Cartography in the Twentieth Century ” (Vol. 29,

指南针的历史简介英语版The History of the CompassThe compass, a simple yet essential tool that has guided explorers, navigators, and adventurers for centuries, has a rich and fascinating history that spans across cultures and continents. This ubiquitous instrument, which has become an integral part of our modern lives, has played a crucial role in the development of human exploration and the advancement of science.The origins of the compass can be traced back to ancient China, where the earliest known magnetic compasses were used for divination and orientation as early as the 2nd century BC. These early compasses were made of lodestone, a naturally magnetized iron ore, and were used to determine the cardinal directions. The Chinese were the first to recognize the Earth's magnetic field and to harness it for navigational purposes.The knowledge of the compass eventually spread to the Middle East and Europe, where it was further refined and adapted for maritime use. In the 12th century, the European navigators began to incorporate the compass into their seafaring voyages, allowing themto venture out into the open ocean with greater confidence and accuracy. The introduction of the magnetic compass revolutionized maritime navigation, enabling ships to navigate even in cloudy or foggy conditions, where the sun and stars were obscured.One of the most significant advancements in compass technology came in the 15th century, with the development of the dry compass. This design, which used a magnetized needle suspended on a pivot, was more reliable and less prone to the errors caused by the rolling and pitching of ships at sea. The dry compass quickly became the standard instrument for navigation, and it remained so for centuries.As exploration and trade expanded across the globe, the compass became an indispensable tool for both military and commercial purposes. Explorers such as Christopher Columbus, Vasco da Gama, and Ferdinand Magellan relied on the compass to guide their voyages of discovery, opening up new trade routes and expanding the boundaries of the known world.The compass also played a crucial role in the development of cartography and the creation of accurate maps. By plotting the course of their journeys and recording the directions they had traveled, explorers were able to create increasingly detailed and reliable maps, which in turn helped to further the cause of exploration and discovery.The advent of the magnetic compass also had significant implications for the field of science. The study of the Earth's magnetic field and the behavior of the compass needle led to the development of theories about the planet's internal structure and the nature of magnetism. This, in turn, contributed to the advancement of our understanding of the Earth's geography, geology, and even the fundamental laws of physics.In the modern era, the compass has continued to evolve, with the development of electronic and digital compasses that incorporate advanced technologies such as GPS and microprocessors. These modern compasses are more accurate, reliable, and versatile than their historical counterparts, and they have become essential tools in a wide range of applications, from aviation and navigation to outdoor recreation and emergency response.Despite these technological advancements, the humble compass remains a symbol of human ingenuity and the relentless pursuit of knowledge. It is a testament to the enduring power of human curiosity and the drive to explore and understand the world around us. As we continue to push the boundaries of our knowledge and venture into new frontiers, the compass will undoubtedly remain an indispensable tool, guiding us on our journeys and inspiring us to continue our quest for discovery.。

内容简介······ 《物种起源》(The Origin of Species)是达尔文(Charles Robert Darwin, 1809 – 1882)论述生物进化的重要着作，出版于1859年11月24日。

该书大概是19世纪最具争议的着作，其中的观点大多数为当今的科学界普遍接受。

在该书中，达尔文首次提出了进化论的观点。

他使用自己在1830年代环球科学考察中积累......下载地址：内容简介······ 《国富论》是苏格兰经济学家、哲学家亚当·斯密的一本经济学专着。

这本专着的全名为《国民财富的性质和原因的研究》（An Inquiry into the Nature and Causes of the Wealth of Nations）。

这本专着的第一个中文译本是翻译家严复的《原富》。

下载地址：内容简介······ Religio Medici (The Religion of a Doctor) is a book by Sir Thomas Browne, which s ets out his spiritual testament as well as being an early psychological self-portrait. In its day, the book was a European best-seller and brought its author fame and respect下载地址：下载地址：内容简介······ 《沉思录》，古罗马唯一一位哲学家皇帝马可·奥勒留所着，这本自己与自己的十二卷对话，内容大部分是他在鞍马劳顿中所写，是斯多葛派哲学（斯多亚哲学）的一个里程碑。

中国书法(calligraphy)是一门独特的艺术、是世界上独一无二的艺术瑰宝。

中国书法艺术的形成，发展与汉文字的产生与演进存在着密不可分的关系。

汉字在漫长的演变发展过程中，一方面起着交流思想、继承文化的重要作用，另一方面它本身又形成了一种独特的艺术。

书法能够通过作品把书法家个人的生活感受、学识、修养、个性等折射出来，所以，通常有“字如其人”的说法。

中国书法不仅是中华民族的文化瑰宝，而且在世界文化艺术宝库中独放异彩。

Chinese calligraphy is a unique art and the unique art treasure in the world. The formation and development of the Chinese calligraphy is closely related to the emergence and evolution of Chinese characters. In this long evolutionary process, Chinese characters have not only played an important role in exchanging ideas and transmitting culture but also developed into a unique art form. Calligraphic works well reflect calligraphers' personal feelings, knowledge, self-cultivation, personality, and so forth, thus there is an expression that "seeing the calligrapher's handwriting is like seeing the person". As one of the treasures o Chinese culture, Chinese calligraphy shines splendidly in the world's treasure house of culture and art.近年来，随着互联网技术的发展，我国的数字化教育资源建设取得了巨大的成就。

有关指南针影响世界的英语作文The Compass: A Guiding Light That Shaped the WorldThe humble compass, a simple yet ingenious tool, has played a pivotal role in shaping the course of human history. From the ancient mariners who braved the uncharted seas to the modern-day explorers who venture into the unknown, the compass has been a constant companion, a reliable guide that has transformed the way we navigate and perceive the world around us.At its core, the compass is a device that uses the Earth's magnetic field to determine the cardinal directions – north, south, east, and west. This fundamental principle, first discovered in ancient China, has been the foundation for countless voyages, expeditions, and explorations that have expanded our understanding of the world and our place within it.One of the most significant impacts of the compass can be seen in the age of exploration. As early seafarers set out to conquer the vast oceans, the compass became an indispensable tool, allowing them to chart courses, navigate through treacherous waters, and reach distant lands. The ability to determine direction with such precisionwas a game-changer, enabling explorers to venture beyond the confines of their known world and uncover new continents, cultures, and resources.The discovery of the Americas, for instance, was largely facilitated by the use of the compass. Christopher Columbus and other European explorers were able to navigate across the Atlantic Ocean with greater accuracy, ultimately leading to the establishment of trade routes, the exchange of ideas, and the profound transformation of the global landscape.But the impact of the compass extends far beyond the age of exploration. It has also played a crucial role in the development of cartography, the art and science of mapmaking. As explorers charted new territories, the compass allowed them to accurately record the positions of landmasses, coastlines, and waterways, paving the way for the creation of increasingly detailed and reliable maps.These maps, in turn, became essential tools for navigation, trade, and military strategy, shaping the course of history and the balance of power among nations. The ability to accurately depict the world and understand its geography has been instrumental in the rise and fall of empires, the expansion of trade networks, and the progress of human civilization.Moreover, the compass has had a profound impact on the field of science and technology. The development of more sophisticated navigational instruments, such as the sextant and the gyrocompass, has been heavily influenced by the fundamental principles of the compass. These advancements have not only improved our ability to navigate the seas but have also contributed to the advancement of fields like astronomy, meteorology, and even space exploration.In the modern era, the compass continues to play a vital role in our lives, guiding us through the complexities of the modern world. From the GPS systems in our smartphones to the navigation systems in our vehicles, the underlying principles of the compass remain at the heart of these technologies, enabling us to find our way, plan our journeys, and explore the world with greater ease and precision.But the compass is not just a tool for navigation; it has also become a powerful metaphor for the human experience. The compass, with its unwavering ability to point us in the right direction, has become a symbol of guidance, purpose, and the pursuit of knowledge. It reminds us that even in the face of uncertainty and adversity, we can find our way, as long as we have the courage to follow our inner compass and seek out new horizons.In conclusion, the compass, a simple yet ingenious device, has left an indelible mark on the course of human history. From the age ofexploration to the modern era, it has been a constant companion, guiding us through the unknown, expanding our understanding of the world, and shaping the very fabric of our civilization. As we continue to navigate the complexities of the 21st century, the compass remains a timeless symbol of our unwavering human spirit, our desire to explore, and our relentless pursuit of knowledge and understanding.。

指南针的发明英语作文初二The Invention of the CompassThe compass, a simple yet ingenious tool, has been an essential navigational aid for centuries, guiding explorers, mariners, and adventurers across vast oceans and uncharted territories. This remarkable invention has played a pivotal role in shaping the course of human history, enabling us to venture beyond the familiar and discover new lands, cultures, and opportunities. In this essay, we will delve into the fascinating history of the compass and explore its significance in the annals of human exploration and discovery.The origins of the compass can be traced back to ancient China, where the first known magnetic compasses were developed as early as the 4th century BCE. These early compasses were made of lodestone, a naturally occurring magnetic iron ore, and were used primarily for divination and geomancy rather than navigation. The concept of using a magnetized needle to determine direction was a revolutionary idea that would eventually transform the way we explore and understand the world.As the centuries passed, the compass underwent a series ofrefinements and improvements. In the 11th century, the Chinese began using the compass for maritime navigation, a practice that quickly spread to the Middle East and Europe. The European mariners, in particular, were quick to recognize the immense value of the compass in their seafaring endeavors. The introduction of the magnetic compass allowed them to navigate with greater precision, venture farther from the coastlines, and undertake longer voyages.One of the most significant advancements in the history of the compass was the development of the dry compass, which replaced the earlier liquid-filled compasses. The dry compass, introduced in the 13th century, was more stable and less prone to interference from the ship's movement, making it a more reliable navigational tool. This innovation, coupled with the use of the magnetic compass, enabled European explorers to embark on ambitious voyages of discovery, forever changing the course of world history.The impact of the compass on exploration and discovery cannot be overstated. The ability to determine direction and maintain a consistent course allowed explorers to venture into uncharted territories with greater confidence and efficiency. The compass played a crucial role in the voyages of renowned explorers such as Christopher Columbus, Vasco da Gama, and Ferdinand Magellan, enabling them to navigate the open seas and reach distant lands.Beyond its navigational applications, the compass also found its way into various other fields, including surveying, cartography, and even military strategy. The ability to accurately determine direction and orientation proved invaluable in the construction of roads, buildings, and other infrastructure, as well as in the creation of detailed maps and charts.In the realm of military strategy, the compass served as a vital tool for planning and executing complex maneuvers. Commanders could use the compass to coordinate the movement of troops, track the position of enemy forces, and navigate through unfamiliar terrain, giving them a strategic advantage in the heat of battle.The invention of the compass has had a profound and lasting impact on human civilization. It has opened up new frontiers, facilitated trade and cultural exchange, and contributed to the advancement of science, technology, and exploration. As we continue to explore the depths of our planet and venture into the vast expanse of space, the compass remains an indispensable tool, guiding us on our journey of discovery and pushing the boundaries of human knowledge and understanding.In conclusion, the invention of the compass stands as a testament to the ingenuity and curiosity of the human spirit. From its humble beginnings in ancient China to its pivotal role in shaping the courseof world history, the compass has been a constant companion to explorers, adventurers, and visionaries alike. As we look to the future, it is clear that the compass will continue to play a vital role in our ongoing quest to understand and conquer the unknown.。

The invention of the compass is a fascinating chapter in the history of human innovation.This ancient navigational tool has played a pivotal role in shaping the course of human exploration and trade.Its origins can be traced back to ancient China,where it was initially developed as a divination device before its practical applications in navigation were fully realized.The earliest form of the compass was known as the Si Nan,which literally translates to the attracting needle.It was invented during the Han Dynasty 206BCE220CE.The Si Nan consisted of a magnetic spoon that would align itself with the Earths magnetic field when allowed to rotate freely. This rudimentary device was used by the Chinese for geomancy,a practice of divination based on interpreting the natural environment.As time progressed,the compass evolved into a more sophisticated instrument.By the time of the Song Dynasty9601279CE,the compass had been miniaturized and adapted for use in navigation.Mariners began to use a magnetized needle floating on a piece of cork or fish bladder, allowing for a more precise indication of direction.This innovation was a significant leap forward in maritime technology,enabling sailors to navigate with greater accuracy and confidence,even in the absence of visual landmarks.The compasss impact on global exploration cannot be overstated.Its introduction to the Western world is believed to have occurred through Arab traders and scholars who had contact with China.By the13th century, the compass had reached Europe,where it was further refined and becamean indispensable tool for explorers such as Marco Polo and Vasco da Gama.One of the most significant contributions of the compass to world history was its role in the Age of Discovery.The ability to navigate with precision across vast oceans opened up new trade routes and facilitated the exchange of goods,ideas,and cultures between continents.The compass was instrumental in the voyages of Christopher Columbus,who used it to cross the Atlantic Ocean and discover the Americas in1492.The compass also played a crucial role in the development of cartography. With the ability to maintain a steady course,mapmakers could create more accurate charts and maps,which in turn improved navigation and exploration.This led to a better understanding of the worlds geography and the establishment of more efficient sea routes.In addition to its maritime applications,the compass has had a profound impact on military strategy.Armies could move with greater speed and precision,knowing the direction they were traveling.This was particularly important during the era of empirebuilding,where control over territory often hinged on the ability to move troops and supplies quickly and efficiently.The compasss influence extends beyond the physical realm.It has become a metaphor for guidance and direction in life.The phrase finding ones compass is often used to describe the process of discovering ones purpose or moral direction.Despite the advent of modern navigational tools such as GPS,the compass remains a reliable and essential tool for navigators,hikers,and adventurers. Its simplicity and lack of reliance on electronic systems make it a preferred choice in situations where advanced technology may fail.In conclusion,the invention of the compass was a transformative moment in human history.From its humble beginnings as a divination tool in ancient China to its critical role in global exploration and the development of modern navigation,the compass has left an indelible mark on our world. Its story is a testament to the power of human ingenuity and the enduring impact of simple yet profound ideas.。

关于指南针的英语演讲稿The Compass: A Navigational Beacon Through Time.In the vast tapestry of human history, where exploration and discovery have shaped our understanding of the world, the compass stands as an enduring symbol of our quest for knowledge and navigation. This remarkable instrument has guided mariners across treacherous seas, explorers through uncharted territories, and scientists in charting the unknown.The origins of the compass can be traced back to ancient China, where it was first used as a tool for geomancy, the art of divination based on the Earth's magnetic fields. By the 12th century, Chinese sailors had adapted the compass for maritime navigation, utilizing it to determine the direction of true north and guide their ships across the vast expanse of the Pacific Ocean.News of this ingenious device spread westward, reachingEurope in the 13th century. Here, the compass was further refined and became an indispensable tool for navigators embarking on voyages of exploration. With the advent of the Age of Discovery, the compass played a pivotal role in the European exploration of the Americas, Africa, and Asia.In the hands of intrepid explorers like Christopher Columbus, Vasco da Gama, and Ferdinand Magellan, the compass enabled daring voyages that forever altered the course of human history. It guided them across uncharted waters, connecting continents and cultures that had remained isolated for centuries.The compass also played a crucial role in the development of cartography and scientific understanding of the Earth. Explorers used the compass to accurately chart coastlines and measure the distance traveled, contributing to the creation of increasingly detailed and accurate maps.Beyond its practical applications, the compass has also held profound cultural and symbolic significance. In literature, it has often represented the search fordirection and purpose. In philosophy, it has served as a metaphor for the moral compass that guides our actions.Today, the compass continues to be an essential toolfor navigation, both on land and at sea. It is used by hikers, climbers, pilots, and sailors alike to maintain their orientation and ensure safe passage through diverse environments.However, the invention of the compass was not merely a technological breakthrough; it was a testament to human ingenuity and our insatiable curiosity to explore the unknown. It opened up new frontiers, facilitated trade and cultural exchange, and expanded our understanding of the world.In conclusion, the compass stands as a testament to the transformative power of human knowledge and innovation. It has played a pivotal role in shaping our history, connecting cultures, and advancing our scientific understanding. As we continue to navigate the complexities of the 21st century, the compass serves as a reminder ofthe importance of exploration, perseverance, and the pursuit of knowledge.。

The Western art world is a treasure trove of masterpieces,each with its own unique story and significance.One such painting that has captured the imagination of art enthusiasts for centuries is The Starry Night by Vincent van Gogh.This iconic work is not just a painting its a window into the mind of one of historys most celebrated artists.The Starry NightThe Starry Night is an oil on canvas painting created by the Dutch postImpressionist painter Vincent van Gogh in June1889.The painting depicts the view from the eastfacing window of his asylum room at SaintRémydeProvence,with the addition of an idealized village.Composition and Elements:The painting is renowned for its swirling,turbulent sky,which is filled with swirling clouds,a bright crescent moon,and stars that shine with a luminescent intensity.The cypress tree in the foreground is a prominent feature,often interpreted as a symbol of death and eternity.The small,quaint buildings of the village below contrast with the vast, open sky,creating a sense of isolation and introspection.Color and Technique:Van Goghs use of color in The Starry Night is striking.The blues and yellows create a vivid contrast,with the blues of the sky and the yellow lights of the village buildings.The impasto technique,characterized by thick,visible brushstrokes,adds texture and depth to the painting.This technique is particularly evident in the sky,where the brushstrokes seem to mimic the movement of the wind and the stars.Historical Context:The painting was created during a period of intense emotional turmoil for Van Gogh.He voluntarily admitted himself to the SaintPauldeMausole asylum after a series of mental breakdowns.Despite his personal struggles,this period was also one of his most productive,with The Starry Night being one of the many works he completed during his stay.Cultural Impact:The Starry Night has had a profound impact on the art world and popular culture.It is often cited as one of the most recognized paintings in the Western art canon.The paintings popularity has transcended the art world,appearing in various forms of media, including music,literature,and film.Current Location:The painting is currently housed in the Museum of Modern Art MoMA in New York City, where it continues to captivate visitors with its mesmerizing beauty and the story it tells of the artists inner world.In conclusion,The Starry Night is more than just a painting it is a testament to Van Goghs genius and his ability to convey deep emotional and existential themes through the medium of art.It remains a timeless masterpiece that continues to inspire and intrigue art lovers around the world.。

When I was in high school, I developed a keen interest in the evolution of typography. This fascination began during a history class where we were discussing the Gutenberg press and its impact on the world. The idea that a single invention could revolutionize the way information was disseminated was mindboggling to me. I decided to delve deeper into the subject, focusing specifically on how the fonts we use today have evolved over time.The journey of typography is as old as the written word itself. It started with the earliest forms of writing, such as the cuneiform used by the Sumerians around 3400 BCE. These early scripts were not just functional but also artistic, with each symbol carved with precision and purpose.As I explored further, I discovered that the ancient Egyptians used hieroglyphs, which were both a form of writing and a form of art. These pictorial symbols were not only used for monumental inscriptions but also for religious texts written on papyrus.The Roman period saw the development of the Latin alphabet, which laid the foundation for many of the fonts we use today. The Romans were meticulous in their approach to lettering, with each letter having a distinct form and style. This attention to detail is evident in the inscriptions found on monuments and buildings throughout the Roman Empire.The Middle Ages brought about the development of calligraphy, an art form that elevated the written word to new heights. Scribes would spend hours, even days, crafting beautiful manuscripts with ornate letters andintricate illustrations. The Gothic script, in particular, was a testament to the skill and creativity of these medieval artisans.The invention of the movable type printing press by Johannes Gutenberg in the 15th century marked a significant turning point in the history of typography. Suddenly, the production of books became faster and more efficient, making written works accessible to a wider audience. This period also saw the emergence of various typefaces, such as the classic Roman and the more ornate Blackletter.As I continued my research, I was fascinated by the Renaissance period, where there was a renewed interest in classical aesthetics. This era produced some of the most elegant and balanced typefaces, such as the work of the Venetian printer Aldus Manutius, who developed the Aldine typeface.The Industrial Revolution brought about further changes in typography. With the advent of mechanized printing, typefaces became more standardized and uniform. This period also saw the development of the serif and sansserif fonts, which are still widely used today.In the 20th century, the advent of digital technology revolutionized typography once again. Designers could now create and manipulate typefaces with unprecedented ease and precision. This led to the creation of countless new fonts, each with its own unique style and character.One of the most significant developments in recent years has been the riseof web fonts. With the proliferation of the internet, designers now have the ability to use any font they choose on their websites, opening up a whole new world of possibilities for typographic expression.Throughout my exploration of the history of typography, I was struck by the fact that each era has left its mark on the fonts we use today. From the ancient scripts of the Sumerians to the digital fonts of the 21st century, the evolution of typography is a testament to the enduring power of the written word.In conclusion, the study of typography is not just about the shapes and forms of letters its about understanding the cultural and historical context in which they were created. As a high school student, I found this journey through the history of typography to be both enlightening and inspiring. It has given me a newfound appreciation for the art of lettering and the role it plays in our lives.。

意象派画作英语作文Impressionist Art: A Captivating Journey through Color and LightImpressionism, a revolutionary art movement that emerged in the late 19th century, has left an indeluring mark on the world of art. Characterized by its bold use of color, spontaneous brushstrokes, and a focus on capturing the fleeting effects of light, Impressionist art has become a beloved and iconic style that continues to captivate audiences across the globe. In this essay, we will delve into the captivating world of Impressionist art, exploring its origins, key artists, and the enduring impact it has had on the artistic landscape.The Impressionist movement was born out of a desire to challenge the traditional academic art of the time, which was often characterized by detailed, realistic depictions of scenes and subjects. Frustrated by the constraints of this approach, a group of young French artists, including Claude Monet, Pierre-Auguste Renoir, and Camille Pissarro, began to experiment with a new way of seeing and representing the world around them. They sought to capture the essence of a moment, the play of light and color, and the fleeting impressions that they experienced in their daily lives.One of the most defining characteristics of Impressionist art is its use of color. Impressionist painters abandoned the muted, earth-toned palettes of the past and embraced a vibrant, bold use of color. They often applied paint directly from the tube, creating a sense of immediacy and spontaneity in their work. The Impressionists were particularly fascinated by the way light interacted with color, and they strived to capture the ever-changing effects of sunlight, reflections, and atmospheric conditions on their canvases.Claude Monet, one of the most renowned Impressionist painters, is perhaps the best example of this captivating use of color and light. His series of paintings depicting the Rouen Cathedral, for instance, showcase his ability to capture the subtle shifts in hue and luminosity as the sun moved across the facade of the building. Monet's iconic water lily paintings, with their shimmering reflections and dazzling array of colors, have become some of the most recognizable works of Impressionist art.Another key aspect of Impressionist painting is the use of loose, energetic brushstrokes. Rather than blending colors and creating smooth, seamless surfaces, Impressionist artists embraced the visible brushwork, allowing the individual strokes to create a sense of movement and vitality on the canvas. This approach was a departure from the meticulous, highly-detailed style of traditional academic painting, and it allowed the Impressionists to capture the fleeting,ephemeral nature of their subjects.One of the most famous examples of this technique is Pierre-Auguste Renoir's "Luncheon of the Boating Party," a masterpiece that depicts a group of friends enjoying a leisurely afternoon on the banks of the Seine. Renoir's dynamic brushstrokes, combined with his vibrant use of color, create a sense of energy and liveliness that draws the viewer into the scene.The Impressionist movement was not just a stylistic revolution, but also a reflection of the changing social and cultural landscape of the late 19th century. As the Industrial Revolution transformed the urban landscape, the Impressionists were drawn to capturing the modern, fast-paced world around them. They often painted scenes of city life, such as bustling cafes, crowded streets, and the new railway stations that were springing up across Europe.One of the most iconic examples of this is Gustave Caillebotte's "Paris Street; Rainy Day," which depicts a busy Parisian street scene in a rainy, atmospheric light. The painting's striking use of perspective, combined with the artist's keen eye for detail, creates a sense of movement and energy that is characteristic of the Impressionist style.The Impressionist movement also had a profound impact on the waythat art was perceived and appreciated by the public. In a departure from the traditional art establishment, the Impressionists organized their own independent exhibitions, which allowed them to showcase their work and gain recognition outside of the traditional salon system. This approach challenged the established norms of the art world and paved the way for a more democratic and accessible form of art.The legacy of Impressionism can be seen in the work of countless artists who have been inspired by its bold, innovative approach to painting. From the Post-Impressionists, such as Paul Cézanne and Vincent van Gogh, to the Expressionists and Fauvists of the early20th century, the Impressionist movement has had a profound and lasting impact on the artistic landscape.Today, Impressionist art continues to captivate audiences around the world. The vibrant colors, dynamic brushstrokes, and evocative subject matter of Impressionist paintings have a timeless appeal that transcends cultural and historical boundaries. Whether it's the shimmering reflections of Monet's water lilies or the lively energy of Renoir's "Luncheon of the Boating Party," Impressionist art remains a beloved and enduring part of the artistic canon.In conclusion, the Impressionist movement was a revolutionary force that transformed the way we perceive and appreciate art. Through itsbold use of color, spontaneous brushwork, and focus on capturing the fleeting effects of light, Impressionist art has left an indelible mark on the artistic landscape. As we continue to explore and celebrate the beauty and innovation of this captivating style, we are reminded of the power of art to inspire, challenge, and transform our understanding of the world around us.。

㊀2024年第1期No.1㊀2024四川大学学报(哲学社会科学版)Journal of Sichuan University (Philosophy and Social Science Edition )总第250期Sum No.250ɦ历史学研究ɦ马修·帕里斯的行程地图与中世纪地图制作者世界观的转变陈志坚摘㊀要:13世纪中后期,英格兰本笃修士马修㊃帕里斯及其后继者在圣奥尔本斯修道院创作了一系列行程地图㊂这些地图原是编年史抄本序章中的一部分,不仅包括自伦敦至南意大利阿普利亚的分段路线图,还包含作为此行程出发地与目的地 不列颠与巴勒斯坦的区域地图㊂长期以来,研究者多以传统的宗教进路来解读这些行程地图,视其为一种精神的朝圣之旅,认为作者旨在为那些不能亲临圣地的修士开启一次通往天上耶路撒冷的富有想象力的旅程㊂然而,以抄本古文字学与古抄本学方法考察这些行程地图可发现,它们不仅在外观上呈现出与传统基督教地图迥然不同的特征,还在很大程度上呼应了金雀花王朝统治者扩张领土以建立帝国的野心与欲求㊂不仅如此,基于新近复兴的古典地理学知识,这些行程地图的实用性㊁精确性与科学性也在一定程度上得到增强㊂关键词:马修㊃帕里斯;世界之布;行程地图;中世纪;世界观中图分类号:K561.32㊀㊀文献标志码:A㊀㊀文章编号:1006-0766(2024)01-0129-14作者简介:陈志坚,首都师范大学历史学院教授(北京㊀100089)①㊀Simon Lloyd and Rebecca Reader, Paris,Matthew (c.1200-1259),Historian,Benedictine Monk,and Polymath, in H.C.G.Matthew and Brian Harrison,eds.,Oxford Dictionary of National Biography :From the Earliest Times to the Year 2000,vol.42,Oxford:Oxford University Press,2004,p.622.②㊀Richard Vaughan, The Handwriting of Matthew Pairs, Transactions of the Cambridge Bibliographical Society ,vol.1,no.5(1953),p.389;Richard Vaughan,Matthew Paris ,Cambridge:Cambridge University Press,1958,pp.236-243;Suzanne Lewis,The Art of Matthew Paris in the Chronica Majora ,Berkeley:University of California Press,1987,pp.321-323;Evelyn Edson,Mapping Time and Space :How Medieval Mapmakers Viewed Their World ,London:The BritishLibrary,1997,pp.118-120.13世纪的英格兰本笃修士马修㊃帕里斯(Matthew Paris)是一位历史学家,其本职工作是为其所属的圣奥尔本斯修道院(St Albans Abbey)创作一部编年史,即为后人所熟知的‘大编年史“(Chronica Maiora )㊂除此之外,马修还是一名地图制作者,他先后绘制了4种包含伦敦至阿普利亚(Apulia)的路线图(以下简称 路线图 )以及巴勒斯坦区域地图㊁不列颠区域地图在内的行程地图(以下简称 行程地图 )㊂马修的这些地图 具有重要意义,这并不是因为它们所具有的时代影响力,而是因为它们的独创性,马修正在尝试他那个时代不为人知的制图理念,而且这些制图理念在当时还没有被普遍理解 ㊂①在马修生活的年代,体现基督教宗教理念的T -O 地图居于主导地位,势头正盛㊂与之相比,马修的地图在基本方向㊁实用性与精确性方面呈现出极大的创新性㊂从某种意义上来说,马修是一名早熟的制图者,其地图所呈现的先进制图理念一直处于领先地位,直到中世纪末期波特兰海图(portolan chart)的诞生㊂自吉尔森于1928年将马修绘制的4种不列颠地图制版刊行以来,学者对于这些不列颠地图以及与之密切相关的行程地图给予了广泛关注㊂研究者首先对于行程地图的创作者及创作时间进行初步探讨并普遍认可抄本古文字学家理查德㊃沃恩通过分析马修的字体得出的结论,即认为 这些行程地图均是圣奥尔本斯修道院修士马修及其后继者创作的 ㊂②马修不仅是一位出色的编年史家,还是一921四川大学学报(哲学社会科学版)总第250期位杰出的抄本缩微图画家,他在绘制抄本缩微图㊁地图㊁人物画像时擅长用稀释颜料对深色墨水勾勒的草图进行着色以制造一种水洗的效果,从而开创了一种 着色绘画 (tinted drawings)的风格㊂正因如此,在后来的艺术史中,这一类型的彩色绘画往往被称为 圣奥尔本斯流派 (School of St Albans)或 马修㊃帕里斯流派 (School of Matthew Paris)㊂有学者以绘画风格为标准对行程地图进行研究,也印证了沃恩的上述结论㊂①另外,行程地图的来源也从一个侧面佐证了上述观点 它们大都来自马修及其后继者所编纂的编年史抄本之中,部分来自圣奥尔本斯修道院官方文献汇编或者马修最好的合作伙伴兼衣钵继承人沃灵福德的约翰(John of Wallingford)的札记簿㊂②然而,在上述一致的观点之外,学者在很多问题上仍存疑问㊂例如,行程地图中包含的小单元,如路线图㊁不列颠区域地图㊁巴勒斯坦区域地图,是独立的存在,抑或是一个有机的整体?马修及其后继者绘制这些行程地图的意义何在?它们又反映了制图者的何种观念?早期研究者倾向于否认路线图㊁巴勒斯坦区域地图与不列颠地图之间的联系,认为它们只是因为抄本装帧而被偶然并置,彼此之间并无必然联系㊂例如,沃恩以及更早的研究者比兹利就持这种观点㊂③不仅如此,早期研究者还倾向于认为,行程地图与编年史插图具有同样的功能,是作者为了阐释㊁说明编年史文本而制作,目的是将编年史中提到的城市㊁城镇㊁河流㊁山脉等等风物具象化㊁空间化,从而帮助阅读者更好地理解编年史㊂持这一观点的主要有苏珊娜㊃刘易斯与伊芙琳㊃埃德森㊂④进入21世纪以来,研究者有了两类新发现㊂其一,学者逐渐认识到,路线图与区域地图并非编年史的附属物,编年史中所提及的很多地名如耶路撒冷㊁阿卡与开罗等,与地图上的地名并无一一对应关系㊂换言之,绘制地图并非为了向读者展示上述地名所在的位置,在很大程度上,路线图㊁区域地图与编年史是一种平行关系㊂⑤其二,学者通过进一步研究发现了路线图与区域地图之间的联系㊂例如,在阿普利亚地图的左上角,马修标记了如下文字: 此为通过阿普利亚去往阿克的路线㊂ 再如,在不列颠地图中也隐藏着伦敦与多佛之间的路线图,这在很大程度上可被视为路线图中的英格兰部分㊂再如,在西西里岛的最末端一个叫特拉帕尼(Trapes)的地方,马修标注道: 理查德伯爵从圣地返回时曾经过这里㊂ ⑥这些发现让绝大多数学者相信,路线图与区域地图之间存在联系,并构成一个有机的整体㊂以此为基础,学者开始构建这些路线图与区域地图的整体性意义㊂丹尼尔㊃康诺利提出了 想象的朝圣 的概念,认为路线图㊁巴勒斯坦地图与不列颠地图构成了一套完整的行程地图,从而为那些不能离开圣奥尔本斯修道院远行的修士打造了一次精神的朝圣之旅㊂康诺利还指出,这种行程地图与修道院回廊中所绘制的朝圣图有异曲同工之妙,但前者效果更佳,因为修士在阅读中自然会用手去翻动书叶,然后目光跟着路线图上下移动,口中默念着地图中的说明文字㊂到达阿普利亚所在叶面时,修士还可通过操作可折叠的侧翼,想象着后续的海上路线㊂如此一来,修士的手㊁眼㊁心㊁口等身体部位将会深度参与这一想象的朝圣之旅,从而在更大程度上营造出身临其境的031①②③④⑤⑥M.R.James, The Drawings of Matthew Paris, The Walpole Society ,vol.14(1925-1926),pp.1-26.有证据表明,沃灵福德的约翰曾对一幅从马修那里获得的不列颠地图增补了系列内容,参见Vaughan,Matthew Paris ,p.243;也有学者指出,Royal 抄本中的不列颠地图D 很有可能是马修的后继者为了呼应爱德华一世对苏格兰的领土主张而制作,参见Daniel K.Connolly, Copying Maps by Matthew Paris:Itinerary Fit for A King, in Palmira Brummett,ed.,The Book of Travels :Genre ,Ethnology ,and Pilgrimage ,1250-1700,Leiden:Brill,2009,pp.196-199.Vaughan,Matthew Paris ,p.247;C.R.Beazley,The Dawn of Modern Geography :A History of Exploration and Geographical Science from the Close of the Ninth to the Middle of the Thirteenth Century c .900-1260,vol.2,London:Henry Frowde,Amen Corner,1901,p.588.Lewis,The Art of Matthew Paris in the Chronica Majora ,pp.324-325;Edson,Mapping Time and Space ,pp.123-124.P.D.A.Harvey,Medieval Maps of the Holy Land ,London:The British Library,2012,pp.74-75.Katharine Breen, Returning Home from Jerusalem:Matthew Paris ̓s First Map of Britain in Its Manuscript Context, Representations ,vol.89,no.1(Winter 2005),pp.73,77.陈志坚:马修㊃帕里斯的行程地图与中世纪地图制作者世界观的转变2024年第1期氛围㊂①凯瑟琳㊃布林则更进一步,将往往被置于最后的不列颠区域地图理解为朝圣行程的返程部分,从而构建了一个更加完整的朝圣行程㊂②尽管在中世纪基督教制图观念占主导地位的大背景下,以精神朝圣的思路理解行程地图颇有阐释力,但仍无法完整地解释其中的一些元素,特别是相对于主流的基督教制图观念而言颇具创新性的部分,诸如:路线图以南为上,不列颠地图以北为上的朝向;路线图中精确标注里程的条状直线;对南意大利的关注程度远远胜过罗马;在巴勒斯坦地图中,对阿克城墙㊁城堡等军事防御设施描述的详细程度远远胜过耶路撒冷;4种不列颠区域地图自身存在的差异及流变等㊂近年来,有学者已意识到这些问题,并开始尝试在宗教观念之外的政治㊁历史语境中解读行程地图㊂如维多利亚㊃莫尔斯注意到地图的政治用途在13世纪的英国得到长足发展,并认为马修的路线图与区域地图在一定程度上展示了地图作为统治和知识象征的力量,或许正是在此意义上,西西里和阿克分别在南意大利与巴勒斯坦区域地图中被重点强调㊂③丹尼尔㊃伯克霍尔茨追溯了亨利三世与爱德华一世对地图的兴趣,并认为他们很有可能利用地图体现其对领土与权力的野心㊂④康诺利的最新研究表明,Royal 抄本中的不列颠地图D 实际上呼应了爱德华一世对苏格兰领土的主张㊂⑤由此可见,近年来学者的研究虽然开启了一个全新的研究路径,但相关研究成果或失之于简,仅是一个初步的判断;或无意做整体性探讨,仅涉及问题的一个方面㊂笔者拟以抄本古文字学(paleography)与古抄本学(codicology)方法考察马修绘制的行程地图,以期在梳理传统基督教制图观念的基础上揭示其全新的制图理念,并尝试评估金雀花王朝的政治诉求于此过程中所扮演的角色㊂一㊁马修㊃帕里斯其人及其行程地图马修㊃帕里斯,亦称巴黎人马修(Matthew the Parisian),出生于1200年左右,并于1217年进入圣奥尔本斯修道院成为一名本笃会修士㊂圣奥尔本斯修道院于公元793年由麦西亚国王奥法(Offa)捐资修建,到马修生活的年代,也已存在400余年㊂该修道院不仅具有悠久的历史,更以其撰史传统而闻名,这在很大程度上得益于其与王室的密切关系㊂1236年,马修继承了该修道院编年史家温多弗的罗杰(Roger of Wendover)的衣钵,就此开始了其撰史生涯㊂在马修领衔撰史期间,修道院与王室的关系变得更为密切㊂不仅国王亨利三世经常到访修道院,马修也经常被邀请参加宫廷重要活动㊂据记载,亨利三世曾于1244至1257年间先后8次到访修道院,每次都捐赠大量布帛㊁财物㊂1251年,亨利三世到访时送给修道院3块丝绸布料,并且还特意询问马修他已向修道院捐赠了多少块丝绸布料,以及修道院是否已遵照他的命令,在这些丝绸布料上都写上 英王亨利三世捐 字样㊂国王得到的答案是31块,而且没有其他国王捐过如此之多㊂不仅如此,马修还与亨利三世保持着良好的个人关系,常常出入宫廷,有资格与国王共桌就餐㊁亲密交谈,甚至可以当面向国王抱怨其遭遇的不公㊂另外,国王还是马修的赞助人,曾亲自委托他撰写‘忏悔者爱德华生平“一书㊂1247年,在威斯敏斯特大厅举行的一场盛大仪式上,亨利三世发现了马修,特地让他坐在自己身边,并要求他记录当日发生之事㊂随后,国王还邀请马修共进晚餐㊂1257年,马修在国王的宫廷里逗留了一周,在此131①②③④⑤Daniel K.Connolly, Imagined Pilgrimage in the Itinerary Maps of Matthew Paris, The Art Bulletin ,vol.81,no.4(1999),pp.598-599;Daniel K.Connolly,The Maps of Matthew Paris :Medieval Journeys through Space ,Time and Liturgy ,Woodbridge:The Boydell Press,2009,pp.1-2.Breen, Returning Home from Jerusalem, pp.63,87.Victoria Morse, The Role of Maps in Later Medieval Society:Twelfth to Fourteenth Century, in David Woodward,ed.,The History of Cartography ,vol .3,Cartography in the European Renaissance ,Part 1,Chicago:The University of Chicago Press,2007,pp.35,39,41-42.Daniel Birkholz,The King ̓s Two Maps :Cartography and Culture in Thirteenth-Century England ,New York &London:Routledge,2004,pp.12-13.Connolly, Copying Maps by Matthew Paris, pp.196-199.四川大学学报(哲学社会科学版)总第250期期间与国王形影不离,无论国王 在餐桌边,在宫殿里,还是在房间里 ,由此,他从国王那里获得了大量信息㊂①遵循着圣奥尔本斯修道院的撰史传统,并基于不断从宫廷中获得的第一手资料,马修写出了大量历史著作㊂在马修撰写的史著中,‘大编年史“与‘英吉利人史“(Historia Anglorum )最负盛名㊂从著述体例上讲,前者属于普遍史,涵盖自创世至1259年的世界历史,是马修在温多弗的罗杰所著编年史‘历史之花“(Flores Historiarum )的基础之上编纂而成的㊂后者则属于专门史,侧重讲述英吉利人的历史,其绝大部分史料来源于‘大编年史“,实际上是‘大编年史“中与英吉利人相关史料的汇编本㊂除此之外,马修后来还在‘英吉利人史“的基础上推出一个更加简略的版本,名为‘英吉利人史简编“(Abbreuiatio Compendiosa Chronicorum Anglie )㊂本文所涉及的行程地图便主要来自这几部著作的序章部分㊂但不幸的是,这些著作均未能以其原始的形制完整地流传下来,而是在不断被拆分㊁重组㊁装帧的过程中形成了新的抄本,并由不同的图书馆收藏㊂同样地,行程地图在此过程中亦难免被拆分㊁重组的命运,并最终以零散的状态分处于几个新抄本中㊂马修的‘大编年史“是一部三卷本史书,现分处于三个不同的抄本中㊂其第一卷涵盖自创世至1188年的历史,可见于剑桥大学基督圣体学院所藏引证号为Cambridge,Corpus Christi College,MS 026的抄本之中(以下简称MS 026抄本)㊂该抄本的序章部分涵盖一套相对完整的行程地图(以下简称行程地图1),包括自伦敦至南意大利阿普利亚的路线图以及巴勒斯坦区域地图,但缺少不列颠区域地图㊂②其第二卷涵盖自1189至1253年的历史,可见于剑桥大学基督圣体学院所藏引证号为Cambridge,Corpus Christi College,MS 016的抄本之中(以下简称MS 016抄本)㊂该抄本中的行程地图(以下简称行程地图2)包含不完整的自伦敦至南意大利阿普利亚的路线图㊁巴勒斯坦区域地图以及一幅不列颠区域地图(以下简称地图B)㊂③其中,路线图仅残留自蓬特雷莫利(Pontremoli)至南意大利阿普利亚的部分㊂不仅如此,所有这些地图在MS 016抄本中均以半叶的形式存在㊂④其第三卷涵盖1254至1259年的历史,可见于大英图书馆所藏引证号为Royal MS 14C.VII 的抄本中(以下简称Royal 抄本)㊂该抄本序章部分包含一套完整的行程地图(以下简称行程地图3),包括伦敦至南意大利阿普利亚的路线图㊁巴勒斯坦区域地图以及不列颠区域地图(以下简称地图D)㊂除了‘大编年史“第三卷,Royal 抄本中还包含马修的‘英吉利人史“㊂⑤二者在很大程度上共享抄本前面的序章部分㊂除此之外,在一部名为‘增补册“(Liber Additamentorum )的圣奥尔本斯修道院自用文献中,还存有一套不完整的行程地图(以下简称行程地图4),它仅包含自伦敦至那不勒斯的路线图,可见于大英图书馆藏引证号为Cotton MS Nero D.I 的抄本(以下简称Nero 抄本)㊂⑥行程地图4虽然在风格上与行程地图1㊁2㊁3类似,但在形式和内容方面均相对简略,没有采用常规的一叶两栏形制,而是一叶三栏且忽略所有支线行程,仅绘制主线行程,很有可能是马修在正式绘制行程地图1㊁2㊁3之前的构思草图,后来作为备用资料被收录进修道院自用文献‘增补册“中,与修道院创始人‘奥法生平“(Vitae duorum Offarum )㊁‘历任修道院长生平“(Gesta Abbatum )等文献并列㊂不仅如此,马231①②③④⑤⑥David Carpenter,Henry III :The Rise to Power and Personal Rule ,1207-1258,New Haven and London:Yale University Press,2020,pp.171,454,521,541,551,615,715,521,399,403.Cambridge,Corpus Christi College,MS 026,fols.ir -ivv.1928年,吉尔森(J.P.Gilson)汇集了马修绘制的与其行程地图相关的4张不列颠地图,并将其制成彩色图版出版㊂在该书中,吉尔森将4张地图简称为:地图A㊁地图B㊁地图C㊁地图D,笔者在本文中沿用这一约定俗成的简称㊂参见J.P.Gilson,ed.,Four Maps of Great Britain Designed by Matthew Paris about A.D.1250,Produced from Three Manuscripts in the British Museum and One at Corpus Christi College ,Cambridge ,London:Printed by Order of the Trustees,Sold at the British Museum and by Bernard Quaritch,Ltd,1928,p.3.2003年,基督圣体学院图书馆又对MS 016号抄本进行了重新装帧㊂此时,该抄本又被分为上下两册,抄本前面的序章部分单独装订成册,并被命名为MS 016I,后面的正文部分单独成册,并被命名为MS 016II㊂正文中所述行程地图㊁巴勒斯坦区域地图及不列颠地图部分,参见Cambridge,Corpus Christi College,MS 016I,fols.iiir -ivv.Royal MS 14C.VII,fols.157r -231r,2r -5v,8v -156v,British Library,London.Cotton MS Nero D.I,fols.183v -184r,British Library,London.陈志坚:马修㊃帕里斯的行程地图与中世纪地图制作者世界观的转变2024年第1期修绘制的另外两种不列颠地图明显也与行程地图密切相关,但由于种种原因已被单独装订在其他抄本中:其一,在马修以其‘英吉利人史“为基础缩编而成的‘英吉利人史简编“的序章部分,存在一幅马修绘制的不列颠地图(以下简称地图A),可见于大英图书馆所藏引证号为Cotton MS Claudius D.VI 的抄本中(以下简称Claudius 抄本)㊂①该地图与布鲁图斯(Brutus)至亨利三世的系列国王画像,以及自阿尔弗雷德大帝至亨利三世国王世系图等重要文件并列,共同构成抄本的序章部分;其二,在马修后继者沃灵福德的约翰曾拥有的一本札记簿中,亦存在一幅不列颠地图(以下简称地图C),可见于大英图书馆所藏引证号为Cotton MS Julius D.VII 的抄本中(以下简称Julius 抄本)㊂②该地图明显是由马修绘制,但从其所用色彩及内容看,仍属于较为初级的草图㊂沃灵福德的约翰肯定是从某种途径获得了这张地图并对其进行了一系列改造,包括继续在地图上标注地名,以及在地图背面空白处书写文字㊂最后,他还将该地图两次折叠后与其札记簿装帧在一起㊂该札记簿的核心内容是沃灵福德的约翰摘抄的系列编年史史料,主要摘自马修的‘大编年史“,在一定程度上反映了他向马修学习撰写编年史的实践㊂③二㊁世界之布:中世纪基督教主流制图观念中世纪的地图一般被称作 Mappamundi ㊂其中, mappa 一词在中世纪拉丁语中意为 桌布 或 餐巾 ,可意译为 地图 ;④而 mundi 则是 mundus 一词的拉丁文属格单数形式,意思是 世界的 (of the world)㊂如此一来,具有 世界地图 之意的 Mappamundi 一词其实可直译为 世界之布 ㊂这个词语在古典时代晚期的拉丁语中从来没有被使用过,彼时用来描述地图的词汇一般是 forma (图形)㊁ figura (图像)㊁ orbispictus (区域图)或者 orbisterrarumdescriptio (区域地理描述)㊂尽管在中世纪,世界之布的称谓是最常见的,但在谈及地图时,人们亦有一些其他的表达形式,如 inmaginesmundi (世界的图像)㊁ pictura (图像)㊁ descriptio (描述)㊁ tabula (图表),甚或赫里福德地图中使用的 estoire (历史)㊂⑤但在上述词汇中, 世界之布 词义最为稳定,自8世纪至中世纪末期一直被用来指代以基督教观念描绘世界的图像或文字㊂迄今为止,计有1100余幅这样的地图幸存了下来,其中大部分可见于中世纪的抄本之中,也有独立存在且尺寸相当大的地图,很可能是作为教堂或修道院的挂图使用,例如外形类似房屋山墙的赫里福德地图(Hereford Map),其最长㊁最宽处分别是1.59米和1.34米,是现存最大的 世界之布 ㊂⑥虽名为地图,但 世界之布 并不像今天的地图一样客观地反映空间的比例与尺寸,亦不能为人们出行提供精确的信息,而是一种集合了时间㊁空间㊁事件㊁概念㊁色彩㊁文本㊁意象等元素的复杂集合体,集中反映了基督教有关 神学㊁宇宙学㊁哲学㊁政治学㊁历史学㊁动物学㊁人种学 等知识的理念,是基督教徒眼中的世界形象㊂⑦一般而言,这些地图具有以下特点:它们不仅比例严重失调,以东为上,还呈现出T -O 的特殊形态;整个版面不仅充斥着自创世之日至末日审判的所有重要的圣经事件,还杂以各式各样的奇幻动物和恐怖种族;作为圣地的耶路撒冷一般被安放在地图中心位置,而末日审判的意象则往往被置于地图顶端,这表明 顶部 (新耶路撒冷)而非 中心 (地331①②③④⑤⑥⑦Cotton MS Claudius D.VI,f.12v,British Library,London.Cotton MS Julius D.VII,fols.50v -53r,British Library,London.Vaughan,Matthew Paris ,p.243.Jerry Brotton,A History of the World in Twelve Maps ,New York:Viking Penguin,2013,pp.94-95.David Woodward, Medieval Mappaemundi, in J.B.Harley and David Woodward,eds.,The History of Cartography ,vol .1:Cartography in Prehistoric ,Ancient ,and Medieval Europe and the Mediterranean ,Chicago:University of Chicago Press,1987,p.287.The Hereford Mappa Mundi Trustee Company Ltd,Hereford.Brotton,A History of the World in Twelve Maps ,p.95.四川大学学报(哲学社会科学版)总第250期上耶路撒冷)才是中世纪朝圣者最终的目的地,也是手持 世界之布 的信徒目光最终驻留的地方;①世界之布不仅是空间的展开,还涉及时间,在地图上自东向西(自上而下)包含着一个从创世到救赎的完整叙事;世界之布虽以基督教神学世界观为核心,但也包含一定程度的古典知识,这是早期教父与古典天文㊁自然㊁地理知识成就达成妥协的结果㊂由此,在以下部分笔者将以T -O 形态㊁以东为上㊁中心与朝圣㊁象征主义意象㊁ 历史 叙事㊁奇幻动物与恐怖种族为重点,以赫里福德地图㊁埃布斯托地图(The Ebstorf Map)㊁②诗篇地图(The Psalter Map)㊁③梭利地图(The Sawley Map)④等中世纪地图为主要案例,撮述 世界之布 的典型特征㊂其一,T -O 形态㊂T -O 形态地图是中世纪最为经典的地图样式,其整体外观呈圆形,看起来像一个巨大的字母O,由此标识出地图的边界,其外围环绕着海洋㊂圆形内部的三大水系整体上呈现为一个巨大的大写字母T 形态,从而将圆形大陆分成三大块㊂T 字母横笔画左侧㊁右侧及竖笔画部分分别代表顿河㊁尼罗河和地中海㊂⑤在由字母O 与T 建构的空间之中,上方的半圆是亚洲,下方位于T 字母竖笔画左右两边的区域则是欧洲和非洲,这三大洲又分别代表诺亚(Noah)的三个儿子闪(Shem)㊁雅弗(Japheth)㊁含(Ham)及其后代最初定居的区域㊂⑥实际上,T -O 地图本身亦是古典文化与中世纪基督教观念相互妥协的产物㊂在古典晚期向中世纪过渡的关键期,部分早期教父如德尔图良(Tertullian)㊁圣西普里安(St Cyprian)和圣安布罗斯(St Ambrose)等都极端敌视古代的学术成就,而与此同时也有一部分早期教父如奥古斯丁(St Augustine)㊁圣哲罗姆(St Jerome)以及圣伊西多尔(Isidore of Seville)等则主张吸收与借鉴古典学术成就㊂例如奥古斯丁就认为, 如果缺乏对天㊁地㊁世界等要素的相关知识,我们就无法更好地理解圣经 ,他还声称, 为了更好地理解神的造物,在研习圣经的时间和历史时,也须了解空间与地理 ㊂圣哲罗姆遵从奥古斯丁的建议,在翻译圣经之余还撰写了一部名为‘地点之书“(Liber locorum )的著作,并在书中给出了巴勒斯坦和亚洲的区域地图㊂⑦圣伊西多尔则在借鉴古典历史学家萨卢斯特(Sallustius)关于三大洲的相关记载的基础上,首次提出了T -O 地图的构想,其著作‘论事物的本质“(De natura rerum )与‘关于词源学的二十卷书“(Etymologiarum sive originum libri XX )被认为是最早包含T -O 地图意象的作品㊂⑧因早期的T -O 地图在本质上只是一种简要的示意图,仅标注三大洲名称或诺亚三个儿子的名字,很少有其他地名,所以其在T -O 地图的整体分类法中也常常被称作是概要性三部分T -O 地图(Schematic Tripartite)㊂8至11世纪,T -O 地图继续吸收来自马克罗比乌斯(Macrobius)和奥罗修斯(Orosius)等古典学者作品中的知识,发展出了非概要性三部分T -O 地图(Nonschematic Tripartite)㊂这一新子类虽仍将有人居住的大陆分成三部分,但并不严格按照T -O 模式绘制,而是按照各部分的历史及其起源进一步细化与划分各自的区域㊂它们通常强调地中海,并倾向于将海岸线绘制成参差不齐的效果㊂⑨总之,T -O 地图是古典知识与中世纪基督教世界观不断融合的结果,早期教父吸收了古典时代学者将有人居住的世界分成三部分的描述,并将其与创世纪中的世界起源观念结合起来,奠定了中世431①②③④⑤⑥⑦⑧⑨包慧怡:‘感官地图上的灵魂朝圣之旅 中古英语长诗 珍珠⓪的空间结构“,‘外国文学评论“2007年第2期㊂Kloster Ebstorf,Ebstorf,Germandy (destroyed in 1943,20th replica).Additional MS 28681,f.9r,British Library,London.有时亦称 美茵茨的亨利地图 (Henry of Map),参见Cambridge,Corpus Chisti College,MS 66,p.2.Catherine Delano-Smith, The Intelligent Pilgrim:Maps and Medieval Pilgrimage to the Holy Land, in Rosamund Allen,ed.,Eastward Bound :Travel and Travellers ,1050-1550,Manchester:Manchester University Press,2004,pp.110-111;Brotton,A History of the World in Twelve Maps ,p.105.Saint Bede,On Genesis ,trans.Calvin B.Kendall,Liverpool:Liverpool University Press,2008,p.24;Naomi Reed Kline,Maps of Medieval Thought :The Hereford Paradigm ,Woodbridge:Boydell Press,2003,p.13.Brotton,A History of the World in Twelve Maps ,pp.102-103.Burgerbibliothek,cod.417,f.88v,Bern;Kline,Maps of Medieval Thought ,p.13.Woodward, Medieval Mappaemundi, in Harley and Woodward,eds.,The History of Cartography ,vol .1,pp.343,347.。

指南针的发明英语作文The Invention of the CompassThe compass, a simple yet ingenious device, has played a pivotal role in the exploration and navigation of the world. Its invention has been a topic of fascination for centuries, with many scholars and historians tracing its origins to various ancient civilizations. In this essay, we will delve into the fascinating history of the compass and explore how this remarkable invention has shaped the course of human exploration and discovery.The earliest known use of a compass-like device can be traced back to ancient China, where the first magnetic compasses were used for divination and feng shui practices as early as the 4th century BC. These early compasses were made of lodestone, a naturally magnetized iron ore, and were used to determine the cardinal directions. The Chinese recognized the value of these devices in navigation and gradually refined their design and functionality over the centuries.As trade and exploration expanded across the globe, the compass became an indispensable tool for seafarers and explorers. TheEuropean Age of Exploration, which began in the 15th century, was greatly facilitated by the use of the compass. Navigators and captains relied on this instrument to chart their courses across vast oceans, guiding their ships to distant lands and opening up new trade routes.One of the most significant developments in the history of the compass was the introduction of the dry compass, which replaced the earlier liquid-filled compasses. The dry compass, which used a magnetized needle suspended on a pivot, was more reliable and less prone to errors caused by the sloshing of the liquid. This innovation, attributed to the European explorer and navigator Flavio Gioia in the early 14th century, greatly improved the accuracy and usability of the compass, making it an indispensable tool for maritime exploration.As the compass became more widely adopted, its influence extended beyond the realms of navigation and exploration. It found applications in surveying, cartography, and even military strategy. The ability to accurately determine direction and orientation proved invaluable in the construction of roads, railways, and other infrastructure projects. Cartographers used the compass to create increasingly accurate maps, which in turn facilitated further exploration and trade.The compass also played a crucial role in the development ofscientific knowledge and the understanding of the Earth's magnetic field. Pioneering scientists, such as William Gilbert, studied the compass and its behavior, leading to the discovery of the Earth's magnetic properties and the principles of magnetism. These discoveries paved the way for advancements in fields like geology, meteorology, and even the development of modern navigation and communication technologies.Today, the compass continues to be an essential tool in various industries and applications. From the handheld compasses used by hikers and outdoor enthusiasts to the sophisticated navigation systems found in modern aircraft and ships, the compass remains a vital instrument for orientation and direction-finding. Its impact on human history and the advancement of knowledge is undeniable, and it continues to be a symbol of our innate human desire to explore, navigate, and understand the world around us.In conclusion, the invention of the compass is a remarkable testament to the ingenuity and curiosity of the human mind. From its humble beginnings in ancient China to its integral role in global exploration and scientific discovery, the compass has left an indelible mark on the course of human history. As we continue to push the boundaries of technology and exploration, the compass remains a humble yet indispensable tool, guiding us on our journey of discovery and understanding.。

学术研讨古书画修复中全色的实践原则与标准构建■ 李燕懿（故宫博物院）摘 要：本文比较了古书画修复中有关全色的传统操作理念和20世纪后受到外来理论冲击而产生的一些新观念，并结合当下科技研究成果，提出应根据中国书画的画种特性，制定独立的全色接笔标准。

文章从文献档案查阅、科技分析检测、数字技术模拟以及修复日志记录等方面详细论述了全色接笔实操标准的制定内容和方向。

根据当前我国博物馆人员专业构成的现状，提出在古书画修复中应打造跨学科融合的工作方式，以推动行业的标准化与科学化。

关键词：全色，书画修复，科技检测，数字技术，标准化DOI编码：10.3969/j.issn.1002-5944.2023.15.016Practice Principles and Standards Construction of Color Retouching in Restoration of Ancient Calligraphy and PaintingsLI Yan-yi（The Palace Museum）Abstract:This paper compares the traditional views on color retouching of ancient calligraphy and paintings with the new ones affected by foreign theories since the 20th century. Combining current scientifi c and technological achievements, the paper puts forward that the standards for color retouching should be developed, based on the characteristics of traditional Chinese calligraphy and paintings. This paper elaborates the content and directions to develop standards for practical operation of color retouching, which include literature consulting, technological test, digital technology simulation and restoration log. Based on current situation of professions of China’s museum personnel, the paper highlights an interdisciplinary working method in restoration, to promote the standardization and scientization in this fi eld. Keywords: color retouching, restoration of calligraphy and paintings, technological test, digital technology, standardization0 引 言全色接笔是中国传统古书画修复步骤中的重要环节，指用今人的笔墨将古人书画中因损坏而缺失的部位加以填补的工作，以使画面和谐美观。

1. Typical of the grassland dwellers of the continent is the American antelope, or pronghorn.1.美洲羚羊，或称叉角羚，是该大陆典型的草原动物。

2. Of the millions who saw Haley’s comet in 1986, how many people will live long enough to see it return in the twenty-first century.2. 1986年看见哈雷慧星的千百万人当中，有多少人能够长寿到足以目睹它在二十一世纪的回归呢？3. Anthropologists have discovered that fear, happiness, sadness, and surprise are universally reflected in facial expressions.3.人类学家们已经发现，恐惧，快乐，悲伤和惊奇都会行之于色，这在全人类是共通的。

4. Because of its irritating effect on humans, the use of phenol as a general antiseptic has been largely discontinued.4.由于苯酚对人体带有刺激性作用，它基本上已不再被当作常用的防腐剂了。

5. In group to remain in existence, a profit-making organization must, in the long run, produce something consumers consider useful or desirable.5.任何盈利组织若要生存，最终都必须生产出消费者可用或需要的产品。

6. The greater the population there is in a locality, the greater the need there is for water, transportation, and disposal of refuse.6.一个地方的人口越多，其对水，交通和垃圾处理的需求就会越大。

指南针发明故事英文作文英文：The invention of the compass is a fascinating storythat dates back thousands of years. It is believed that the compass was first invented in ancient China during the Han Dynasty around the 2nd century BC. The compass wasinitially used as a divination tool for fortune-telling, but it eventually evolved into a navigational instrumentfor sailors.The story of the invention of the compass is shrouded in mystery and legend. One popular legend tells the story of a Chinese official named Luo Guanzhong, who discovered that a lodestone, a naturally occurring magnetic rock, always pointed in the same direction. This discovery led to the development of the first compass. Another legend attributes the invention of the compass to the famous Chinese explorer, Zheng He, who used it to navigate his fleet of ships during his voyages to the Indian Ocean.Regardless of the exact origins, the invention of the compass revolutionized navigation and exploration. It allowed sailors to determine their direction at sea, making long-distance voyages and trade routes much safer and more efficient. The compass played a crucial role in the Age of Exploration, enabling explorers like Christopher Columbus and Ferdinand Magellan to chart new territories and discover new lands.The compass has also had a profound impact on other fields, such as astronomy and cartography. It provided a means of accurately mapping the Earth and understanding its magnetic properties. In modern times, the compass continues to be an essential tool for outdoor enthusiasts, hikers, and backpackers who rely on it for navigation in the wilderness.In conclusion, the invention of the compass is a remarkable achievement that has shaped the course of human history. Its impact on navigation, exploration, and science cannot be overstated. The compass remains a symbol ofdirection, guidance, and discovery, and its invention is a testament to the ingenuity and curiosity of the humanspirit.中文：指南针的发明是一个迷人的故事，可以追溯到数千年前。

内容简介······《物种起源》(The Origin of Species)是达尔文(Charles Robert Darwin, 1809 – 1882)论述生物进化的重要着作，出版于1859年11月24日。

该书大概是19世纪最具争议的着作，其中的观点大多数为当今的科学界普遍接受。

在该书中，达尔文首次提出了进化论的观点。

他使用自己在1830年代环球科学考察中积累......下载地址：内容简介······《国富论》是苏格兰经济学家、哲学家亚当·斯密的一本经济学专着。

这本专着的全名为《国民财富的性质和原因的研究》（An Inquiry into the Nature and Causes of the Wealth of Nations）。

这本专着的第一个中文译本是翻译家严复的《原富》。

下载地址：内容简介······ Religio Medici (The Religion of a Doctor) is a book by Sir Thomas Browne, which sets out his spiritual testament as well as being an early psychological self-portrait. In its day, the book was a European best-seller and brought its author fame and respect下载地址：下载地址：内容简介······《沉思录》，古罗马唯一一位哲学家皇帝马可·奥勒留所着，这本自己与自己的十二卷对话，内容大部分是他在鞍马劳顿中所写，是斯多葛派哲学（斯多亚哲学）的一个里程碑。

A Short History of Western PaintingIntroductionWestern painting has a rich and diverse history that spans centuries. From the ancient civilizations of Egypt and Greece to the Renaissanceand the modern art movements of the 20th century, the evolution of Western painting has been influenced by various factors such as religion, politics, culture, and individual artists’ visions. In this article, we will explore the major periods and styles of Western painting, from its origins to the present day.Origins of Western Painting1.Cave Art–The earliest evidence of Western painting can be found in cave paintings, created by our prehistoric ancestors.–These paintings, dating back thousands of years, depicted animals, hunting scenes, and daily life.–Cave art served both artistic and religious purposes, as early humans sought to document their experiences andcommunicate with the spiritual world.2.Classical Greek and Roman Art–The ancient Greeks and Romans made significant contributions to Western painting.–Greek art focused on representing the human formrealistically and idealizing beauty.–Roman art, influenced by the Greeks, incorporated elements of realism and portrayed historical events and mythologicalthemes.3.Byzantine and Medieval Art–With the fall of the Roman Empire, Western painting entered the era of Byzantine and Medieval art.–Byzantine art, characterized by its religious icons and mosaics, aimed to convey spiritual messages to the masses.–Medieval art, predominantly found in illuminated manuscripts and church frescoes, upheld the Christian teachings anddepicted biblical scenes.Renaissance and Baroque Periods1.The Renaissance–The Renaissance, a period of great cultural and artistic transformation, originated in Italy in the 14th century.–Painting during the Renaissance focused on realism,perspective, and the revival of classical art principles.–Artists such as Leonardo da Vinci, Michelangelo, and Raphael produced masterpieces that showcased their technical skilland emphasized the beauty of the human body.2.Baroque Art–Baroque art emerged in the 17th century as a reaction to the Renaissance.–Characterized by its dynamic compositions, dramatic lighting, and rich details, Baroque painting aimed to evoke emotionand capture the viewer’s attention.–Artists like Caravaggio, Rembrandt, and Velázquez excelled in creating compelling narratives and intense psychologicalportraits.Modern and Contemporary Art1.Impressionism–The 19th century marked the beginning of the modern art movement, with Impressionism as one of its first majorstyles.–Impressionist painters, such as Monet and Renoir, sought to capture the fleeting effects of light and atmosphere intheir paintings.–They used loose brushwork, vibrant colors, and focused on the depiction of everyday life and landscapes.2.Cubism and Abstract Art–In the early 20th century, art underwent another radical change with the advent of Cubism and Abstract art.–Cubist artists, like Picasso and Braque, deconstructed objects and subjects into geometric forms and multipleperspectives.–Abstract artists, such as Kandinsky and Mondrian, discarded representational forms altogether, focusing on pure color,shape, and emotion.3.Surrealism and Pop Art–Surrealism, led by artists like Dalí and Magritte, aimed to explore the realm of dreams and the unconscious.–Dadaism, an artistic movement born out of the chaos of World War I, rejected conventional aesthetics and sought toprovoke and challenge societal norms.–Later, Pop Art emerged as a celebration of consumer culture and mass media, with artists like Warhol and Lichtensteinincorporating everyday objects and commercial imagery intotheir works.ConclusionThe history of Western painting is a testament to the creativity and ingenuity of artists throughout the ages. From the realistic representations of ancient Greece to the wild experimentation of the20th century, Western painting has continually evolved and pushedartistic boundaries. By understanding and appreciating the diversestyles and periods of Western painting, we can gain a deeper understanding of our own artistic heritage and the universal language of visual expression.。