level.2. Emphasizes observable, measurable behavior and discounts the role orvalue of mental activity.3. Learning occurs when there is a measurable change in the frequency ofobservable events.4. If human behavior can be conditioned to respond to external influences, aninternal change in attitudes and beliefs may result.B. Cognitivism1. Cognitivists believe that it is possible to learn something without changingthe learner’s behavior.2. Knowledge is viewed as symbolic mental constructs in the learner’s mind,and the learning process is the means by which the symbolicrepresentations are committed to memory.3. Early cognitivist, Milton Rokeach, explored the human attitudinal system,examining the relationship among the elements that comprise our beliefsand the factors associated with attitudinal assimilation and behavioralchange.II. A Conceptual View of the Human Attitudinal SystemA. In Rokeach’s view of the human attitudinal system, three components help todefine what we believe, how we organize those beliefs, and how they influenceour day-to-day behavior.1. Beliefs are at the core of the system, are acquired early in life and are themost fundamental component of our values.2. Attitudes are outgrowths of our beliefs, are dependent on them and tendto be consistent with them.3. Opinions are among the least stable and are the most susceptible topersuasion.B. The Role of Beliefs, Attitudes, and Opinions1. Change in one layer may expose a more fundamental layer to re-examination, but will require no change in the more basic layer.2. Change in a basic layer will require change in all higher attitudinal layers.3. The more basic the change, the more profound the reordering throughoutthe system.4. The less rational the basis for adoption, the more difficult is the basis forchange in a given belief or attitude group.5. The c loser a structure is to the center of one’s belief system, the morecentral it becomes to one’s self-concept.III. Objectives of PersuasionA. Reinforcing positive opinion.B. Crystallizing latent opinion.C. Neutralizing hostile opinion.IV. Outcomes of PersuasionA. Reinforcement of existing attitudes.B. Modification or shifting of existing attitudes.C. Creation of new attitudes.V. The Science of PersuasionA. Liking. We tend to like those who like us, but we also tend to like those who arelike us.B. Reciprocity. People repay in kind, and expect to receive what they give.C. Social proof. People will follow the lead of similar others when they’re asked todo something.D. Consistency. People do what they say they will and appreciate staying withintheir own “comfort zone.”E. Authority. People readily defer to experts.F. Scarcity. The value of an object often rises as fewer become available.VI. Successful Attempts at PersuasionA. Gaining the attention of your audience.B. Providing the appropriate motivation for your audience.1. Human needs as motivationsa. Maslow’s Hierarchy of Human Needs1. Basic needs.2. Security needs.3. Belonging needs.4. Love or esteem needs.5. Self-actualization needs.b. ERG Theory1. Existence needs.2. Relatedness needs.3. Growth needs.c. Packard’s Eight Hidden Needs1. Need for emotional security.2. Need for reassurance of worth.3. Need for ego gratification.4. Need for creative outlets.5. Need for love objects.6. Need for a sense of power.7. Need for roots.8. Need for immortality.2. Relating needs theory to persuasive messagesa. A highly credible source gets a good response from a fear appeal.b. If a strong fear appeal threatens the welfare of a loved one, it tendsto be more effective than if it threatens the members of theaudience themselves.c. A strong fear appeal may be related to personality characteristicsof the audience.d. The arousal of fear in an audience seems to depend on thespeaker’s ability to convince the audience of the probability thatthe threat will materialize and the magnitude of the consequences.3. Social conformity as motivationa. Admired individuals.b. Peer groups.c. Societal norms.C. Channeling the motivation of your audience to take action1. Recommend a specific proposition or proposal.2. Show the high probability that the satisfactions will be forthcoming.D. Inducing resistance in the audience to counter-persuasion1. State opposing arguments and refute them.2. Encourage audience.3. Warn the audience that others will attempt to get them to change theirminds.VII. Should You Use a One-Sided Argument or Two?A. One-sided arguments work best:1. When the audience agrees with your position and your aim is simply tointensify agreement.2. When the audience is not well-educated or has relatively low self-esteem.3. When the audience will not later be exposed to any form of counter-persuasion.B. Two-sided arguments work best:1. When the audience initially disagrees with your proposal.2. When you know the audience will be exposed to subsequent counter-persuasion or propaganda.3. When the audience has a low level of knowledge or personal involvementwith the topic.4. When you hope to produce more enduring results.VIII. Managing Heads and Hearts to Change Behavioral HabitsA. You must create a new frame of reference through which information andmessages are interpreted.B. You must manage the emotions and expectations of your audience.C. You must provide constant reinforcement to prevent backsliding.IX. Being PersuasiveA. Know your audience.B. Know what you want and what they want.C. Select your evidence carefully.D. Keep the argument simple.E. Listen before you speak.F. Manage your emotions as well as theirs.G. Connect with your audience on a personal level.。

T ECHNOLOGYC HAPTER 7“Technology is a two-edged sword with the potential to make us more productive,or to drain away our time.”I. Life in the Digital AgeA. It’s quicker, cheaper and easier to ship electrons (as in e-mail attachments) than it isto ship atoms and molecules (as in FedEx overnight packages).B. The way we work and live has changed. We can find anyone with a cell phone orpersonal computer in a matter of seconds.C. Since the advent of PC’s just over 25 years ag o, more than a billion have soldworldwide.D. By 2011, more than 80 percent of all U.S. households had access to at least onepersonal computer, and 66 percent had in-home access to broadband connections.II. Communicating DigitallyA. The means of production are now in our minds, in our hands, and on our desktops.B. For all of the advantages which this new technology brings to our homes, ourbusinesses, and our lives, there are complications.1. There is no longer a distinction between work and home.2. In the U.S., more than $650 billion a year in productivity is lost due tointerruptions and inattention.3. Managers rely on fewer nonverbal and visual cues to gather meaning due toworking across time zones and with geographically dispersed groups andteams.III. Managing Electronic MailA. If you have a problem, admit it. White collar workers waste an average of threehours a week sorting through junk mail. If you spend more time than that,you have a problem.B. Send less. Get less. If you send less e-mail you’ll reduce the volume of return mailin your inbox.C. Escape the endless reply loop. Finish a message with “No reply needed,” or follow arequest with “Thanks in advance.”D. Check the “To” field before you click “Send.”E. Don’t copy the world. Think twice about the people you put on your “cc” list.F. Pick a subject, (almost) any subject. Crafting a relevant subject line will promptpeople to open your messages and act on them quickly.G. Think before replying. If you respond to e-mail messages immediately, youestablish the expectation in your readers’ minds that you will always respond quickly.H. Think again before replying. If you’re angry, upset, or irritated at something you’vejust read in an e-mail message, give yourself a day – or at least a few hours – to cooldown before responding. You may end up saying something you’ll regret.I. Be careful with criticism. E-mail eliminates virtually all of the important nonverbalcues we’re accustomed to seeing and hearing as we judge a message sender’s intent.J. Handle each message just once. If it’s unimportant or irrelevant, hit the delete key.File each message you want to keep in a folder as it comes in.K. Don’t check your e-mail constantly.L. Don’t ignore the conventions of c orrespondence. You should not write to people in all lower case letters, ignore punctuation, or abandon conventional spelling.M. Avoid abbreviations and cyberjargon. You can’t assume everyone is familiar with the endless acronyms circulating out there.N. Try to keep messages under two or three paragraphs.O. Make URLs Useful.P. Be cautious about attachments. Don’t attach documents, pictures, or spreadsheets to your messages unless you’re certain the recipient wants or needs to see them.Q. Include a signature file.R. Check your time/date stamp.S. Get help when you need it.IV. Privacy and Workplace MonitoringA. Why Do Employers Monitor?1. Security. Every business has information that it wants kept confidential.2. Productivity. More than one-third of all lost productivity is attributed toInternet abuse at work.3. Protection. Many companies faced with costly lawsuits are monitoring e-mail,voice mail, and other communication systems to uncover and disciplineworkers who harass or intimidate others in the workplace.4. Industry Regulation. State and federal regulatory agencies have publishednumerous rules requiring businesses of many sorts to hang onto all of their e-mail, just as they would retain their paper-based correspondence.B. Does an Employee Have a Right to Privacy?1. No federal law covers all aspects of an employee’s right to privacy on the job.Instead, a patchwork of federal and state laws regulates everything fromelectronic monitoring to visual surveillance, drug testing and locker searches.2. Employees really do not have a right of privacy in e-mailcommunication on their employer’s system, unless theemployer acts in a manner giving rise to a reasonableexpectation of privacy.3. The Electronic Communication Privacy Act of 1986, asamended, protects e-mail messages from interception by anddisclosure to third parties.C. Employer Rights. An employer has the right:1. To intercept and review e-mail messages generated,transmitted, stored, or received on a company-owned or leasedsystem;2. To conduct an e-mail audit to determine how the system isbeing used, when, and under what conditions, for whatpurposes, and by whom;3. To disclose certain e-mail content to third parties if anappropriate authority (postmaster or system administrator)suspects or discovers illegal or unauthorized use;4. To require employee training in e-mail system use;5. To receive employee acknowledgment of training andunderstanding of e-mail system policy guidelines, restrictions,and limitations.D. Employer Expectations. An employer may reasonably expect:1. That company-owned e-mail systems will be used principallyor exclusively for official business purposes;2. That employees will not use company-owned e-mail systemsfor profit, private gain, or personally owned businesses;3. That employees will not use company-owned systems forillegal purposes;4. That employees will not use company-owned systems forunauthorized disclosure of proprietary data or confidentialinformation;5. That employees will not use company-owned systems to sendinappropriate messages, including rude or discourteousmessages, sexually harassing messages, sexist or racistlanguage, profane language, obscene language or graphicimages or correspond with unauthorized addresses.E. Can my Employer Listen to My Phone Calls at Work?1. Employers may monitor calls with clients or customers for training purposesto assure quality control.1. Federal law, which regulates phone calls with people outside the state doesnot allow unannounced monitoring for business-related calls.2. Under Federal law, when an employer realizes a call is personal, he or shemust immediately stop monitoring the call.F. Can my Employer Obtain a Record of My Phone Calls?1. Telephone numbers dialed from phone extensions can be recorded by penregisters. It allows an employer to see a list of phone numbers dialed by yourextension and the length of each call.2. A new programming concept called “presence awareness” is able todetermine whether a PC, cell phone or wireless device is turned on or in use.G. Can my Employer Watch my Computer Terminal While I Work?1. Since your employer owns the computer network andterminals, he or she is free to use them to monitor employees.2. Union contr acts may limit an employer’s right to monitor.H. What Sort of Things Can They Monitor?1. Very inexpensive software and easy-to-operate hardwaremake it possiblefor almost any employer to know who has company-providedInternet access, who’s online, what they’re watching, howoften, and for how long.2. New software will now permit an employer to follow what’shappening on each employee’s computer screen.I. How Can I Tell If I am Being Monitored?1. Most computer monitoring equipment allows employees tomonitor without an employee’s knowledge.2. Some employers notify their workers that monitoring takesplace. If you know they’re watching, you’re more likely tobehave yourself.J. Is My Voice Mail Private?1. Voice Mail and e-mail are regarded as being nearly the samein the eyes of the law.2. The telephones, switching equipment, and the computer harddrives on which the voice mail is stored are the property of thecompany, and the company can access, store, and listen toanyone’s voice mail.K. Is There Any Way I Can Keep My E-mail and other Work Private?1. Yes, but an employer may forbid it.2. You could encrypt a personal e-mail message before you send it.L. Can Instant Messages be Monitored?1. An employer can monitor just about anything including AOL InstantMessenger.2. Many corporations have brought instant messaging into theoffice to make small groups and teams more effective.V. The Internet and Online BehaviorA. A survey of college students across the country found that 94 percent use the Internet,compared with just 66 percent of the overall U.S. population.B. Other findings about college students’ online use revealed the following.1. To them, the Internet and e-mail are as commonplace as telephones andtelevisions, and equally as indispensable.2. Two-thirds of them say they think the Internet has improved theirrelationships with classmates, and more than half think e-mail has enhancedtheir relationships with professors.3. These habits are clearly likely to continue once students enter the workforce.C. The Internet has become central to the way college students conduct research fortheir courses; communicate with their professors, friends, and family, and gatherinformation about everything from sports to the stock market and the weather.VI. Text MessagingA. Behind the texting explosion is a fundamental shift in how we view our mobile devices.1. Average “talk minutes” are down, but text messaging is up for both teenagers andadults.2. Text messaging takes up less bandwidth than phone calls, and costs less.3. Part of what’s driving the texting surge is the popularity of social media sites likeTwitter or Facebook.4.The goal is to pass along information in as little time, with as little small talk aspossible. Textin g’s rise over conversation is changing the way we interact.VII. Social MediaA. Social media is a term widely used to include many Internet-based functions and severalimportant categories are worth noting.1. Social bookmarking are sites that interact by tagging Web sites and searching onesbookmarked by other people.2. Social news sites interact by voting for articles (most popular, most read, most e-mailing)and commenting on them.3. Social networking sites like Facebook and MySpace interact by adding friends,commenting on profiles, joint groups and holding discussions.4.Social photo and video sharing sites like YouTube and Flickr interact by sharing photos orvideos.5.Wikis, such as Wikipedia and Wikia interact by adding articles and allowing users to editexisting articles online.B. Businesses are beginning to figure out how to use social media, primarily for marketingpurposes, but also for reputation management and corporate communication.C. On your own time, social media can be helpful for boosting your career and connecting withfriends.1. Just be careful how much you log on at work.2. It’s best to log on from a private computer or smart phone and to do it during break times.3. Keep in mind that there is still a risk. Don’t trash your boss or co workers or complain tooseverely about work.VIII. Etiquette and Office ElectronicsA. Cell phones1. Turn them off while driving.2. Turn them off while in any location where people expect some measure ofprivacy and quiet.3. Don’t assume those around you are interested in hearing your conversation.4. Don’t assume that because your employees own a cell phone that they areavailable to talk business 24 hours a day, 7 days a week.B. Voice Mail1. Keep your outgoing message brief.2. One outgoing message is fine unless you plan to be gone for a week.3. Tell people how to get past the outgoing message.4. When leaving a voice mail message, identify yourself, give your call back number,and explain briefly why you’re calling.5. Don’t listen to your voice ma il messages on the speaker phone.C. E-Mail1. Don’t send e-mails that make angry demands.2. Don’t waste recipients time with the latest “jokes du jour.”3. Don’t order people to visit your web page.4. Don’t write to anyone in all lower case letters or s hout at your readers in all capital letters.5. Don’t ever insult, malign, harass or demean your readers or anyone else in those e-mailmessages you write.6.Include a salutation, complimentary close and – in the first paragraph or two – a statementof purpose.VII. Working VirtuallyA. Advantages1. Cost – paying less for office space and employee support;2. Productivity – reduced absenteeism and increased employee retention;3. Access – to its own employees at unusual times and places;B. Disadvantages1. Costs – initial outlay to purchase equipment can be significant;1. Technology – concerns about providing technical support to remote workers;2. Culture – telecommuters may not be given the same opportunities fortraining, advancement, or promotion;3. People – many take pride in their office, enjoy socializing andinteracting with their co-workers and colleagues and find the climatein their work locations energizing and inspiring;VIII. TeleconferencingA. Planning a Teleconference1. Identify the purpose of your teleconferencing meeting.2. Identify the person who will chair the meeting.3. Plan the agenda.4. Distribute the agenda.5. Schedule the teleconference.6. Confirm the teleconference with the participants.7. Share important resource materials with participants.B. Conducting a Teleconference1. Get to the conference site early.2. Watch what you wear.3. Act as if people are watching you.4. Start on time.5. Take control of the conference.6. Ask participants to introduce themselves as you begin.7. Jot down peop le’s names and locations.8. Ask participants to identify themselves when they speak for the first time.9. Speak a bit more slowly to ensure that everyone can understand you.10. Avoid side conversations.11. Be patient if the system includes a slight delay.12. Try to make eye contact with the camera.13. Don’t read a speech or prepared statement.14. Summarize key issues as you move along.15. Establish what’s next for the group.16. Stop on time.17. Prepare and distribute minutes of the teleconference.。

M EETING T HE M EDIAC HAPTER 13“News is what you don’t want to tell me. Everything else is public relations.”I. Maintaining a positive, honest, accessible relationship with the news media who report onyour industry and your company will never be easy, but it will be essential.II. Your best interests will be well served if you choose to selectively cooperate with reporters and editors who wish to interview you.A. Here are six ways to prepare yourself for these interactions.1. Reflect upon why interviews are important.2. Decide whether or not you should accept the interview.3. Know what you are getting into with the media.4. Prepare for the interview .5. Use preparations to make it happen during the interview.6. Follow-up with the person who interviewed you.III. Interviews are important for a number of reasons:A. They are an unparalleled opportunity to reach a large audience.B. They represent an opportunity for you to tell your story.C. They are an opportunity to inform.1. As a manager, they give you a chance to establish yourself as an expert oncertain subjects, or at least as a specialist who knows something about themarket, the product category, or the industry.2. Being friendly with those who are in search of information to support anewsworthy story can buy some goodwill for you when times are moredifficult and the story is about you, rather than someone else.3. If you offer information about your company on a regular basis, chancesare much greater that the readers and viewers of those news outlets willassociate your name, your company’s name, and your product or serviceline with such important attributes as quality, currency, value, anddesirability.D. They offer an opportunity to address public concerns. This is particularlyimportant because, if the public loses confidence in you, your company’s businessis done.E. They give you an opportunity to set the record straight.F. They offer an opportunity to apologize – if an apology is called for. An apologymay or may not reduce the risk of litigation, and there are ways to say you’resorry without assuming blame. An apology can defuse a situation to youradvantage.G. They are an opportunity to reinforce credibility. It is important in your role as amanager to reinforce public belief in what you do, in what you make or provide,and in who you are as an organization.IV. Should you or shouldn’t you respond to a reporter’s request for an interview?A. Here are a few blanket rules:1. Do not talk to reporters you do not know.2. Find out who the reporter is and then take some time to gather information,consult with others, and formulate a decision about participating.3. Be especially wary of cooperating with CBS’s60 Minutes or other similarentertainment programs. They don’t play by the same set of rules thatlegitimate news-gathering organizations do.B. Ask your Public Affairs or Corporate Communication office for help.C. Get some background before committing.D. Remember that gut feelings are important. Do not agree to participate if:1. You don’t trust the reporter;2. You are not clear on the direction or intent of the story;3. A reporter tries to high-pressure or blackmail you into cooperation;4. The nature of the story is so strongly negative that you do not want yourname or your company’s name associated with the report.V. A look at the news media.A. Remember that the media are a business.1. Newspapers, magazines, television stations and networks, and radiobroadcasters make money not by selling news, but by selling air time andspace to commercial advertisers.2. They are willing to gain revenues by focusing on more controversialstories or by searching for “bad guys.”B. Different size markets promote different risks.1. Large markets:a. It is often more difficult to report good news than bad, especially ifthat news is routine or does not represent exceptional information.b. Reporters are much less sensitive to the relationshipbetween advertising and profits.2. Small markets:a. Rarely employ reporters who are specialists.b. A general assignment reporter may know nothing ofyour business or industry.C. Remember that reporters do make mistakes. Respond to this situation, but handleit carefully. A reporter’s most important asset is her credibility. Appeal to hersense of professionalism before you move on to the assignment editor or newsdirector.D. Never demand a retraction or threaten a reporter.E. It makes a difference if the error is a fact or opinion.1. If the mistake is an error-in-fact, editors and news directors will be quickto correct it, and will usually do so with an apology.2. If the mistake is a matter of opinion, it may be difficult or even impossibleto get a correction or response from a reporter or broadcaster.F. Note that very few reporters are influential enough to make key decisions aboutthe stories they cover.G. Get to know local management to avoid being surprised by bad news.VI. How to prepare to meet with a reporter or to be interviewed by a journalist.A. Develop a strategy that addresses the following issues:1. The goals you hope to achieve by working with local news professionals.2. The general content of your message.3. The intended audience for your message.4. The visuals or photo opportunities you intend to offer.5. The timing and sequence of events involved in your story.6. What makes this story different from others?7. What makes your story newsworthy?8. The media you plan to work with to tell your story.9. Review and revise as needed.B. Research the reporter with whom you have agreed to interview to learn about herstyle, background knowledge on your company, and other related issues.C. Refine and practice your message.D. Confirm the details and ground-rules of the interview.E. Review the news the day of your interview – you never want to be surprised.F. Remember, that you are the expert.VII. When the moment of the interview arrives, here is a final checklist to consider.A. A prepared pocket card containing key facts and figures, along with current,positive talking points may be of some help.B. Arrive early, check out the setting.C. Allow the make-up artists to apply a little light makeup if they offer.D. Get your points in early.E. Perform the “Mother-in-Law Test”: ask yourself whether or not your mother-in-law would understand the explanation you have just given.F. Be yourself.VIII. Stay in control during an interview because if you lose control you cannot determine the outcome; other people will do that for you.A. You must focus on your goals for the interview and offer responses that aredirected toward those goals.B. You do not have to accept a reporter’s premise; stick to what you know and repeatyour most important contentions.C. You do not need to reveal everything, but what you do say should be honest,accurate, and reliable.D. Avoid arguments by staying calm, under control, and professional.E. You are always on the record.F. Use examples, illustrations, and brief anecdotes that people can easily envision oridentify with.G. If you cannot speak to the questions, refocus the question or speak to the issue. IX. Follow-up with your press interview so that you can learn, grow, and improve your abilities.A. Review the article or tape and look carefully at the way the story came together.B. Keep the chain of command informed about every interview you do.C. Provide feedback to the reporter who interviewed you to either complement theirwork or to discuss what went wrong.D. Leave a record for your successor.1. Take a few minutes to draft a memo for the record explaining how therequest for the interview developed, what the key issues were, who wasinvolved, where the interview took place, and what your impressions were.2. Include a copy of the article or video tape.。

C OMMUNICATION E THICSC HAPTER 3Ethical business practice is a noble goal to which virtually all firms aspire.I. The ethical conduct of employers.A. Employees question the ethics of many of their managers today.B. Only one third of employees feel comfortable reporting ethical misconduct.There are three primary reasons employees do not report actual observedmisconduct.1. Believed the organization would not respond.2. Perceived lack of anonymous and confidential means of reporting.3. Fear of retaliation from management.C. Ethical misconduct by competitors causes the free marketplace to be undermined,expectations are destroyed, and trust is eliminated.D. Your ethical misconduct may very well cause you to be viewed as unreliable andself-centered, thus eventually isolating you from upstanding business practitioners. II. Defining business ethics.A. Business morality is what business ethics is about.1. The term “ethics” most often refers to a field of inquiry, or discipline, inwhich matters of right and wrong, good and evil, virtue and vice, aresystematically examined.2. The term “morality” is most often used to refer not to a discipline but topatterns of behavior common to everyday life.B. The phrases “corporate social responsibility” and “the social responsibility ofbusiness” are not synonymous with business ethics.1. They imply business ethics deal exclusively with relationships betweenbusiness organizations and their external constituencies.12. They do not include interaction with internal constituencies and otherethical issues.III. There are three levels of inquiry to business ethics:A. At the individual level, the concern is that the values by which self-interest andother motives are balanced with concern for fairness and the common good, bothinside and outside of a company.B. At the organization level, the concern is for the strength of the group consciencethat every company has as it pursues its economic objectives.C. At the business system level, the concern is for the pattern of social, political, andeconomic forces that drives individuals and businesses.IV. There are three views of decision making for the business communicator and all others who make business decisions.A. A moral point of view.1. Helps individuals establish a willingness to seek out and act on reasons.2. Requires individuals to act impartially.3. Under this view, the decisions to be made are not especially clear andmost often decision makers do not have adequate information.B. An economic point of view.1. Allocates resources based on the forces of supply and demand.2. Incorporates assumptions about the free market, such as honesty, theft,and fraud into decisions.3. Stresses that companies are not merely abstract economic entities, butlarge-scale organizations that involve human beings and must operate in acomplex environment.C. A legal point of view.1. Helps business activity stay in line with the extensive system of lawswhich govern our nation.2. Ignores a number of realities involving the law and decision making.a.The law is inappropriate for regulating certain aspects ofBusiness activity; not everything immoral is illegal.b. The law if often too slow to develop in new areas of concern.c. The law employs moral concepts which are not precisely defined,making it difficult to make decisions without considering morality.d. The law is often unsettled or in evolution on many issues.e. The law does not provide specific guidance in all possibleinstances.f. The law is generally seen as an inefficient and expensiveinstrument.D. An integrated approach.1. Many business ethicists advocate a decision-making process thatintegrates all three viewpoints.2. In cases where neither the issue at hand nor the answer is not clear, someethicists stress the use of open dialogue with the stakeholders to makebetter decisions.V. A few basic concepts may help us to understand the nature of moral judgments:A. Normative judgments are claims that state or imply that something is good or bad,right or wrong, better or worse.B. Moral norms are standards of behavior that require, prohibit, or allow certainkinds of behavior.C. Moral principles are much more general concepts used to evaluate both group andindividual behavior.VI. Distinguishing characteristics of moral principles from other standards.A. They have serious consequences to human well-being.B. Their validity rests on the adequacy of the reasons which are used to support andjustify them.3C. They override self-interest to accomplish things for the greater good of society orpeople at large.D. They are based on impartial considerations.VII. Four resources are available to every business communicator who is trying to make ethical decisions.A. Observations are descriptive statements that rely on correct presentations of facts,and can usually be verified by more research.1. Their usefulness can be evaluated by the degree of objectivity they contain.2. A statement qualifies as an observation if contrary evidence can bedisproved.3. Unlike assumptions, observations are usually specific and empirical innature.B. Assumptions are reflective statements that rely on culture, religion, social, andpersonal history.1. Their theoretical roots are in our attitudinal system.2. They can be evaluated by criteria such as relevance, consistency, andinclusiveness.C. Value judgments are normative statements that rely on assumptions and make theconnection between a proposal and an observation.1. They cannot be verified by empirical research.2. They can be evaluated by different ethical traditions.D. Proposals are prescriptive statements that can be evaluated by examiningsupporting reasons.VIII. Moral judgments seem to depend on decision makers having and using four separate capacities.A. Ethical sensibility is reflected in your capacity to impose ethical order on asituation. A person lacking in ethical sensibility is vulnerable to acting in waysthat are improper.B. Ethical reasoning involves careful reasoning about a situation to determine whatkind of ethical problem is present. Ethical reasoning then offers opportunities forsolution.C. Ethical conduct requires people to act upon the ethical issues they have identifiedand examined. This can also be described as moral courage. \D. Ethical leadership calls for all levels of the corporate ladder to maintain highlevels of integrity. This concept stresses that the moral education of those beneathyou in an organization depends on your willingness to engage in and rewardethical behavior.IX. A formal statement of ethical principles is the most important means of establishing moral leadership in a business organization.A. A written statement of ethics makes a company’s expectations more concrete.B. There are three predominant types of ethical statements.1. Corporate code of ethics.2. Values statement.3. Corporate credos. Ethics codes help promote tolerance of diversepractices and customers while doing business overseas.C. Many values, along with the roles and objectives that managers must follow, arein competition with one another. Managers must respond to these conflicts withcaution, sensitivity, and a sense of fairness to everyone concerned.D. There are seven imperatives for managers to follow in writing and living out theprinciples of a corporate code of ethics.1. Write it. A written document helps to guide the values of the firm and alsosignals to everyone that the company is serious about its ethical values.2. Tailor it. The process places special emphasis on common issues andallows a company to address those matters which it regards as especiallyimportant.3. Communicate it. This continuing process assures all stakeholders areaware of and understand the behavior that a company expects of them.54. Promote it. The ethics document should be promoted through as manypublications, events, and channels as possible.5. Revise it. This process will help to keep the document current andreflecting changing conditions.6. Live it. Members must follow the firm’s values on a daily basis; theyshould be rewarded for these positive actions by managers.7. Enforce/Reinforce it. Managers must penalize those employees whorefuse to live by the principles.X. The “Front Page” test.A. Here managers ask themselves the simple question, “Would you be pleased if thepolicies in your organization, or the behavior of your employees, were to appearin a story on the front page of a major newspaper?”B. This test helps managers to determine if a firm’s policies or actions arefundamentally sound.。

N ONVERBAL C OMMUNICATIONC HAPTER 9“Understanding nonverbal communication is not simply useful for a manager. It is essential.”I. A few basic considerations about nonverbal communication:A. Communication experts have established that less than a third of the meaningtransferred from one person to another in a personal conversation comes from thewords that are spoken.B. Nonverbal communication is widely regarded as the transfer of meaning withoutusing verbal symbols.C. Separating the effects of nonverbal and verbal behavior are never easy becausethey are always in some way about each other.D. With the exception of emotional displays and certain facial expressions, virtuallyall nonverbal communication is culturally based.II. The concept of nonverbal communication can be organized into a number of different areas, steps, functions, and principles.A. Communication researchers have outlined three basic categories of nonverballanguage.1. Sign language can be as simple as the extended thumb of ahitchhiker, or as complex as the complete system of sign language for thedeaf.2. Action language includes all movements that are not used exclusively forcommunicating. (i.e., walking).3. Object language includes all objects, materials, artifacts, and things thatwe use in our daily lives.B. Nonverbal communication is really a three-step process involving a cue, our ownexpectations, and an inference.1. We first look for a wordless cue - a motion or an object.2. We then look to match the cue against our expectation, asking what seemsreasonable or obvious, based on our prior experiences.3. Finally, we draw an inference based on the nonverbal cue and ourexpectations.C. Nonverbal communication can serve any number of important functions in our lives, but the following six functions are deemed the most important by researchers:1. Accent some part of a verbal message.2. Complement the general tone or attitude of our verbal communication.3. Contradict the verbal messages we send, sometimes deliberately,sometimes unintentionally.4. Regulate the flow, the pace, and the back-and-forth nature of verbalcommunication.5. Repeat what verbal messages convey.6. Substitute for verbal messages, particularly if they are simple ormonosyllabic.D. Fifty years of research and five thousand years of human experience withnonverbal communication have identified six principles thought to be universallytrue. Nonverbal behaviors:1. Occur in a context;2. Are usually packaged and thus are difficult to isolate;3. Always communicate, even when we are not speaking with or listening toothers;4. Are governed by rules, just like spoken and written language;5. Are highly believable, even when they contradict a verbal message;6. Are meta-communicational, or simply, communication aboutcommunication.III. The code of nonverbal communication is organized into different dimensions, each with the power to encode and carry messages from one person to another.A. The Communication Environment is a collection of nonhuman factors that can,and often does, influence human transactions.B. The manner in which we move and position our bodies tells people somethingabout us. The five basic categories of body movement are:1. Emblems - nonverbal acts which have a direct verbal translation ordictionary definition, sometimes a word or two or a brief phrase.2. Illustrators - gestures that often complement our verbal signals, helping toillustrate what we said verbally.3. Affect displays - behaviors that indicate the type and intensity of thevarious emotions we feel.4. Regulators - body movements that help to control the flow ofcommunication.5. Adaptors - movements or behaviors that involve personal habits and self-expressions; these methods help us adapt to the world in which we live. C. Direction, duration, and intensity of eye contact play an important role in humaninteraction. Such contact:1. Indicates interest, attention, or involvement between two people.2. Varies in meaning among different cultures.D. A communicator’s physical characteristics and overall appearance often affecthow others react to the conversation. Attractive people are frequently betterreceived by an audience.E. Artifacts or objects that are human-made or modified affect our interactions.F. The act of touch greatly affects the way we perceive the communicator.1. Positive and negative influences of touch depend greatly on theenvironment and context for the interaction.2. Touch ungoverned by rules is no longer welcomed in workplaceexchanges.G. Paralanguage which refers to how something is said and not what is saidinfluences communication.1. It deals with a range of nonverbal cues involved in speech behavior, suchas voice qualities, vocal characterizers, vocal qualifiers, and speechsegregates. These are sometimes referred to as vocalics.2. Often the only real clues we have to a person’s actual intent as we listen tohim or her speak are found in paralanguage.H. Our use of space in the office or in a social setting affects our interaction. Hereare four categories of distance which help to define the relationship betweencommunicators:1. Intimate: ranges from actual touching to a distance of about 18 inches.2. Personal: ranges from about 18 to 30 inches.3. Social: ranges from about 4 to 12 feet.4. Public: ranges from about 12 to 15 feet.I. Our use of time and how we view its role in our personal and professional livesplay a role in our communication. The meaning of time and its importance variesfrom culture to culture.J. Color or shading are subtle and powerful message senders.K. A primitive perceptive capability, smell is a powerful communicator reaching far and wide throughout human emotion and experience.L. Our ability to taste, highly correlated to our sense of smell, is highly subjective and thus influences our communication.M. Sound and its effects on communication are important parts of nonverbalcommunication. Here, the notion of sound relates to acoustics as well as themelodic ranges of the human voice, sounds produced by nature and mankind, andmusic.N. Silence can be used both positively and negatively to affect, to reveal, to judge, or to activate. Research in interpersonal communication has revealed that silencemay serve a number of important functions. It can be employed to:1. Provide thinking time;2. Hurt others;3. Isolate oneself;4. Prevent communication;5. Communicate feelings;6. Communicate nothing.IV. Here are the six general effects of nonverbal communication every manager should know:A. Nonverbal cues are often difficult to read. Remember not only to look atnonverbal clusters of behavior, but also recognize that nonverbal meaning rarelyis limited to a single denotative meaning.B. Nonverbal cues are often difficult to interpret. Remember that what may meanone thing in one context, culture, or circumstance, may mean something entirely different in another.C. Some nonverbal cues are more important than others. The relative importance ofa given cue is dependent on habits and usual behaviors of the speaker.D. We often read into some cues much that is not there, and fail to read some cuesthat are clearly present.E. We are not as skilled at this as we think we are; our confidence often exceeds ourability. Remember it is easy to misinterpret, misread, or misunderstand someone.。